gender equality: recognizing the contributions of women to science and education - edited by eunice...
TRANSCRIPT
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
1/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
i
GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION
Eunice O. Osakinle
Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, NIGERIA
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
2/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
ii
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be
made without written permission.
This first edition published 2014 by
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, NIGERIA
2 Church Avenue, Oke Eri Quarters
Oba Ile
P. O. Box 214, AkureOndo State
Nigeria
+2348122469297
ISBN:
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
3/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
iii
SCIENCE AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE, NIGERIA
VisionTo Become a Centre of Excellence Recognized Worldwide in Skill
Development and Research
Mission
To Be a Role Model of Academic Excellence in Science and Education
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
4/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
iv
BOARD
Abulude, F.O. (Nigeria) - President/CEO
LIST OF ADVISORY BOARD MEMBERS
Balogun G. A. SanniSaag Chemical (Nig.) Ltd, 4 Sanni Way, Off Godwin Omonua, Off Banks Way, IsoloIllasamaja, Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria.
Prof. Mohammad S. Mubarak
Chemistry Department, University of Jordan, Amman-11942, JORDAN.
Prof. T. T. Adebolu
Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Ondo State, Akure,Nigeria.
Prof. Francisco TorrensUniversitat de Valncia, InstitutUniversitari de Cincia Molecular, Universitat deValncia, Edificid'Instituts de Paterna, Valncia, Spain.
Hon. Niyi Jones Akinyugha30B, Olufumilayo Str., Dideolu Estate, P. O. Box 4822K, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria.
Prof. V. A. AletorElizade University, Ilara Mokin, Ondo State, Nigeria.
Prof. E. A. AderinolaDepartment of Agricultural Economics, Federal University of Technology, Akure,Ondo State, Nigeria.
Mr. Olusola AkitimehinAkinrinaye Street, Ilesha Garage, Akure, Nigeria.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
5/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our books and journals are indexed by different international indexers of repute. The
books are made available on our website as open access where interested readers will
have the opportunity of free access to them.
Interested individuals who are ready to initiate a good book title can send a proposal, if
found presentable to the general public then we take over from there till it is published.
I will advise interested people to contact the registrar of the institute.
On this note, I am taking my time to thank the authors of each chapter. Your time,
money spent and efforts are acknowledged. More grease to your elbows.
Lastly, I wish to thank the staff members of the institute whom I say have put in their
best to the success of this book project.
I wish the users of this book good luck.
God bless you all.
Abulude, F.O.
President/CEO
SEDInst, Nigeria.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
6/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
vi
PREFACE
No doubt women are marginalized in developing countries. No matter how highly
placed, they are expected to end up in the kitchen. With this fact, the UN members
states saw the need to protect girls and women status by initiating a commission which
is known as Commission on the Status of Women (CSW). In 2000, the UN established
eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) part of the focus was to improve
maternal health, promote gender equality and empower women. The question is how
far has this influenced girl child and women status in membersstates?
The contributions of authors are expected to bring some insights to the question posed.
Eunice O. Osakinle Juliet C. Alex-NmechaFaculty of Education, University of Port Harcourt,Ekiti State University, P.O. Box 294 Uniport, ChobaAdo-Ekiti, Nigeria. Rivers State. Nigeria.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
7/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
vii
CONTENTS
Board iv
Contents v
Acknowledgments vi
Preface vii
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction 1
CHAPTER TWO
Women and Environment: Gender Issue 2
CHAPTER THREE
Gender, Women in Science and Education 13
CHAPTER FOUR
The Role of Women in Harvesting, Processing and
Marketing of Vitellaria Paradoxa (Shea Butter) Seeds
in Savanna Area of Oyo State, Nigeria. 21
CHAPTER FIVE
Women Empowerment: A Case of Restoration of the
Dignity of Womanhood (ROTDOW) 37
CHAPTER SIX
Women in Science and Education in India 40
CHAPTER SEVEN
My View on Millennium Development Goals (MGDs) 48
CHAPTER EIGHT
The Role of Women in Ensuring Food Security in Nigeria 51
CHAPTER NINE
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
8/102
Knowlegde for Global Development
viii
The Price of Peace 60
CHAPTER TEN
Women and Science Laboratory Technology Profession 62
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Encouraging More Women Participation in NigeriasCassava Processing Industry 67
Memorable Quotes 91
Science and Education Update 93
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
9/102
Knowlegde for Global Development1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Post 2015 Agenda
The eight millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was established by the UN
member states in 2000. Their focus was to be accomplished by 2015 are in eight
priority areas: eradicate extreme poverty and child mortality, combat diseases such
as HIV/AIDS and malaria, achieve universal primary education, improve maternal
health, promote gender equality and empower women, develop a global partnership
for development and ensure environmental sustainability.
No doubt, the agenda has been a success in some countries, but there is a need to
step up efforts to make it more successful. At the 58 thsession of the United Nations
Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) which was held on the 1- 15thMarch,
2014 at the UN Headquarters in New York, it was reported that MDGs have made a
meaningful impact in many areas, but inequalities between men and women in
many parts of the world is still a problem. This is a barrier to sustainable
development to member states.
The gender gap is noticed especially in science and education. On this note, selected
authors were invited to submit articles which are relevant to inequality between men
and women. Here in this book, their papers are presented.
It is believed that gender inequality, women empowerment and human rights of
women and girls would stand-alone in national and international developments in
the coming years. Every governmentsmachineries should be put in place to make
these a reality.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
10/102
Knowlegde for Global Development2
CHAPTER TWO
WOMEN AND ENVIRONMENT: GENDER ISSUE
Deepali, Ashish Singhal1and Namita Joshi2
1Department of Law, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh
2Department of Environmental Sciences, Kanya Gurukul Campus, Gurukul
Kangri University, Haridwar
ABSTRACT
We all are surrounded by the environment and everything that is available
in the environment affects us. There is a close relationship between women
and the environment as they have been associated with the environment
from a very long time. Actually each and every activity of a woman is
related with the environment either household or any other activity
whatever it is. In house women do washing, cleaning, cooking etc. Rural
women also take part in agricultural activities and to manage household
resources like clean water, cooking fuel and fodder for domestic animals.
The main issue here is that are women more ecofriendly than men? In the
industrialized and more developed countries women use organic food
material and products made up of recycled material. Women had taken part
and were leading the environmental movements like chipko movement in
Uttarakhand. Women can sustain environment and environment also affect
health of the women, and her family. Women's involvement in health and
environmental decisions works to the benefit of individuals, society and the
environment itself.
KEYWORDS: Environment, women, household, agricultural activities,
Uttarakhand
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
11/102
Knowlegde for Global Development3
INTRODUCTION
The environment is everything around us, indoors or outdoors. The air we breathe,
water we drink, the ground we walk on, and food we eat are all part of our
environment. It is important that we should know what things in the environmentcan affect our health and what we can do to help protect ourselves and our family.
Before 1970 there was lacking of consideration of a connection between women and
environment. But in the early 1970s an interest in women and their connection with
the environment was sparked by a book written by Esther Boserup entitled,
Woman's Role in Economic Development (Tiondi, 2001). In the early 1980s, policy
makers and governments became more attentive of environment and gender issues
(http://www.gdrc.org/1). Whereas women were previously neglected or ignored,
there was increasing attention paid to the impact of women on the natural
environment and, in return, the effects the environment has on the health and well-
being of women. Or in other words it can be said that women have a great role in
making good environment for their families. Women can sustain environment and
environment also affect health of the women, and her family.
Women sustaining environment
"Women have a vital role in environmental management and development. Their
full participation is therefore is essential to achieving sustainable development". All
women have relationship with environment but the approach is different from
Urban Areas. It has also been observed that women from rural and hilly areas are
more close to the nature and environment. From ancient times women and
environment are related to each other in many ways. Some are described as under:
a) Women and water
In several poor communities across Asia, Africa, and South America, millions of
women and children spend several hours day collecting water from distant areas,
often polluted sources especially for their households, often from contaminated
sources such as rivers, unprotected springs, and shallow wells. Women play an
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
12/102
Knowlegde for Global Development4
important role in water management. Usually they work as collectors, users and
managers of water in the household as well as farmers of agricultural crops.
