Gender essentialism and low skilled men’s exclusion from ‘feminised’

occupations in Australia

Presentation to the Centre for Work + Life

Adelaide, South Australia October 2012

Dr Megan Moskos

Outline of Presentation• What is going on with low skilled men’s labour

market situation?

• Major explanations for men’s withdrawal

• Research approach and methodology of this paper

• Findings of case study research

• Implications of findings for the ways in which gender segregation is generated in the workplace and theorised

Prime age male (25 to 54) participation rates, 1981-2006 census data

Source: Steven Kennedy, Nicholas Stoney, Leo Vance, 2009

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 200640

50

60

70

80

90

100Degree or higher

No post-school

Post-school

Per cent Per cent

Prime age female (25 to 54) participation rates, 1981-2006 census data

Source: Steven Kennedy, Nicholas Stoney, Leo Vance, 2009

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 200640

50

60

70

80

90

100

Degree or higher

No post-school

Post-school

Per cent Per cent

Why are men withdrawing from the labour market?

• Changing industrial structure and decline of traditional ‘male jobs’.– services sector said to favor the employment attributes of women.

• Growth of non-standard forms of employment and decline of full-time permanent employment– Non-standard employment incompatible with traditional notions of

masculinity and men’s prescribed breadwinner role.

• Skill-biased technological change– Reduced the demand for workers with low skills and increased

demand for those with higher skill levels

Isn’t it more about occupational sex segregation?• Labour market is changing in gender ways and sex segregation in

occupations continues to impact on labour market opportunities.

• Women’s employment opportunities often explained by occupational sex segregation.

• How does occupational sex segregation shape low skilled men’s employment opportunities?

• Analysis of 1996 and 2006 ABS census data– Which occupations experienced employment growth for workers with no post-

school qualifications? – Which of these occupations experienced a change in the gender share of

employment (distribution of men and women)?– Whether there is evidence that occupational sex segregation is impacting on low-

skilled men’s participation in occupations that experience growth?

How occupational sex segregation shape’s low skilled men’s employment opportunities: Evidence from the ABS census

• Employment for workers with no post-school qualifications has expanded most rapidly in occupations that are female-dominated.– specifically in intermediate and elementary clerical, sales &

service occupations• Men with no post-school qualifications are not increasing their

share of employment in many of these occupations.

• Why are men not moving into female dominated occupations?

– ABS census does not reveal the causal mechanisms that operate to generate and / or stall changes in men’s representation in female dominated jobs.

Explanations for men’s resistance to enter female dominated jobs

• Paula England’s explanation for asymmetries in gender change

• David Grusky (with various distinguished collaborators) and the decline of female advantaging essentialism

• Both view gender essentialism to be a primary determinant of (horizontal) occupational sex segregation and its continuation.

• Both explanations rest largely on supply side logic.

• Both theorists suggest that men are themselves choosing not to enter female jobs.

Is this supply side assumption correct?• Holds at the upper end of the occupational spectrum where men (and

women) currently have a number of alternative employment choices.

• Does not seem to hold at the lower end of the labour market where traditional employment opportunities for low skill men have decreased.

• Do low skilled men prefer to join the ranks of the unemployed rather than obtain employment in female jobs?

• Or is there a level of demand side discrimination that exists for men at the lower end of the labour market that limits there ability to secure employment?

• Currently there is little empirical research that test the claims made by Grusky and England.

Research Aim and Methodology• Aim:

– To explore supply and demand side dimensions to men’s segregation from low level female dominated jobs that are experiencing employment growth in Australia.

• Methodology:– detailed case studies of 4 strategically chosen female dominated

jobs.• 2 x female dominated occupations that experienced employment

growth, but in which men did not experience a change in their share of employment. - child care and sale assistants.

• 2 x female dominated occupations that experienced growth, and in which men did experience a change in their share of employment. - aged care and commercial cleaning

– Interviews with men who might take these jobs (unemployed men), employers, male workers and clients or customers (total N=107)

Gender essentialism and men’s aversion to the case study occupations.

