gender fol

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Folia Linguistica 45/2 (2011), 435464.issn 01654004, e-issn 16147308 Mu Gruyr Sc Luc Eurdoi 10.1515/lin.2011.016

Te origin of the Proto-Indo-European gender system:ypological considerations

Sv LurUvry Pv

Gr u w r uc, .. m cc cr-rrc cu ru rm. B ry ckwby rmmcz rc my cr bcmr mrkr, r ym my r cquc crm r cc w r mrk cr rum. I ru r r r ym my r rvc ruc r vu u, my v cquc

vu r w cc r ym.

Keywords: Pr-I-Eur, umbr r, rm, r v.cr, r r ym, c-wr

1. Introduction1

T r r ym cry w ur m-

. A r ru ur r mrkr wr kw: urc r r mrkr r umru, ry (Akv 2004; c 3.4). I , ry vm my r ym c b b rcruc, bu rcy brv. Lck r vm cry ru m ru rcruc rm cuv.

T c vm PIE r ym. I r rm rr rvy rc crcr x-

1 I k V Bubk Br J r r u cmm rr vr rc.

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436 Sv Lur

b r-r ym kw rm m I-Eur u, v rc rr mcy-b w-r ym, wxcy vm cm bu b mr cu rvr cury. I , u v ccr r m r, .. x r ym, wucu r w-r ym, wc rv rrm vw cmmy r u b r r ym.

Hr I cr b r w-r ym x-. Sc rrc my cu r m, I r

by rvw ru rr u. I, wrcruc, rbm r, cy rr b mcmv cc w r r r. A curr - vw mv by w m r. Fw- rc, r r-r ym cmrm, m/brc r ccv ( r by m,c 3.1), m/ccr (Mv 2004: 165173). Arrm b mv r m/brc b r-rr m, wc vy rcruc rw u- m ccv, rcruc r qu wruc ym yc k, cy cr r vm rr mcy-b ym.

I Lur (2009b), I r ycy qu rcruc- v uky mc mv r r mr. I ru ry y b mc mvr r rk mmy r mcy r m v mcy x, y ym w- c bw

mcu m urr c my r m -m. Sc m r ym, uc kw rm vr Ar-c u, ry crc cm, urrbr.

I rc, I uru urr yc c my rcruc-, by cmr PIE r ym w r ym ru m, w kw bu r r.I ru r ym my r r wy rm r

y mrc mr. Dr r ru r ymv r rmry uc: c ur my rmwc mc ur my mv r.

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T r Pr-I-Eur r ym 437

T rc rucur w. I c 2 I ummrz currrrc rr rcruc PIE r ym. I c- 3 I cu b mc mv r r y m- cc vc, cu r cr. Sc 4 v cr y r ym wru cmr m w PIE r ym. I c 5I rm I-Eur vc w curr r r r ym rm. I c 6 I ru r rcvm r r rmry uc r r-m. Sc 7 c ummry m .

2. Te gender system of PIE

2.1. S r qu

T c I-Eur u x-b r--r ym, wc cu mcu, m ur. A ry Brum (1891), bcm cr ym w vmrm rr w-r ym, cmmy b mcy-b,wc mrcy c (w rmy r-r ym) mcu ur, w mr w r rm ru c ux, wcBrum rcruc -*, curry -*h2 (r -*(e)h2)( Mv 2004: 164 urr rum rr r m r). T ux w ry u rv vrb brc u; v r fc

mv/ccuv ur ur u. Ex ur w( rm) x cc w rqu ymy brcu, cquy brc x, wc x c-cv: mv/ccuv ur ur, wc rr urrm m u, uc .. Ac Grk, cr v cqur cu ur vu y cry, vm rm rr ccv vu ( Lur 2009 b cc brc w ccv). F uc mc mv r x m w muc mr cu, rm qu.

I Brum m, kw IE u y r ymwc cu m (r rc r r-r

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438 Sv Lur

ym), bu w H w cr b wcury w-r ym, w umbuu rc mv ru, r mr qu wr. Fr vrc, H, cquy I-Eur, wr v r Schwundhypothese Herkunhy-pothese (Lur 1997: 190191). Accr rmr, mr ( umru r cr cmmy rcruc r PIE)wr H r A v r rr , w r uc cr wr rcr, wc w A rm r IE m-

y. A r r ccr, w cmmy r A m r, my bcu vr (vr c cu r A r ummrz L-Lm 2003: 4194 Mv 2004: 3641).