Because of these roles, women have considerable knowledge about water
resources, including quality and reliability, restrictions and acceptable storagemethods, and are keys to the success of water resources development and
irrigation policies and programmes. Providing physically accessible clean water
is essential for enabling women and girls to devote more time to the pursuit of
education, income generation and even the construction and management of
water and sanitation facilities (UN Water, 2006). A study jointly conducted by
World Bank and International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) of community
water and sanitation projects in 88 communities in 15 countries also that
womens participation was strongly associated with water and sanitation project
effectiveness (Van Wijk-Sijbesma, 1998).
At the Second World Water Forum in The Hague (2000) it was recognized that, in
addition to being prime users of domestic water, women used water in their
key role in food production and that women and children are most vulnerable to
water-related disasters (www.un.org).
It has become increasingly accepted that women should play an important role in
water management and that this role could be enhanced through the strategy of
gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation,
policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making
womens as well as mens concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes
in all spheres so that women and men benefit equally (Economic and Social
Council , 1997). It is also argued that gender main streaming helps to empower
women and so furthers broader goals of equality within society, contributing to
poverty alleviation and social inclusion.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
13/102
Knowlegde for Global Development5
b)Women and food production
Women also play a substantial role in food production, although it varies
regionally and from country to country. They take part in agricultural field as
labor, process and storage of harvested crops etc. In Africa, women produce over70% of the food, while in Asia, the figure stands at 60% (Aureli and Brelet,
2004).Despite the fact that 43 percent of the agricultural labor force producing a
large portion of the worlds food crops are women, and that enabling women to
access productive resources to the same extent as men would increase yields on
their farms by 2030 percent potentially reducing the number of hungry people
in the world by 1217 percent (http://typo3.fao.org). Besides, women also
prepare meals for the men of the household and even the laborers.
c) Women and climate change
Women are the most likely to suffer from climate change, but they are also the
most capable of creating change and adaptation within their communities.
Women, particularly those in poor countries, are affected differently by climate
change than men. They are among the most vulnerable to climate change, partly
because in many countries they make up the larger share of the agricultural work
force and partly because they tend to have access to fewer income-earning
opportunities. Women manage households and care for family members, which
often limits their mobility and increases their vulnerability to sudden weather-
related natural disasters. Drought and erratic rainfall force women to work
harder to secure food, water and energy for their homes. Girls drop out of school
to help their mothers with these tasks. This cycle of deprivation, poverty and
inequality undermines the social capital needed to deal effectively with climate
change. The increasing scarcity of resources has already led to wars being fought
over access to water and arable land. And with war, too often there is a surge in
violence against women.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
14/102
Knowlegde for Global Development6
Environment affecting women health
Pollutants in the environment can contribute to some illnesses that are more
common in older adults. Indoor and outdoor air pollution can aggravate the
symptoms of cardiovascular and lung diseases, including high blood pressure,chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and asthma. These conditions are more
common in women over the age of 50 than in men over 50.
Older adults may be more susceptible to the health effects of toxic chemicals. People
who are exposed to pollutants over the course of a lifetime may have health
problems when they are older. For instance, long-term exposure to pesticides may
cause cancer or dementia. Lead is a toxic metal that may be stored in bones. In
postmenopausal women who were exposed to lead early in life, bone loss can release
lead into the blood stream. This may cause kidney damage, increase the risk of high
blood pressure, and decrease cognitive functions.
Exposure to some toxic substances including lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium,
pesticides, solvents, and household chemicals can increase the risk of miscarriage,
preterm birth, and other pregnancy complications. These and other environmental
toxins can also harm the developing bodies of fetuses and infants. Women who are
pregnant or nursing or who plan to become pregnant should take special care to
avoid exposure to certain chemicals discussed here.
Womens rights to environmental resources
Women are considered the primary users of natural resources (Land, forest, and
water), because they are the ones who are responsible for gathering food, fuel, and
fodder (Abzug, 1995). According to the World Bank in 1991, "Women play an
essential role in the management of natural resources, including soil, water, forests
and energy...and often have a profound traditional and contemporary knowledge of
the natural world around them( www.gdrc.org2). However, in the developing
countries women are not directly involved in agriculture instead they are the ones
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
15/102
Knowlegde for Global Development7
who spend most of their time working on the farms to feed the household.
Shouldering this responsibility leads them to learn more about soil, plants, and trees
and not misuse them. On the other hand, rural women tend to have a closer
relationship with land and other natural resources, which promotes a new culture ofrespectful use and preservation of natural resources and the environment, ensuring
that the following generations can meet their needs (UN Chronicle, 1997). The link
between women and environmental resources has been well documented.
Role of Women in Environmental Movement
Women in India are playing a crucial role in protection and conservation of
environment. Women in our country have brought a different perspective to the
environment debate, because of their different experience base. They understand
clearly that economics and environment are compatible. Their experience reveals to
them that soil, water and vegetation, necessary for their day-to-day living, requires
care and good management. Environmental degradation is related not only to the
biosphere alone, but to the social sphere as well.
Chipko movement
There are some movements initiated by the women to conserve the environment.
One of the famous movement is Chipko movement. Infact it is the first
environmentalist movement which was inspired by women. Chipko movement
(Women tree-huggers in India) name comes from a Hindi word meaning "to stick".
The movement was an act of defiance against the state government's permission
given to a corporation for commercial logging. During this movement women of thevillages resisted, embracing trees to prevent their felling to safeguard their lifestyles
which were dependent on the forests. Deforestation could qualitatively alter the
lives of all village residents but it was the women who agitated for saving the
forests. Organized by a non-governmental organization that Chandi Prasad Bhatt
led, the Chipko movement adopted the slogan "ecology is permanent economy"
(Grewal, 2008).
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
16/102
Knowlegde for Global Development8
Green Belt movement
Another movement, which is one of the biggest in women and environmental
history, is the Green Belt movement. Nobel Prize winner Wangari Maathai founded
this movement on the World Environment Day in June 1977. In the startingceremony a few women planted seven trees in Maathai's backyard. By 2005, 30
million trees had been planted by participants in the Green Belt movement on public
and private lands. The Green Belt movement aims to bring environmental
restoration along with society's economic growth. This movement led by Maathai
focused on restoration of Kenya's rapidly diminishing forests as well as empowering
the rural women through environmental preservation, with a special emphasis on
planting indigenous trees (Greenbelt Movement, 2006).
Navdanya Movement
Navdanya also known as the 'Nine Seeds Movement' seeks to empower local Indian
farmers to move away from growing any genetically modified organism (GMOs) on
their land and return to organic, chemical-free practices. This movement has reached
over 5,000,000 Indian farmers and created over 65 seed banks around India
(www.navdanya.org). Navdanya fights to eliminate the commercialization of
indigenous knowledge also known as Biopiracy (Yamey, 2006'.Navdanya
addresses multiple other international issues including climate change, food
security, misapplication of technology, food sovereignty, fair trade, and many others
(www.navdanya.org1). This movement also created a learning center entitled Bija
Vidyapeeth. Bija Vidyapeeth, in collaboration with Schumacher College in the
United Kingdom, seeks to educate participants in sustainability and ecologicalprinciples (www.navdanya.org2).
Kenyan land takeover
In Kenya, starting in the mid-1980s, women protested against the elites and big
foreign corporations who were coercing and controlling the production of the land.
Rather than allowing food to be grown for survival, women were pressured by both
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
17/102
Knowlegde for Global Development9
their husbands and the government to cultivate coffee for foreign profit. Protests
continued and gained strength over the next couple of decades. The protests
eventually ended in a Kenyan power shift enforcing democratic national elections
which resulted in redistribution of land possible (Perkins et al., 2005).
Still many women activist are working for environmental protection like Maneka
Gandhi, an environmentalist & politician, Medha Patekar, a social worker &
environmentalist. But the problem of present day environment protection cannot be
solved with the involvement of a few selected groups of women. It requires a global
involvement of the entire women community. Today, there is need of participation
of every woman of every class / every locality, and also that any woman should not
underestimate her role.