• Because they were male

I suppose being a male that would be a disadvantage because … women are tailored for it, it’s a nurturing thing, the bond that they’ve got with children. Aged Care Worker 8

• Due to perceptions of self and their preference

I couldn’t wipe their arses, I couldn’t shower them, I couldn’t do anything like that. I don’t feel comfortable showering a man, that’s his privacy, let him shower himself. This is why you invented chairs in showers, so he could sit there and have a shower, if not there’s a bath, let him soak in the tub. I’ll wash their hair and stuff like that for them, no worries, but I’m not cleaning their areas, that’s their problem and they can do that for themselves.

Unemployed 5

Gender essentialism and men’s preference for male typed jobs and job attributes

• Working with handsAnything in the automotive industry. That’s pretty much it. It’s just something that comes to me. I’m really good with my hands. So I know how it all works, and it just comes to me really easily. Unemployed 6

• Working outsideI can’t work indoors; I just feel a bit funny being surrounded by a heap of people indoors; that’s just not me. I’d rather be out doing – like mowing lawns or stuff like that, whipper snipping, cutting trees down or whatever. It’s just outdoors, yeah.

Unemployed 10

• Working independentlyThat sort of independence, I don’t like to be working with the boss sitting on my right shoulder looking at everything I’m doing, I like to be able to get out there and do it myself, so any job with a boss there I tend not to go for. Unemployed 14

Negative experience of female dominated work environment

• Difficulties adapting due to past workI wasn’t in my comfort zone was why I disliked it and being a man in a female orientated workplace was actually quite different, not something I was used to because labouring there was only blokes on site and that’s all you ever did. Child Care Worker 8

• Feeling ignored or isolated

• Questioning competency It’s scary for a male going into that environment. You really doubt yourself, you know, and what you’re doing. Aged Care Worker 4

• Men’s dislike of perceived bitchiness and gossipI can’t help but make the observation that there can be a bit of moodiness and bitchiness and stuff like that, that mostly the guys that I work with don’t get involved in.

Aged Care Worker 10

Social and interpersonal sanctions associated with gender inappropriate work

• Being viewed as homosexual or paedophileWhen I started child care, friends looked at you funny because back then – even back then it was still like a man in child care, well he was either gay or there was something wrong with him. Child Care Worker 8

• Having career seriousness questioned by othersNo way’ that’s what they say. ‘You’re not really in child carer – what do you really do?’ I say ‘no, I’m a child care worker.’ It might take a few times to convince them.

Child Care Worker 7• Compromised masculinityThey think it’s not a manly job, they think men have no business being around children. I understand where they come from, that sort of prejudice side, but they said ‘it’s a girl’s job’. Child Care Worker 6

Recognition of sanctions associated with gender inappropriate work

• Contributing to men’s unwillingness to enter/ intention to leave

as soon as you are having a problem you go ‘I’ve got to get out of here, I’m not going to take this Child Care Worker 7

• Changed workplace behaviour

I know sometimes, personally I feel awkward and that I need to protect myself. Like if I get left alone with a group of children and there’s not another adult or carer there, I sometimes feel like, if I’m going to get accused this is the time…. Although everyone knows I’m not like that, everyone including myself always knows people may perceive me like that, so I have to protect myself. Child Care Worker 1

Unfavourable labour market characteristics deterring men

• Short hours and low pay

The jobs tend not to be full-time and at best they pay $16 an hour; even at my much reduced lifestyle I figure I can do better than that. Unemployed 20

• Linked to genderYes, but if I’ve had a family I’d have to leave, I couldn’t afford to support a family on this wage….Well men are supposed to be known as the breadwinner and I’m sorry but when I get married I want to be the breadwinner, it’s a macho thing, a male thing…. I couldn’t actually support anyone on my wage. So, I’d be gone; I’d have to. I know that most males do that because they have to support their families. Child Care Worker 6

Gender essentialist exclusionary practices• Gender essentialist notion of appropriate jobs for men and

women

I guess it’s something that men are not naturally given to. Aged Care Manager 7

I know it might be archaic, but women are the cleaners, men are the hunters. Commercial Cleaning Manager 4

• Gender essentialism and the belief that women are better

Women are much better. Much, much better. The woman is a positive and the guy falls a little bit behind and that’s 99% of the time. Commercial Cleaning Manager 1

• Gender essentialism and the threat posed by men

My immediate perception is that there’s got to be something wrong, or weird, or sexual, like ‘Oh that’s a bit weird, why would a grown man want to hang around young kids?’. Child Care Client 5

Gender essentialism’s operation in particular environments

• Aged CareWhen I’ve been in hospital I’ve had male nurses and think nothing about it but in my home it just seems a bit different, silly I suppose but it does seem different.