O rbm r by A r bw w vm -*h2 ux, , mvccuv u-r ur v ccv, m. Sc A v m r, bu mv/ccuv ur ur ,cr u x ccv mu v rc x- m, rr ccmm A . O m ur r rr x uv x rmccv m u fuc m m ccvu, r rrr ur (.. cy 1993, Mv 2004).T ry w w kw c rc mccv r ywr I-Eur u.2

2.2. Pb wr: T mrc vm -*h2

I Lur (2009) I u rbm b mcr bw ccv m c y b m rucru cr mrc vm ux. I cr ux w rv r w, r

2 cy (1993) rcruc rm *h2widhweh2, c ccv wc r

c rv r, r ww: wvr, ccv m rcruc, I-Eur u c , wr m

ww. Tu, c b k vc r cr m r u m ccv u ( Mv 2004: 167 ), bcu r vc r xc.

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cc w vm w c r, y v w mc rbm r by r bw brc,

ccv m, bu w umbr mrc u(c 3.1). I, ux urw w cmy r mr-c vm, wc c ry b cc w c r,c fc , mrkr fc c (- m) r. I c vm, ux ry vr ru fc . T wvm r rr b 1.

T rbm w rvu rcruc um crc rr bw (2) (2b). I Lur (2009) I ru , w (1) rc (2) (2b), r rfc w r vm, wc -y r, c b ummrz w (Lur 2009b):

(2): rv ux ur fc , rrv (r) m;

(2b): -bry, mu ux ur m vw, .. ury rmmc, bry m, rr mrkr u c (.. rmmc r).

Suc vw r y mrc rbm; , ccmm A wu y c u-.3 Hv m qu b mc r

3 I rr c , c 2.1, ux ry ur mvccuv ur ur A, v u r vc r m r, wc m ky v r I-Euru r A brc. I w rc wr cc,

u u cry wc wu cry my rv m rrm ccv. crry, vw w c ry mvr r x w ccv ur m.

able 1. T vm PIE *-h2 (rm Lur 2009)

1. Drv ux (-bry)2. Nur u: fc ux (mv/ccuv ur, bry)2b. . -- m: mrkr fc c (m vw, bry)

. Fr-c jcv: mrkr fc c m r(bry)

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440 Sv Lur

bw ccv m, rm b x w ux brc u w rrr mrkr m r.

I Lur (2009) I r x w cmmum r bw r r vu- PIE. Suc x (c 3.1) vv rcruc rmry w -x b r-r ym. Sc uc ym m ycy uky, I m r x Lur (2009b), u m r r rm w m r. T rv mc mvr mrcy mv c ux u (my vrb

c u), wc bcm vb mm. Suc cbcm r (.. r rr rm w mrv r w jcv, c 6.1) y w w m-, wu rm wc w r w mvby r vu.

T rc v rqur mc mvcc m w y r m ux *-h2. B, k ccu cy r ym v mr r r m y y v w r r um u (.. y r x-b, c 4.1 r cu bu -x-bym). Hwvr, v cc rcruc, rm ru vu y r r ym I-Eur -u. I cu u x c.

3. Semantic motivation for the PIE gender system and beyond

3.1. Amcy vu PIE

Smc mv r PIE r ym uuy c cmb mcy (r ) vu. T ccbw r mcy qu bvu: u umb r mcu r m r-r ym, yb m r rcruc w-r ym, w A. Nur u w m rr rqur mxr x (c 3.3), bu y r bur c- r w mcy, rcur c ur wm. Hwvr, c u w m rr r by m m ur r mu vru y rr-

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r mcy-b rc cc, m wc b cc bw r vu.4 Suc c-c b xr by Orwk (1985), w ru y c bw m m (= ur) w ry rfx c bw y wy vu , bu fc c ur u rfc urr r cr vu.

Orwk rc b uru urr, cy bcu,v u my b u b r fc crk ry vu c, uc ru v

rfx rm, u c b cr r. Hwvr, PIE ur r w mv by w r vu- rr x by rr mcy ry cc.Rcy, b mm Mv (2004). Accr Mv, ry PIE m r bcy cu y mu, uc u ubc fu, m brc u,w u my m bjc wr m, wr mr brc u. Tu, cu- bw m -m w c wr mcy rrcy (c 3.2).Lr, r r w cr, c ccv u wcwr rrr m, umbr ubvz -v jcv, by rrr m (um m).