CONCLUSION
Although there are environmental issues which directly affect the lives of every
human, animal, plant, etc., the relationship between women and the environment
remains unique and worth addressing. Women are also more likely to be working in
agriculture or environmental movements and performing many tasks associated
with environmental management and play a major role in the agricultural sector,
which forms the economic mainstay of the country (Boserup, 1970). They are
involved in various activities of farming including planting, weeding, harvesting
and processing agricultural produce (Thomas Slayter, 1988). They are also
responsible for saving seeds for the planting season.
It is notable that women's perspectives and values for the environment are
somewhat different than men's. Women give greater priority to protection of and
improving the capacity of nature, maintaining farming lands, and caring for nature
and environment's future (Jiggins, 1994). In daily activities women buy green and
ecofriendly products and also use more organic and products made from recycled
material. In a study it was observed that 52% of females want to recycle more, while
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
18/102
Knowlegde for Global Development10
just 33% of males do. 51% of women want to incorporate reusables into their world,
like cloth grocery bags, but just 30% of men do. And, while just 32% of men want to
reduce their homes energy use,48% of women have this goal.
According to a 2003 study by the Institute for Womens Policy Research, Womens
higher levels of empathy, altruism, and personal responsibility make them more interested in
environmentalism as a way to protect not only themselves and their families, but also
others.If empathy is indeed the key to sustainable living, women come out ahead as
most research shows that while both genders can express empathy, women are more
likely to do so.
REFERENCES
1. Tiondi, T. (2001). Women, environment and development: Sub-Saharan Africa
and Latin America. Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1549.
http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/1549
2. 1http://www.gdrc.org/. "The Global Development Research Center". Retrieved
4/10/2012.
3. 2 http://www.gdrc.org/gender/gender-envi.html
4. Van Wijk-Sijbesma, C. (1998). Gender in Water Resources Management, Water
Supply and Sanitation: Roles and Realities Revisited. International Research
Centre for Water and Sanitation. Delft, the Netherlands.
5. UN Water (2006). Gender, Water and Sanitation: A Policy Brief This policy brief
was developed by the Inter-agency Task Force on Gender and Water (GWTF), a
sub-programme of both UN-Water and the Interagency Network on Women and
Gender Equality (IANWGE) in support of the International Decade for Action,
Water for Life, 20052015.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
19/102
Knowlegde for Global Development11
6. http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/gender/docs/FAO_FinalGender_Pol
icy_2012.pdf
7.
Aureli, A. and Brelet, C. (2004). Women and Water: An ethical issue. Series onWomen and Ethics, Essay 4.Paris, France: UNESCO.
8.
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/w2000-natdisasters-e.pdf :
Making risky environments safer: Women building sustainable and disaster-
resilient communities, Women2000 and Beyond (New York, Division for the
Advancement of Women, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United
Nations, 2004).
9. Economic and Social Council (1997). Conclusions 1997/2 on mainstreaming the
gender perspective into all policies and programmes in the United Nations
system, the Report of the Economic and Social Council for 1997 (Official Records
of the General Assembly, Fifty-second Session, Supplement No. 3
(A/52/3/Rev.1), p 33.
10.
Grewal, J. (Spring 2008). Theorizing Activism, Activizing Theory: Feminist
Academics in Indian Punjabi Society. NWSA Journal. Vol. 20, Number 1.
11.Green Belt Movement. (2006). Retrieved November 15, 2006
from http://www.wangarimaathai.or.ke/
12.1Navdanya. Accessed March 5, 2012.http://www.navdanya.org/home
13.
Yamey, G. (February 2006). The Bittersweet Sounds of the Modern Food Chain.
Plos Biology. Vol.4, Issue 2, pp. 0165-0166. Accessed March 5,
2012.http://www.plosbiology.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pb
io.0040047
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
20/102
Knowlegde for Global Development12
14. 2Navdanya. Accessed March 2, 2012.http://www.navdanya.org/earth-
university
15.
Perkins, E., Kuiper, E., Quiroga-Martnez, R., Turner, T. E., Brownhill, L.S.,Mellor, M., Todorova, Z., Jochimsen, M.A. and McMahon, M. (2005).
Explorations: feminist ecological economics. Feminist Economics Vol. 11, Iss. 3
107-150
16.Boserup E (1970) Womens Role in Economic Development. New York, Martins
Press.
17.Thomas-Slayter, B. (1988). Household strategies for adaptation and change:
Participation in Kenyan rural women's associations (Working paper). Michigan
State University. Pp 23.
18.
Abzug, B. (1995). Women and the Environment. International Authors Series.
New York: The Department of Public Information.
19.
United Nations Chronicle (January 1997). From Silent Spring to vocal vanguard.
34(3), 35-38. Retrieved December 13, 2006, from ProQuest database.
20.Jiggins, J. (1994). Changing the Boundaries: Women-Centered Perspectives on
population and the Environment. New York: Island Press.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
21/102
Knowlegde for Global Development13
CHAPTER THREE
GENDER, WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND EDUACTION
Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha
University of Port Harcourt, P.O. Box 294 Uniport Choba Rivers State. Nigeria
Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha, a librarian recalls the positive roles women contributed to
science and education and the effects on the people in Nigeria and Africa as a
whole. As regards to gender, the MGDs projects have led girl-child and women to
their recognition. When men and women work together they create better progress
in outcomes of nations. In her contributions to knowledge, Alex-Nmecha has
published many papers on these subject areas - gender inequality in education,
women in transformation agenda, women in peace and conflict resolution and
women in globalization. Recommendations were made to the government as
follows: recognizing and publishing the contributions of women scientists and
technologist through the award of national honors, provision of adequate science
laboratory facilities in schools, adequate remunerating science & technology
teachers, adequate funding of research projects, government should empower both
men and women, medical team should be sent on regular training, there should be
creation of jobs for the youths especially girl-child.
Could you describe your background?
I am Mrs. Juliet C. Alex-Nmecha, from Rumuekini town in Akpor, a clan
in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State. I studied in Rivers
State College of Education and obtained the Nigerian Certificate in
Education (N.C.E) and Bachelor of Education (B.ED) in 1995 and 2001
respectively. Later I proceeded to Imo State University Owerri where I
studied Library and Information Science in Masters Level and bagged
Masters in Library Science (M.Ls). Hence I have got experience in writing
papers on women ranging from women in politics, the role of women
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
22/102
Knowlegde for Global Development14
social clubs in achieving transformation etcetera. Also my experience as a
librarian has exposed and given me ideas to attend to users who are of
different gender.
RESEARCH INTEREST:
Gender, Preservation of E-Gadgets used in the Library and Electronic
Information Retrieval and Dissemination in Reference Unit of the Library.
When did you become involved in your profession?
I became involved in my profession as a librarian since 2006 till date.
What have been your contributions to academics?
My contributions to knowledge have been that on my work on gender
inequality in Education an analysis of women in Administrative cadre of
tertiary institutions in Rivers State, that the study will motivate women in
administration to be firm and face the task before them.
- When men and women work together they create better progress in
outcomes of the organization.
- The works I have published have contributed in boosting or adding to
works done in respect to gender inequality in education, women in
transformation agenda, women in peace and conflict resolution and
women in globalization.
What do you understand by MDGs?
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) was formed as a corrective
measure to combat poverty and other societal ills. The MDGs are eight
international development goals that all 192 United Nations member
states and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to achieve by
the year 2015. The goals include to:
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
23/102
Knowlegde for Global Development15
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger.
2. Achieve universal primary education.
3. Promote gender equality and empower women.
4. Reduce child mortality rates
5. Improve maternal health
6.
Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.
7. Ensure environmental sustainability.
8. Developing a global partnership for development.
What have been your contributions to MDGs?