Aged Care Client 1• Child CareI mean if the man is working in a child care centre they’ve obviously had to go through all of the security checks and the health checks, police checks and whatever else, so I kind of feel confident. If it was not in that environment - I probably would feel differently. Child Care Client 4

• CleaningObviously for a lady cleaner to come into a men’s toilet and say ‘oh it’s just the cleaner, just checking, that’s okay’ whereas a male comes in they get all etchy about it and the guy feels awkward about it. Commercial Cleaning Client 5

• SalesYeah. I don’t want to be trying on a bra in front of a man and having him fit me obviously for something personal like that. Sales Assistant Client 4

Gender essentialism and men doing certain tasks

• Females here, for example, who would specifically ask for a female to attend to them, especially when it comes to showering and things like that.

Aged Care Worker 7

• If it’s changing children, in terms of toilet training and nappy changing, we have had parents that have requested for those male workers not to participate in those care giving skills. Child Care Manager 2

Gender essentialism and the construction of appropriate male workers

• Aged careI had a male nurse come in for what I call a back rub and I didn’t take any notice but he was an older man and had been doing for years, where some times when you get like an Asian man come in, you’re not sure…you think about it more I suppose.

Aged Care Client 3• Child careWith our other male at [organisation name], he’s not unattractive, but he’s not young and handsome like these fellows. And there are some people who are like ‘who’s that man?’ and that don’t feel comfortable having him around their children. Child Care Manager 1

• SalesI find older people are less intimidating. Like I do find women less intimidating in certain situations and I also find older men less intimidating in a sense. Sales Assistant Client 1

Gender essentialism and discriminatory employment practices

• Reduced demand for male workers due to clients preference

Clients mightn’t be as open to it and so it’s a bit of a risk to take on a male. We might not be able to get work for him because people mightn’t want that or maybe he won’t be good at it. Aged Care Manager 6

• Direct employer discrimination

I think my feeling here is that there is a perception that there’s a certain type of person that they want to employ. I haven’t been here long, but I would think that the idea of a male worker wouldn’t, they wouldn’t even look at.

Aged Care Manager 3

If I was to employ I would specifically look for a female. There is an expectation when people walk in here. But definitely I would look for a female rather than a male. Sales Assistant Manager 5

Segregating labour market processes

• Recruitment sources favouring female employment and maintaining the status quo

I suppose we have quite strategic succession planning so when a vacancy becomes available we look internally first and foremost and then if we’ve exhausted all avenues internally we’ll go to market. Sales Assistant Manager 4

We also use a lot of students that go through TAFE and uni and if they prove themselves here on student days they normally end up working for us.

Child Care Manager 2

Conclusion• Clear evidence of processes operating on the supply side of the labour

market to restrict men’s movement into feminised jobs in Australia. – Gender essentialism

– broader labour market conditions

• Compelling evidence that mechanisms also operate on the demand side of the labour market to limit men’s movements into gender atypical jobs. • Gender essentialism

• Segregative labour market processes

• Suggests that demand side strategies and policies, such as anti-discrimination campaigns, may have some positive impact to increase men’s movement into female dominated job and reduce occupational sex segregation.

Integrative mechanisms – next paper• Supply

• Benefits accrued to men due to their minority status– Being looked at as favourable job applicants

– Receiving additional support

– Being subjected to more relaxed rules and regulations

• Standard labour market factors– Rational decisions about employment given current and future labour demand

– Difficulties obtaining work in areas traditionally worked

– Positive identifications with aspects of the work.

• Demand

• Managers and clients construction of certain aspects of jobs as requiring masculine traits

• Demand for men as minority workers

• General labour demand