Gender Class and Structural

Transformation

Akua O Britwum CEGRAD, University of Cape Coast And NETRIGHT-Ghana

ITUC-Africa – TWN Africa consultative workshop on employment, structural transformation and economic development in Africa

Outline

Gender and the development debate

Gender and production of class in Africa

Labour and the gender question

Union research agenda for gender transformation

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Gender Development Debate

Gender relations as a

…system of interrelated social structures and practices in which men dominate,

Explanations no longer tenable: Biology and personal characteristics that

women have or not: Matrilineal societies =/= matriarchy

Gender regimes structured around: Household production, paid work,

violence against women and sexuality

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Shift from economic growth to distributional equity RWG & BNA

CSW and WWCs

1970s to date Policies conventions, recommendations

UNWomen And national women machineries

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Gender and production of class in Africa

Pre-colonial

Subsistence farming, pastoralist, hunting, gathering, Mining, trading (local & international) (Hymer, 1970).

Contested: communal production or existence of hierarchical production relations and surplus value expropriation (Cohen, et al,

1978, p. 11)

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Subordination of labour to capitalist production through external force;

Disrupting pre-colonial production and introducing new forms labour: Maintaining the domestic as a base for reproduction of capitalist labour … the joining together of modes of production in such a way that the specific form adopted by each mode of production is a condition for the existence of the social formation, or the specific historical case. (Roberts)

Colonial rule

(Cohen et al)

Independence Post-colonial project: import substitution industrialisation (ISI)

Political bend towards left, flirtations with varying social oriented production systems, political non-alignment third way neither capitalist or communist [Yugoslavia’s workers’ self-management model]

Economic incorporation into western capitalist economic order maintained

Govt as main economic player (state; public enterprises & industries)

Outcome:

High economic and employment growth rates;

Internal and local problems and the collapse of leadership political credibility in the (lost decade 1975-76 to mid 1980s)

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Gender dynamics of Growth Factors

Economic decline and reforms forced regrouping around pooled household resources exploiting women survival skills

Loss of male formal sector jobs intensifying household reliance on women’s incomes

Women’s location:

Service

Urban informal sales and commercial sectors

Rural agriculture (subsistence food crop, food processing and sale)

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Informal in Ghana’s Economy

3 sectors: Formal, Rural & Urban informal

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Informal 86%

Formal 14%

Ghanaian labour force

Informal 80%

Formal 20%

Female Labour Force

Informal Formal

5.60%

1%

Growth Rate

Female 57%

Male 43%

IE Gender Composition

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Agric forestry &

fishing 38%

Wholesale & retail

25%

Manufacturing 14%

Accommodation &

food 5% Others

19%

Major Industry Employed: Female

Agric forestry &

fishing 46%

Wholesale & retail

12%

Manufacturing 9%

Accommodation &

food 1%

Others 32%

Major Industry Employed: Male

The ‘Iceberg’ View of the Economy Economy spheres of activities (levels of visibility

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Visible formal economy: marketed goods and services: supply & demand Price mechanism for allocating resources & determining value;

Less visible, informal economy: Marketed goods and services undocumented by official statistics (self exploitation, deprived surplus)

Invisible, subsistence economy- Goods and services produced for own consumption

Totally invisible Unpaid reproductive work and care in the household Underlies productivity of labour power that keeps entire economy working Naila Kabeer, 2003

)

Reproduction Reproduction/care an important pillar

of feminist/gender analysis

Highlights importance of women’s reproductive burdens, time and resource deficits & ensuing gender inequalities.

Key to understanding labour market segmentation, occupational segregation and gendered poverty.

Also known as…

Sexual division of labour (SDOL)

Gendered division of labour,

Reproduction

Reproductive labour

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Gender and Reproduction

Family/household as an economic unit for production, reproduction and consumption

Women bear unequal burden for housework Rationalized by male ‘breadwinner’ capitalist system

Women have to combine productive work with reproduction

Beneficiaries of women’s reproductive labour Male household members freed for productive work

and leisure, Employers owners of capital (no investment in labour

force reproduction)

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Gender and Reproduction

Women bear responsibility for labour force reproduction (future, present and past)

Women as a heterogeneous group do not carry an equal burden of domestic work;

Increased male involvement good for altering existing sexual stereotypes but…

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Labour and the gender question

Women’s union situation globally

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Australia Canada Korea Philippines UK Zimbabwe

Fe/Male Union Density Men Women

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10

20

30

40

50

60

70

CONTARF/CUT CUPE GTUC KCTU ZCTU ZIMTA

53

67

30 27

20

52 50

13

33.3

28

17

27

Members N C

Women’s Union Leadership Positions

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 Female leadership, gendered stereotypes

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Dealing with GD Deficit

Women as a group Separate space

Participation

Women as individuals Special Representation

Promotional

Institutional Anchoring

Legitimacy Organisational Base Constitutional, rule amendment Coordinating body, policy

Autonomous bodies

Wings, committees

Separate events

Conferences, meetings

Expanding

representation Quotas, Reserved

Seats & positions

Capacity

Building Education & Training;

Family support

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Current Challenges

Trade unions structures Weak women/mainstream relations Disconnection b/n women leaders, GD organs & members Union commitment to GD [political and financial] Ownership of GD strategies: top down donor driven

Union culture Patriarchal practices and norms Male hostility and resistance Sexual harassment Union leadership perceived as male preserve

Union processes Weak implementation of GD No union education for women No support for women’s caregiving Time for union events Women’s value of union usefulness High cost of union events

Gender Conceptual confusion

Questioning wmn’s space & organs Equality argument to retain male privilege Confusing class with gender Women only interventions Undermine transformatory potential

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Conditions for success

Levels of decision making powers accorded

Autonomy/integration balance

Adequate union resources

Channelling energies generated in separate spaces into mainstream structures

Connection between women workers’ needs and union policy

Presence of a sufficient core of women activists with the required consciousness

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Setting a Union research agenda for gender transformation

Setting Union gender transformation research agenda some issues

Unions structures and breaking patriarchal norms and standards

Understanding union role in maintaining patriarchy

Bringing care, subsistence and informal economy into the political economy of production;

Sexuality and its commercialisation (notions of masculinity);

Connection between productive and reproductive resources;

Distilling class from gender needs:

Women power under patriarchy;

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Thanks for listening