My contributions to MDGs are as follows: (1) I have written works on
gender equality as a means of achieving transformation in Nigeria. (2)
deliver talks in churches during women programmes on how our women
will take care of their homes which involves the up keep of their children
to avoid domestic accidents, drug abuse, and reduce mortality rates and
how to take their body seriously in terms of body exercises, intake of fruits
and attend ante natal regularly in case of pregnant mothers to avoid poor
maternal health. In terms of the first goal, I have sponsored three young
people (two girls and a boy) to undergo apprenticeship for the girls, the
first is on her own now as a seamstress and sells in her shop assorted
design of materials while the other works in hair dressing salon after she
underwent training in her choice of career. For the boy among the girls, I
am glad that he has completed his GNP window/door training and joins
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
24/102
Knowlegde for Global Development16
his master in doing most contracts he gets and receives pay for doing
work for him. The three persons affect lives in one way or the other which
will as well create positive impact in the development of where they find
themselves and the country in general.
What have been the contributions of women in Science and Education to MDGs in
your country?
The contribution of women in Science and Education to MDGs in Nigeria
is an issue that concerns women. Hence currently Nigerian women are
really trying to see that the 8 millennium development goals are achieved
through advocacies that concerns politics, Economic Development Science
and Education. Anugwom (2009) states that three male dominated
professions, the Nigerian Medical Association, the Nigerian Bar
Association and Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria, have been
led by female presidents. And he further states that the creation of the
National Commission for women and ministerial portfolio for women
Affairs has given way for women growth educationally.
In terms of Science, women are striving seriously in this 21 stcentury since
the society is going technological. Women from the earliest times have
contributed to science. The teaching of geometry during the medieval
translation of Eucid Element (C 1310 AD) shows when women involved
in science. An Egyptian woman known as Merit Ptah was a chief
Physician and a female scientist as early as 2700 BCE.
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/women-in-science). As women contributed in
other countries, so they also did in Nigeria. In 2013, two Nigerian Women
bagged the UNESCO-L Oreal women in science partnership award for
their contributions to the advancement of scientific knowledge in the
country. These women are Prof. Francisca Okeke, the first female Head of
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
25/102
Knowlegde for Global Development17
Department, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. She contributed to the
scientific study of climate change. It so happened that in Africa and Arab
nations, she was the only recipient. The second awardee from the
University of Port Harcourt by name Dr. Eucharia Nwaichi anEnvironmental Biochemist who contributed to the scientific solution to
Environmental Pollution. (www.vanguardngr.com/2013/03/2-nigeria).
Prof. Okekes every day dream is to encourage young girls for science
oriented subjects and technology education.
What challenges have women and you faced in the course of contributing to MDGs
goals in your country?
In course of contributing to MDGs goals, women (including me) have been
faced with the following challenges-
a.
Funding-There is lack of funding to carry out researches concerning
women and how the societal problems affect the people considering
the MDGs.
b. Low number of women to carry out advocacies concerning women
empowerment and gender equality.
c. Lack of sponsorship on girls who are willing to go to school or embark
on training like hairdressing, Fashion and designing, Bead making, hat
making etc.
d.
HIV/AIDs enlightenment campaign has not been easy due to few
numbers of people who would come out to educate the people, most
especially in the rural areas.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
26/102
Knowlegde for Global Development18
Have you encountered any family difficulties in your chosen career?
I have encountered family difficulties in my chosen career in terms of
childbearing, general up keep of the family as a woman is not easy. Attimes when it is time to work on a paper there would be distractions like
darling, I want to eat, mummy, my finger is paining me or stomach is
disturbing me. And at times financial difficulties due to that may arise in
the family; my career might be at stake.
Have you encountered any resistance when talking of gender issues?
Too much resistance when talking of gender issues, the male whenever I
bring up gender issues will look at me as not having respect. They might
not say it out but their utterances will speak for them. A man once told me
whether you like it or not women will remain under men and serve
them. And in course of discussing gender issues, a male colleague said
any man who accepts what women are saying in gender is known as a
woman wrapper, they wont let me say a word, but they oppose
vehemently.
How do you see the future of women in Science and Education in your country?
The future of women in science and education in Nigeria is promising
since they (women in science) have realized that development strives will
not come by men in science alone but with collective efforts of men andwomen in science. Like the UNESCO LOreal award winner Prof. Okeke
states that she has been encouraging girls to take up science subjects
seeing the benefits. For education the sky is not the limit of women as they
work harder everyday to be educated.
What advice do you have for girl child and women on the issue of gender equality?
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
27/102
Knowlegde for Global Development19
My advice for a girl-child and women concerning gender equality issue is
for them to be firm and move ahead knowing full well that Rome was not
built in a day assuring them definitely that there will be equality one day
provided they remain focused in their various careers.
What can women expect for the future in the world scene?
Women will expect in the future in the world scene, more women
competing with their male counterparts in all ramifications and excelling
in their day to day activities.
What do you expect from the government of your country which has not been done?
What I expect from the government of my country which has not been
done are:
1. Recognizing and publishing the contributions of women scientists and
technologist through the award of national honours.
2. Provision of adequate science laboratory facilities in schools.
3.
Adequately remunerating science & technology teachers to boost their
morale and increase their level of commitment.
4. Funding research projects on various aspects of the problems of
women access to science & technology education
(www.freepatentsonline.com/article/C...).
5. Government should empower both men and women in order to
eliminate poverty and hunger.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
28/102
Knowlegde for Global Development20
6. Our medical team should be sent on regular training abroad in order to
tackle the MDGs 4,5 and 6 effectively.
7.
There should be creation of jobs for the youths, young school leavers
and the unemployed to combat crimes and other social vices.
REFERENCES
Anugwom, E. E. (2009). Women, Education and Work in Nigeria. Nigeria:
Department of Sociology/Anthropology. University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
http://en.wikipedia.org /wiki/female_education_in_Nigeria.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/women-in-science)
www.freepatentsonline.com/article/C...).
www.vanguardngr.com/2013/03/2-nigeria)
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
29/102
Knowlegde for Global Development21
CHAPTER FOUR
THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN HARVESTING, PROCESSING AND MARKETING
OF VITELLARIA PARADOXA(SHEA BUTTER) SEEDS IN SAVANNA AREA OFOYO STATE, NIGERIA.
Arabomen, O., Ademola, I.T and Geply, J.J
Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, P.M.B 5054, Jericho, Ibadan
ABSTRACT
This study examined the role of women in the harvesting, processing andmarketing of Shea seeds a non-wood forest product (NWFPs) with a view ofestablishing their contribution to small scale forest based enterprise in Saki,Oyo state. Data were obtained from a random sample of three categories ofrespondents; gatherers/harvesters, processors and marketers of Shea butterin the study area by means of structured questionnaire. The data collectedwere analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency table and
percentages for clarity purpose. Results from the analysis revealed thatwomen were more actively involved in the Shea business across all levelswith 73.3% gatherers, 100% processors and 70.70% marketers/middlemen,
this is probably because women are involved in the provision of foodsecurity and family welfare in most communities worldwide (Arabomen etal, 2009). Twenty-nine (96.67%) of the processors and all the gatherers hadVitellaria paradoxa stands on their farmland which served as a majorsource of V. paradoxa fruits from which the Shea is processed while otherswithout tree stands collected the fruits from nearby forest lands. The resultalso showed the rate of collection of shea nut by harvesters. 10%, 10%,20%, 23.33%, 6.67% and 16.67% gathered between 1, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10tons of shea nuts respectively while 13.33% gathered less than 1 ton perannum. The average per capital income generated by the different
categories of respondents in the business showed that harvesters (6.67%)earned between 10,000 and 50,000, 23.33% earned above >50,000, 26.67%earned above >90,000 and 43.33% earned above >130,000 as annualincome for their families. This study has shown that small scale forest-basedenterprises are fast becoming the main stay of scores of people who havesuffered under ravaging scourge of unemployment especially in ruralcommunities and it is been recognized as an important factor in poverty,inequality and malnutrition issues around the world.