T r ccv ry rv cu. I r c, Mv cr c ur ccv uc m- u Grk tome cu, trophe , wc vw urur rm r jcv (2004: 168). I c c,

vw cruc c y vru ccv um

b, wr r rrr rrr y m. Tr rum, c 2.1, c b rv, I-Eur u rv y vc r : , yvc uc by r ry cu by rc-ruc rm, wc ru crcur rum. A r Grk u - (AcIc -), y r uuy cr vrb c u(Cr 1979: 1826) r jcv brc u (G 1959).5

4 S Fr (1959) r ry r mv r r m PIE.5 G (1959) rmrk c r bw u vrb uuy vrm (. 12), ru r jcv r, b //

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442 Sv Lur

Fw Mv rc, u, wc r r r(umru) c u ucrvry b vrb (. 5), wrry ccv. Tr rquy brc m u my c ux rm brc ccv bck brc,wc ruc ucry cmc (r rm mrcrbm, cu bw).

T r wy Mv mxmz umbr mu wc r ur ccv r um cc bw w vm c *-h2 uxummrz b 1, .. mv/ccuv ur

ur (v ccv) mrkr m r. A I rmrk c 2.2, wvr, cc y ucry rm mc vw, bu r rbm, cr ur w mrc ucm. x r umbr mu rr ur ccv, um ccvux ry cqur r w ur r, w b rv. Hwvr, Cck u , cr w ccv *-h2 cu c bcm mrkr w c- c, bu r uc mrkr ur ur. (2007:107, Lur 2009b). N rc ux fc- A, wc mrrr wc mr y v, r rbm w mrc vm, wc c y b rmv um ux urw w r vm, I u c- 2.2 3.

Ar rm r ccv, wc m ky w c rm m r, Mv rcruc r

urr rbm. I r c, um PIE ur r y

vcm m. I y c, u ru r mcy rmy r r c u, w vrb r ub, uc arpage rbbry rmarpz crry wy, r komide c rm komz k cr ; u, wvr rb rv rv cry rm jcv u,r r cr m ccv rm, rr brc rvv. Tr vw k qu cvc: m, .. rm uc bv m- tomew r brc u r b vrb tmn cu, r jcv toms cu, rr ccv rm. T c Grk u - /-

c ccr bjc urr, v w-kw cy vrbc u v ccr m, rfc rum rucur

vrb b (Lur 2009b).

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cu by m u, w rz: w ru m u r bcy ur I-Eur u, urr cu vr u rr ccr cub ,uc rum . Mv (2004: 80163) rv ccur rcruc rm w r, bu r vryr umbr rcruc rm r ucr, vr I-Eur u ( r m c c quurcby w by vm Rmc u). Tc ucub u b ur I-Eur -u rfc r bm mcy rrcy (c-

3.2), bu my ur r cvr r y m u.

3.2. T mcy rrcy, v rr r

Dr mcy c vru mrycc ur u ru, uc c mrk. A b vr mcy r-rcy v (1).

(1) Te animacy hierarchyFr- c-r ru > r-r ru > rrm > um cmm u > um m cmm u >m cmm u. (Cr 2003: 130)

I r vr mr c r ruc r r c (.. k rm r rk r r um u);wvr, ry u wr urr br wr r rrcy. I r wr, r m b c-

m m. Hwvr, c x ccr cu- mcy vu u: .. u ur m r cu m m, w m u r ucub r vruy wy m.

T c c r vb r c urr: mcy c y ry rfc rr -mcy, rr rfc r ur m ccmy -mcy, uc vu r c-wr (Cmr 1989: 189195).Cry, c c rc (c r c r ru)r m vu c-wry cmmuc v; c c c rc r m bvu cquc

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444 Sv Lur

u b um cvy. Bcu um my k rum, m r c-wry, bu w rr mcy, w by w kw c mr m r m, u y v m c mr-c (.. r rruc). c-wr rfc, m r, c um r cb c, w m uuy r .6

Cr-uc u rr rc w m u c rc wr cu- bw m m m ky ccur r vb. Iuvy, m u

r vu cu u: u, cu- bww r m w c r-rcy, u u y m u, rcruc- PIE r ym (c 3.1).

T brc u rc vr b xu-vy v. A b u, brc u m b vu ccr (bvuy brc cc r c-cr); wvr, uc um cr xc -r y brc u. O, brc u c b ccuz cb c, bcu y c wc c b c-r by um b, uc m ( Lur 2006, 2009, b).

Abrc u c b r b r brc.T u cu .. V (2000) cc w r vu Grm. V ru Grm vrb cu r r r b r r -

vu: ur u c rc rrc cr c (dasSitzen c ), m c cc c (die Sit-

zung ), w mcu m v ccrm (der Sitz ). A mr u ccur r I-Eur u, wc ur r cy

vrb v, w y r u c u (Lur 2009b).Rr r m ccr Grm, Zub

Kk (1986) brv ur r ymcy urr v crz, w mcu m r bc v bw. Tu, v rcy,

6 D (2000: 100) mcy rrcy w: c bwr, .. y um b rcv , r uvr.

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wr r m, ier, ur. A x v, w wr rmmm, r, c, ur (Saugtier, Reptil, Insekt), w bc v rr w mcu r m, .. derHund(mc) r die Katze c(m). Am y cr- v my r xm, cu rcu uc. Tu, u c m urr v r ur rr mcy, my m u rr mcu r m bcu y b v w rr ccy. I r wr, mcy m v w rr rr, b rr cc w um r-

c b, cu b rcc m, ccr cry.