KEYWORDS: Women, Vitellaria paradoxa, Forest-based enterprise,Harvesting, Processing
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
30/102
Knowlegde for Global Development22
INTRODUCTION
Forestry plays a vital role in the sustainable livelihood of people. A livelihood is
sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and
maintain capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not underminingthe natural resource base (DFID, 1998). Forests provide a wide range of benefits at
the local, national and global levels. People are dependent upon natural resources
for meeting a large number of their basic needs of life. The type of resources and
utilization patterns, however vary by ecological zone and socio-cultural area. The
contribution of NWFPs therefore, to forestry sector in particular and rural dwellers
generally in most countries is significant, though it had been undervalued in the past
(Arabomen, et al. 2009). Non-wood forest products are a huge variety of materials
derived from forests excluding timber and fuel wood. NTFPs include bark, roots,
tubers, corms, leaves, flowers, seeds, fruits, sap, resins, honey, fungi, and animal
products such as meat, skins, bones, and teeth. NTFPs are harvested from forest
areas and are produced in farmers' fields. They are used for food and medicine and
as a source of income. NTFPs are consumed in rural and urban homes, and are
traded in local, regional, and international markets. NTFPs provide small but
significant sources of income, particularly for women and for families that do not
have access to agricultural markets. NTFPs also provide critical supplies of food
during periods when agricultural crops fail or are otherwise scarce. Transportation
costs largely determine whether what the most important source of rural household
income is: low value-to-weight ratio agricultural crops that can be produced
consistently in large quantities or high value-to-weight ratio NTFPs that are
available inconsistently in relatively small quantities. In the South-West and North-
West provinces of Cameroon the value of NTFP production and marketing exceeded
U.S. $19 million in 1999, and contributed 2.8% to the regional economy. In contrast,
timber, in this predominantly logged-over area, contributed 5% and agricultural
crops 27%. In unlogged areas of old-growth forest, the value of timber is
considerably higher (Laurie Clark et al, 1999).
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
31/102
Knowlegde for Global Development23
Deforestation has become a major concern in Nigeria as populations increase and
pressure on the forest and savanna increases. The rate of fuel wood consumption for
example across the entire Sudano-Sahelian region is on the rise and is a major factor
in the degradation of the land (Odihi, 2003). Throughout Nigeria, it is estimated that70% of the population use fuel wood for their cooking needs while another 20 % use
at least some wood for food production. Therefore the use of fuel wood coupled
with growing populations has contributed to the rising deforestation in the country.
Increasing deforestation coupled a move towards more intensive agriculture
threatens the traditional agricultural system across the region (Boffa, 1999).
Traditional agricultural systems involve a fallow period coupled with the leaving of
trees in fields for a parkland system (Boffa, 1999). More and more these parkland
systems are been thinned out and the fallow periods are being shortened, thus
reducing the amount of trees to remain on the landscape as the need for agricultural
land increases, some argue that multi-purpose uses of tree species and the economic
viability of tree products should be explored (Boffa, 1999). One of the trees often
identified as valuable economically throughout much of the region is Vitellaria
paradoxa. In the past two decades the link between conservation and income
generation has been emphasized in much of the environment and natural resource
literature regarding Africa (Dankleman and Davidson, 1998; Western et al, 1994;
Leaky, 1999). Groups such as World Wide Fund for nature (WWF) and the
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have called for conservation
programs designed to benefit local communities in order to provide incentives to
preserve biodiversity (Brechen et al, 2003). One method has been encouraged
through marketing of NTFPs. This market based conservation approach strives to
provide an economic incentive in order to conserve the resource on which it is based
(Kainer et al, 2003). V. paradoxais distributed within the Sudano-Sahellian landscape
from Senegal in the West to Ethiopia in the East. In this 5000km wide belt the tree
grows in the Sudanian, Sudano-Sahellian and Guinean Savanna zones between the
Rainforests and the dry land Sahel region (Karin, 2004). V. paradoxa belongs to the
Sapotaceae family divided into two species Nilotica and Paradoxa. It is a deciduous
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
32/102
Knowlegde for Global Development24
tree of medium size with a spherical crown. It often reaches heights of about 10-
15meters, with rare recorded occasions of up to 25m (Maydell, 1990) and girths of
about 175m with profuse branches and a thick waxy and deeply fissured bark that
makes it resistant to fire. Been a slow growing and light demanding tree, the flowersappear from December to March, greenish yellow in color and occur in terminal
groups of approx 30 to 40. They are insect pollinated often associated with bees
(Maydell, 1990; Joker, 2000; Maranz and Wiseman, 2003). V. paradoxathrives on dry
sandy soils that have good humus cover, but occur on a variety of soil types (Hall, et
al, 1996). It has an extensive root system which helps it to tolerate the extended dry
season (up to eight months) and occasional droughts of the savanna. It fruits from
15years of age and continues with longevity of 200 to 300 years (Hall et al, 1996;
Joker, 2000). The fruit is yellow-green, elliptical, and about 5-8cm long and 3-4cm
wide. Each fruit contains one large oval to slightly round, red brown to dark brown
seed usually referred to as the Shea nut (Maydell, 1990; Maranz and Wiseman,
2003). The shell of this nut is shiny, smooth and fragile. The nuts are recalcitrant in
nature having high moisture content, this makes storage of unprocessed seeds
difficult and viability is often lost within two to three weeks after fruit maturity
(Danthu et al, 2000; Maranz and Wiseman, 2003). The tree has no capacity for
vegetative propagation and can only be done through its seed and according to
legend no one owns the Shea tree because it germinates and grows on its own. In
Mali, Karter et al (1992) found that regeneration has become a problem particularly
in areas that have a larger livestock population. Livestock and fires are the main
barriers to regeneration of the tree. It thrives best on agricultural land where it is
protected from fires and livestock. Vitellaria paradoxa is a forest tree not only valued
for its medicinal purpose but also for its highly nutritional potential. V. paradoxa
stands serve as park species as the leaves could be fed to animals. Stands of V.
paradoxa also serve as erosion control on forest and degraded lands, nutrient
enrichment capacity as it significantly influence the fertility of tropical soils by
maintaining soil organic matter, used as wind break being a tool for fighting against
desertification etc.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
33/102
Knowlegde for Global Development25
On the international market there are over 150 NTFPs of major importance, one of
which is Shea butter (Carr et al, 2000). Shea butter is processed from nut of Vitellaria
paradoxa tree, and is sold on the local markets throughout the savanna regions of
Africa and on the International market for use in cosmetics and chocolate making.Shea butter is a natural botanical product derived from the seed of the wild savanna
fruit tree Vitellaria paradoxa found from Senegal to Ethiopia and Uganda. As a
medicinal, cosmetic and cultural product, Shea butter is unique in the world. It is a
precious natural resource of the ancient savanna woodland and has long been in the
domain of women. Since the days of Pharoah, Shea butter has been prized for its
healing properties in skin care based on the activity of its unique and active natural
compounds including Karitene and Butyrospermol, along with high levels of
Allantoin which is known to promote healing and regeneration of healthy skin. Shea
butter has been appreciated internationally in recent years as an active therapeutic
ingredient in the most elegant and effective hair and skin care products; even a tiny
fraction of Shea butter in the ingredient lists adds great value to any cosmetic
formulation. It is used as an anti-inflammatory substance and an emollient to soothe
dry, chapped or damaged skin and to activate healing of wounds. It moisturizes hair
as well as skin with deep penetrative properties. Prices paid to producers are three
to five times higher than local prices for traditional Shea butter. Been a source of
income to women it helps to maintain a healthy household, providing income for
food, clothing, education and medicare and a wide variety of productive
investments which help develop the local economy. With increased household
income from its sustainable use, the value of the living tree has been increased and
greater economic power given to women from this ancient resource. There are many
reported uses of Vitellaria paradoxa in its range. The oil from the kernel of the Shea
seed is the principal source of fat in many local diets (Saul et al, 2003), although in
some areas it is not used for that purpose (Booth and Wickens, 1998). The wood can
serve as a source of quality fuel wood and sturdy tools (Booth and Wickens, 1998s;
Boffa et al, 2000; Kristensen and Lykke, 2003).
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
34/102
Knowlegde for Global Development26
In Nigeria, the activities and roles of women in forestry development are numerous
ranging from collection of seeds and fruits through nurturing and conservation to
processing and marketing of forest products. Women are more knowledgeable on
types of tree species that are useful to their families and so they leave theseundisturbed during land clearing (Aiyeloja and Popoola, 2005). Womens role in all
aspects of live: social, political and economic has been a subject of increasing interest
to development planners in countries throughout the world. They are the de facto
resources managers in the environment in which they are trying to survive. Also they
are very knowledgeable about the use of plants in traditional medicine and are
deeply concerned about the alarming rate of harvesting forest resources (Ajayi et al,
1997). The vital role women play in utilizing and conserving the forest and its
resources makes it not logical but critical, they therefore should be included in forest
development programs. Women and their children are collectors of fruits, foods,
seeds, leaves, herbs, fuel wood and other products for members of their family.
Women utilize many NTFPs which provide livelihood especially during the dry
season when they rely on forests foods such as snails, mushroom, wildlife and other
products (Ozon-Eson, 2002). Exposure of rural women to forestry related programs
would assist in poverty reduction in families in particular and society at large, for
example, planting and tending of fruit trees by women in their home stead will
make them more readily available in the society (Agbogidi et al, 2005) since they play
vital role in nation building (IFPRI, 2004). This study aims to assess the role of
women in harvesting, processing and marketing of Vitellaria paradoxa in Savanna
Area of Oyo State, Nigeria with a view to determine its contribution to household
economy.
METHODOLOGY
Study Area
The study was conducted in Saki town along the Guinea Savanna zone of Nigeria
cutting across latitudes 8-90 North. It is bordered in the West by the Republic of
Benin, to the North by Kwara State, to the east by Orelope Local Govt and to the
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
35/102
Knowlegde for Global Development27
South by Atisbo Local Govt in Oyo State. The town houses two Local Government
Areas; Saki East and Saki West with a projected population figure for 1996 at 388,225
(NPC, 1991). The people are Agrarian in nature involved in local and international
trade of many Non-Timber Forest Products including Shea-nuts. Being a bordertown, there are lots of commercial activities and foreign goods that are traded.
DATA COLLECTION
Data were obtained with the use of structured questionnaires and personal interview
across Saki East and West Local Government Areas of the town. The questionnaires
were designed to elicit information on the demographic and socio-economic
characteristics of respondents, economic activities in relation to harvesting,
processing and marketing of the product, methods of harvesting, waste management
patterns etc. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were used to select
three main categories of respondents; harvesters/gatherers, processors and
marketers/retailers. A total number of one hundred and twenty (120) questionnaires
were administered distributed to the gatherers/harvesters (30), processors (60)
middlemen/marketers retailers/end-users (30). Data collected were analyzed using
descriptive statistics such as percentages and frequency for clarity purpose.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
All the questionnaires for all categories were answered except the
middlemen/marketers where 58 (96.67%) were answered leaving 2 (3.33%)
unanswered. It was observed that the marketers also acted as middle men and were
more available and involved in the Shea business than other groups hence thenumber of questionnaires administered to them doubled that of the others.
Table 1 shows the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the
respondents who engaged in Shea butter business across levels of production
respectively. It was revealed that women were more actively involved in the Shea
business across all levels of with 73.3% gatherers, 100% processors and 70.70%
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
36/102
Knowlegde for Global Development28
marketers/middlemen, this is probably because women are involved in the
provision of food security and family welfare in most communities worldwide
(Arabomen et al, 2009). Twenty-nine (96.67%) of the processors had Vitellaria
paradoxastands on their farmlands and 100% of the gatherers too. This served as amajor source of V. paradoxa fruits from which the Shea is processed and a source of
shade to both the farmers and their crops. Others without tree stands collected the
fruits from nearby forest lands.
Table 2 shows the rate of collection of shea nut by harvesters. It was observed that
most of the gatherers (86.67%) sold to produce-buyers and these were those that
gathered the seeds largely between 1-10 tons/annum on the average. 10%, 10%, 20%,
23.33%, 6.67% and 16.67% gathered between 1, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10 tons of shea nuts
respectively while 13.33% gathered less than 1 ton and sold directly to processors.
Table 3 shows the average per capital income generated by the different categories of
respondents in Shea butter business. It was revealed that the middlemen/marketers
had the highest income followed by the harvesters while the processors had the least
income generated from this business; this is because of the low level of average
yearly production of shea butter. Some processors (93.33%) processed only the shea
nuts they get on their farms while others (6.67%) bought more to complement their
harvest. In all, the processors were able to gather between 100-400g of the shea nuts
per annum on the average. This implies that the processors processed on a relatively
small scale majorly while the bulk of the nuts were sold to produce buyers through
middlemen/marketers. Harvesters (6.67%) earned between 10,000 and 50,000 from
shea nut gathering and sale, 23.33% earned between >50,000 and 90,000, 26.67%
earned between >90,000 and 130,000 and 43.33% earned between >130,000 and
170,000 as annual income for their families.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
37/102
Knowlegde for Global Development29
STAGES IN THE PROCESSING OF SHEA NUT AS INDICATED BY
RESPONDENTS.
The traditional method of shea butter processing is arduous and labor intensive
requiring large amounts of water and fuel wood. The total time required to processthe shea butter excluding harvesting and drying is about 5-6hrs or more.
The following stages involved in the processing of shea nut/seed is highlighted
below.
Bury fruits in pits to allow fermentation (i.e. disintegration of the fleshy part)
Boil the remaining nut to remove any fruit pulp remaining
Either sun dry the nut for 5-10 days or roast over a fire or traditional oven for
2-3days
Remove nuts and dehull either with a mortar and pestle or crack between two
stones/rocks
Dry the nuts to reduce the moisture content to minimum
Pound the kernels into a thick paste
Mix paste with hot water and knead to a dough-like consistency
Wash dough in cold water to separate the liquid and solid fats
Wash the solid fat (shea butter) again in cold water and heat
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
38/102
Knowlegde for Global Development30
Dish into containers (of various shapes and sizes) and allow it to cool, then it
is ready for sale.
RE-USE AND DISPOSAL OF Vitellaria paradoxa WASTES GENERATED INTHE STUDY AREA
There is a possible environmental threat from the activities involved in shea butter
production. Four (13.33%) of the processors used part of the shell of the shea nut as
domestic fuel while 86.67% disposed of it indiscriminately at dump sites.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn from study findings:
Women are the key actors in the production-utilization chain of shea-butter
activities in the study area this is because women are primary resource users
and as such they do much of the hard work needed to maintain their homes
and restore the surrounding environment (Odebode, 2003).
Shea butter activities were the primary occupation of the harvesters/gatherers
which attributed for the high income generated.
A non-timber forest product is a profitable enterprise that meets the nutrition
and diet needs of rural dwellers.
Based on study findings the following recommendations are made: Many afforestation programs have failed because the needs of most affected
women group were overlooked (Williams, 1992; Sonthierner, 1999; Rojar,
1993; Armitage and Hyma, 1997). Hence women should be empowered and
encouraged to participate in forestry related activities because of their mother
nature to care for those things committed to their hands.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
39/102
Knowlegde for Global Development31
Waste disposal is still one of the problems in Nigeria. Proper waste disposal
channels should be provided to prevent environmental hazards.
REFERNECESAgbogidi, O.M., Ureigho, N.U and Okonta, B.C (2005). Enhancing womens
participation in communal forest management in Nigeria. Proceedings of the 30th
annual conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, Kaduna. 7th-11th Nov., 2005.
Popoola, L., Mfon, P and Oni, P.I (Eds), pp 356-363.
Aiyeloja, A.A and Labode Popoola (2005). The role of small scale forest based
enterprises in sustainable forest management. Proceedings of the 30thannual conference
of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, Kaduna. Popola, L., Mfon, P and Oni, P.I (eds)
pp 179-185.
Ajayi, S.T., Adebisi, L.A and Fasola, Y.R (1997). The role of women in conservation of
endangered species, Proceedings of annual conference of the Forestry Association of
Nigeria, Ibadan. 22nd-26thsept, 1997, pp 138-144.
Arabomen, O., Baiyewu, R.A., Areo, O.S., Ademola, I.T and Akerekoro, R.W (2009).
Socio- economic impact of non-timber forest products on rural dwellers of oluyole
local govt area. Proceedings of the 33rdannual conference of the Forestry Association of
Nigeria,25th-29thOctober, 2010, pp 384-393.
Armitage, D and Hyma, R (1997). Sustainable community based forestry
development: policy and programs frameworks to enhance womens
participation. Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography.18(1): 1-19.
Boffa, J.M (1999). Agroforestry parkland systems in sub-saharan Africa: FAO
conservation Guide 34. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
40/102
Knowlegde for Global Development32
Boffa, J.M., Taonda, S., Dickey, J and Knudson, D (2000). Field-scale influence of
Karite (Vitellaria paradoxa) on Sorghum production in the Sudan zone of Burkina
Faso (electronic version), Agroforestry systems, 49. pp 153-175.
Booth, F and Wicens, G (1988). Non-timber uses of selected arid zone trees and
shrubs in Africa: FAO conservation guide 19. Rome: Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Brechin, S., Wilhusen, P., Fortwangler, C and West, P (2003). The road less traveled:
toward nature protection with social justice. In: S. Brechin, P. Wilhausen, C.
Fortwangler and P. West (Eds), contested nature: promoting international
biodiversity with social justice in the twenty first century (pp 251-2700. Albany, NY:
state university of New York press.
Dankelman, I. and Davidson, J (1988). Women and environment in the third world:
alliance for the future. London: Earthscan Publications Ltd in association with
IUCN.
Danthu, P., Gueye, A., Boye, A., Bauwens, D and Sarr, A (2000). Seed storage
behavior of four sahelian and sudanian tree species (Boscia senegalensis,
Butyrospermum parii, Cordyla pinnata and Saba senegalensis). Seed Science Research, 10.
183-187.
DFID 1998. Sustainable rural livelihood. Paper presented at the Department for
International Development, natural resources advisers. Conference, July 1998, pp 1.
Hall, J., Aebischer, D., Tomlinson, H., Osei-Amaning, E and Hindle, J (1996).
Vitellaria paradoxa: a monograph, School of Agriculture and Forest Sciences
Publication No 8. Bangor, Wales: University of Wales.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
41/102
Knowlegde for Global Development33
IFPRI, (2004). The changing face of malnutrition. In: International Food Policy
Research Institute, pp 12.
Joker, D (2000). Seed leaflet no. 50, Vitellaria paradoxa Gaertn, F. Denmark, DanidaForest Seed Centre.
Kainer, K., Schmin, M., Leite, A and Fadell, M (2003). Experiments in forest-based
development in western Amazonia (electronic version). Society and Natural
Resources, 16, 869-886.
Karin, L.V (2004). Vitellaria paradoxa and the feasibility of a shea butter project in the
north of Cameroon.
Kater, L., Kante, S and Budelman, A (1992). Karite (Vite;;aria paradoxa) and Nere
(Parkia biglobosa) associated with crops in South Mali.Agroforestry Systems, 18, 89-195.
Kristensen, M and Lykke, A. (2003). Informant based valuation of use and
conservation preferences of savanna trees in Burkina Faso. Economic Botany, 57(2),
203-217.
Leaky, R. (1999). Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees. A review
(electronic version). Food Chemistry, 66, 1-14.
Maranz, S and Wiseman, Z (2003). Evidence for indigenous selection and
distribution of the Shea tree, Vitellaria paradoxa. Journal of Biogeography, 30, 1505-1516.
Maydell, H. von (1990). Butyrospermum parkii: Trees and Shrubs of the Sahel: Their
Characteristics and Uses. English text revised J. Brase. Eschborn, Germany: Deutsche
Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
42/102
Knowlegde for Global Development34
NPC (1991). National Population Commission. Final Results of 1991 Population
Census of Nigeria.
Odebode, S.O (2003). Gender issues in community forestry. In: Proceedings of the 29th
Annual Conference of the Forestry Association of Nigeria, Calabar, Nigeria. pp 112-122.
Odihi, J. (2003). Deforestation in Afforestation Priority Zone in Sudano-Sahelian
Nigeria.Applied Geography,23, 227-259.
Ozo-Eson, P.I (2002). Gender Issues in Forestry Development in Nigeria. In: Oni,
P.I and Popoola, L (eds). Proceedings of the 28th Annual Conference of the Forestry
Association of Nigeria,Akure, Ondo State., 4th-8thNov, pp 218-231.
Rojar (1993). Integrating Gender Considerations into FAO Forestry Projects, Rome,
FAO.
Sontheiner, S (1991). Women and the environment. Earth-scan Publication Ltd, 3
Endsleigh Street, London WCIHODD.
Western, D., Strum, S., Tuzin, D., Sayre, K and Wright, M (1994). A few big
challenges. In: Western, D and Wright, M (eds). And Trum, S (associate ed). Natural
Connections: Perspectives in Community Based Conservation pp 536-547,
Washington D.C Island Press.
Williams, P.J (1992). Women and Forestry Activities in Africa: Project Summary and
Policy Recommendations. Nairobi, Environmental Liaison Centre International.
Non-Governmental Organizations, Unasylva. 171. vol 43, pp 41-49.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
43/102
Knowlegde for Global Development35
TABLE 1: DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
RESPONDENTSGATHERERS PROCESSORS MIDDLEMEN/MARKETERS
________________________________________________________________________________
VARIABLES FREQ % FREQ % FREQ %
________________________________________________________________________________
GENDERMALE 8 26.70 0 0 17 23.30
FEMALE 22 73.30 30 100 41 76.70
AGE (YEARS)31-40 5 16.67 4 13.33 3 5.17
41-50 11 36.67 15 50.00 27 46.55
51-60 10 33.33 11 36.67 25 43.10
MARITAL STATUS
SINGLE 0 0 0 0 0 0
MARRIED 28 93.33 30 100 56 96.55
WIDOWED 2 6.67 0 0 2 3.45
FAMILY SIZE
1-6 4 13.33 7 23.33 10 17.24
7-12 26 86.67 23 76.67 48 82.76
13 0 0 0 0 0 0
EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND
PRIMARY 2 6.67 10 33.33 24 41.38
SECONDARY 1 3.33 1 3.33 0 0ADULT EDUCATION 1 3.33 0 0 5 8.62
NONE 26 86.67 19 63.34 29 50.0
PRIMARY OCCUPATION
FARMING 30 100 30 100 0 0TRADING 0 0 0 0 58 100
CIVIL SERVANT 0 0 0 0 0 0
ARTISAN 0 0 0 0 0 0CRAFTSMAN 0 0 0 0 0 0
OTHERS 0 0 0 0 0 0
SECONDARY OCCUPATION
FARMING 0 0 0 0 0 0
TRADING 2 6.67 0 0 0 0
NONE 28 93.33 30 100 58 100
FARM SIZE
2 4 13.33 4 13.33 0 03 3 43.33 10 33.33 0 0
4 9 30.0 13 43.33 0 05 4 13.33 2 6.67 0 0
NONE 0 0 1 3.33 58 100
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
44/102
Knowlegde for Global Development36
TABLE 2: AVERAGE RATE/TONNE/ANNUM OF SHEA NUT OBTAINED BY HARVESTERS
NUMBER OF COLLECTORS % RATE (TONNES/ANNUM)
4 13.33 50-90 7 23.33 14 46.67 5 8.62>90-130 8 26.67 16 53.33 25 43.10>130-170 13 43.33 0 0 21 36.21>170-210 0 0 0 0 4 6.90
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
45/102
Knowlegde for Global Development37
CHAPTER FIVE
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT: A CASE OF RESTORATION OF THE DIGNITY OF
WOMANHOOD (ROTDOW)
Sabainah Olabisi Ibikunoluwa Omolona
Restoration of the Dignity of Womanhood, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
Mrs Sabainah Olabisi Ibikunoluwa Omolona, 56years old from Ekiti State,
Nigeria is the founder of Restoration of The Dignity of Womanhood
(ROTDOW). This foundation was established in 2008. This organization
uses different creative strategies to be involved in the post-2015 agenda of
the UN eight Millennium Development Goals. Through the programs of
the organization, a lot has been achieved on children and women
advancement.
When did you become involved in your profession?
My organization has been involved in training and seminars in schools
What do you understand by MDGs?
MDGs were set by leaders of 189 countries in September, 2000 at the United
Nations in New York. It is a set of ambitious goals that are time bound and
measurable- to be reached by 2015. Nigeria has worked in tandem with the
global vision to achieve these goals.
They include:
1. Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
46/102
Knowlegde for Global Development38
2. Achieve universal primary education
3.
Promote gender equality and empower women
4.
Reduce child mortality
5.
Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7.
Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development
What have been your contributions to MDGs?
- My organization has been involved in several advocacy programs, major
sensitization programs with focus on Goals 3, 4, 5, 6.
- We have empowered women by organizing training workshops in craft, bead
making, and entrepreneurial skills, so they can have some independence in
providing for themselves, their children and family.
- We have embarked on community advocacy on immunization, participated in
house-to-house polio vaccination, mass deworming of primary school pupils.
- We have improved maternal health by encouraging community women in
seeking early antenatal care, use of intermittent preventive treatment (IPT),
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
47/102
Knowlegde for Global Development39
training of traditional birth attendants in basic delivery skills and knowing
when to refer potentially difficult cases.
-
We have collaborated with major organization like the Society for familyhealth, HealthCare International etcetera in fighting the scourge of malaria
and HIV. We organize town-hall meetings, community advocacies to
practically demonstrate the importance and use of long lasting insecticide,
free malaria test, sale of arteminisin combination therapy at affordable rates.
We likewise organize free HIV counseling and testing.
What have been the contributions of women in Science and Education to MDGs in
your country?
Women in recent times have taken the bull by the horns to educate and
empower themselves in Nigeria. These has gone in the way of mass media
campaigns, community mobilization and prodding sitting government in
doing what is right by allocating more funds to education, women
empowerment, allowing more women into more decisive government
positions.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
48/102
Knowlegde for Global Development40
CHAPTER SIX
WOMEN IN SCIENCE AND EDUCATION IN INDIA
Ashish Singhal
Department of Law, Sharda University, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India
Science and technology have been an integral part of Indian civilization and
culture. Women and men have been active in science from the inception of
human civilization. One of the defining marks of humanity is the ability to
affect and predict our environment. Science is the creation of structure. For
our world and technology, the use of structure has been stepping stone to our
progress. Women and men have researched and solved each emerging need.
At a glance, women in general might look like one of the many housewives
simple, docile, unassuming and humble. But make no mistake, for behind this
simple straight face is a razor sharp brain, and an uncanny ability to execute,
to convert thought into action without much ado.
Since Independence, Indians have been promoting science and technology as
one of the most important elements of national development. The Scientific
Policy of 1958 and the Technology Policy Statement of 1983 enunciated the
principles on which growth of science and technology in India has been based
over the past several decades and inspires us till date. The major scientific
revolutions of the last century have opened the doors to many remarkable
technologies in the fields of health, agriculture, communication and energy,
among many others. Science and Technology are powerful instruments in the
tasks of national reconstruction, economic resurgence and maintenance of
national security.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
49/102
Knowlegde for Global Development41
The very first technical name was male Imhotep the architect of the first
pyramid and the second was female En HeduAnna (c. 2354BCE). Certainly
women were questioners and thinkers long before that, but unfortunately it
was an untapped resource. Most myths and religions place the beginnings ofagriculture, laws, civilization, mathematics, calendars, time keeping and
medicine into the hands of women. Women contributed in all the spheres of
technical advancement of humanity. They held the same burdens of
scholarship as the men did, and accomplished just as much. Women were and
are resourceful, passionate and creative about their work as any other male
scientist.
In the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries most women did not have access to
institutions of higher learning and laboratories, which prevented them from
participation in the scientific revolution. The singular exceptions in the 19th
century being Mary Somerville and Agnes Pockels. The Academie des
Sciences of Paris, The Royal Society of London did not allow women into their
meetings and were strictly male bastions. The Academie des Sciences of Paris
was founded in 1666 and elected its first female member in 1962, The Royal
Society of London was founded in 1662 and elected its first female member in
1945. These societies were important meeting places for the observation of
new experimental results and the discussions of new ideas.
The Third World Organisation for women in Science (TWOWS) officially
launched in 1993, is the first international forum to unite eminent women
scientists and scientific institutions in the South, with the objective of
strengthening their role in the development process and promoting their
representation in scientific and technological leaderships.
Although we are a traditional country where women are respected as
MatriShakti over the years women have overcome the traditional mind sets
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
50/102
Knowlegde for Global Development42
and have excelled in professions like teaching, medicine and pure sciences.
Women have made important contributions in all walks of life and made
inroads into new fields like engineering and information technology. Of the
women science graduated 88 % of the science degree holders are in purescience, 8% in medicine and 3% in engineering and technology.
However, there has been a recent spurt of women joining the engineering and
information technology fields. The field of biotechnology has revolutionized
the industrial growth of the world. In India, our own Kiran Mazumdar is an
example for women entrepreneurs to follow and emulate. Kiran Mazumdar
Shaw, biotech entrepreneur and CEO of Biocon India group, is one of the
many scientists India should be proud of. She started Biocon in 1978
collaborating with an Irish firm, started two joint ventures, Biochemizyme and
Biocon-Quest India Ltd. She has held positions in industry councils, including
Vice-President, Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka. She was
awarded Rotary Award for Best Model Employer, National Award for Best
Small Industry and most noteworthy is the Padmashri in 1989 from the
Government of India. She was accorded a very prestigious assignment as a
Chairperson of the Vision Group on Biotechnology to draw up the States
Biotech Policy.
In 1978, the worlds first test tube baby, Louise Joy Brown was conceived. In
India, Dr Indira Hinduja produced first scientifically documented test tube
baby. In 1986, Indias first test tube baby Harsha was born. Female ovum is
fertilized with male sperm in a test tube, with suitable environmental
conditions, and observed under microscope for more than three days. The
fertilized egg is then put back into mothers womb and hence called test tube
baby. Producing test tube babies is not an easy task even in advanced
countries. Dr Indira Hinduja has rejected opportunities to settle abroad so that
she can serve our country/India.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
51/102
Knowlegde for Global Development43
The worlds first programmer was Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace of England in
1852. She is credited with telling a machine what to do by using punch cards
to programme algebraic patterns. Indian women have excelled in almost all
fields which hitherto were fortified by men. Women are storming Informationand Technology field and in the late nineties the number of women in
computing and internet industries has registered a sharp rise. The IT
landscape is full of women who are busy writing programmes, running
network systems and delivering applications to clients on time. Recently a
Japanese magazine concluded that Indian women are number one amongst
women from various countries in acquiring and applying IT knowledge.
Deb Agarwal, a top scientist at a national laboratory and Radha Ramaswami
Basu, a high-tech entrepreneur, are the two Indian women among the top 25
women on Web award winners for this year. Agarwal, a computer scientist at
the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, serves the comprehensive
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organisation as an expert in the area of reliable
multicast communication. Basu is CEO, www.support.com. She was general
manager for international software at Hewlett Packard. She is also the co-
founder of Maitri, an empowering organization for South Asian Women in the
Bay Area.
In June 1963, Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman astronaut, made 48 orbits
in Vostok 6. Sally Ride and Kathryn Sullivan along with five men were aboard
the space shuttle Challenger in 1984 for the first time. It was the first time a US
woman Kathryn Sullivan walked in space. Kalpana Chawla from Haryana
was qualified from over 2962 applicants to earn herself a place in space shuttle
Columbia for a 16 day out of the world experience. The NASA chief called her
a Terrific Astronaut.
-
7/25/2019 GENDER EQUALITY: RECOGNIZING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE AND EDUCATION - Edited by Euni
52/102
Knowlegde for Global Development44
Women have also accepted the challenges of the oceans and have participated
in expeditions dealing with oc