3.3. Sx, mcy r

Ar rm c mrc mv (uc muv - ur r u Grm r u) mr rrc c r cfc, my r ym uw um rr r r b rr x. Ev w kw c u m cr r yu mr ur I-Eur u rfx mr-c rr x r r m: x rrv r um m br rcr. Rmrkby, x mrur r r ym, bu fuc mcy r-rcy: u y r r mcy ccw x um rr, v u ru x-b rym mcu m my b c w r r

vu cc w m r v m rr( c Grm crb c 3.2).7

Tu, mr r-r ym I-Eur -u, w r mr r ym, vb cm b r ur: , c bwm m my b cc w mcy c, rfc r vu; r , c

7 Smu (2008) w m r rm r E rfx c vu b mr crr rv r rm Grm.

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446 Sv Lur

bw rry mcu m um b w mcy c. T rc c b ummrz w:

(2) Classiying unction o genderA : mcy, crr vry r vuhighest pat o the sale: x, m r vu.

Tu, vu um b rk mcy rrcy(cy w y r c c rc) rrcv rx. T x c my b ruc, , r y-m, u bw rr m v mcy

vu.Ary, m x-b r ym, mcu mr vruy wy mv by x rr: ccr Cr-b (1991: 89) c m. Hwvr, r r I-Eur u, y r: r mr x-br ym, uc w-r ym yc Ar-Acu, y m ry bw mcum -c, wc rr x c um u, vru rur cc w vu c m (mcu, ccrbrc) r ccv ( Hm-A 2000).

I um, IE m r x-b r ym, w crrr cc cr-cu c r, wc, .. mcy, w mcy c r vu, w r x c c.

3.4. Pb mc mv r m cc:r v. cr ym

Akv (2006) rv urvy b mc mvr vru vc m cc, cu r (r uc)8 r y cr. W umbr rmr,uc mcy um, r cmm r cr,cr v wr umbr rmr, ccw ur, uc r rr. I rcur, cu

8 I wr r rm r u c mu b ur rrr cc ym wc rr rm, vru y cr, wc .

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u cr umr cr, wc r mr ky v r mrkr ru rmmcz (c 5.1), c rmrk w:

. mcy/um r b wy rv rmr; y-m m cr, u c b rmr rr mymcy, bu rr um b ( m mcy);

b. x rqu rmr r r ym; my b u cr ym, bu rquy.

I k cr k rbu rmr r

ym, crr mr bw umbr r -b r c, bw r r mrkr b mc rmr, I w x c.

Ar rmrkb rc bw cr r muc mr rbrry crcr r. A Crb (1991) u,

vruy r ym r mc ru, rbu mr rbrry wy. Suc ru, wc, by D (2000),y ccr m, rmy x cr ym:c, cy uc cr muc mr rrwr.9

4. Setting the PIE gender system in a typological perspective

Mv (2004: 178) u rcruc PIE rym r yc rbm; wr: Gr ym b bw cub m u . . . r u r u m. H urr c b yc r-

cu by K, Y u, wc uky b ryr w PIE.

T ycy rbmc c rcruc uby Mv by cc r m u r ucub: uc ym m Rmc

vr, wc w ur v, cu by m-cy b c u (ucub) (H 2000: 234). W

9 D (2000: 113) rmrk cr ym []r r cr rm, bu m uuy x m. T cquc wr r rbrr cr ym, bv.

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448 Sv Lur

u cr u rm PIE r y-m, cr by ry ux brc u (r ccv, mk rc r) r mrkr, wc cw m r w x-b. I r wr, yb mv r w r wc x mcy-br-r ym x, y w r r w mvby ur w rm c by r.

I w w I ub my cm w cr-uc rv b cr r r rm.

4.1. Gr ym cr u

T c b Crb (2011, b), cr rm ur 30Numbr r (2011) 31 Sx-b -x-b rym (2011b). Rr -x-b r ym, :T m -x-b r cvr by xv Nr-Cmy wr, cr ur Arc . . . T r ub-x-b r Aqu my Nr Amrc,rfc ur m by P Cr, Ojbw Pmquy-M-. Ewr r Ju|, rr K u rmur Arc. I Aur-Ac, u ur m r Mu-r Ncbr. I Aur r Wrm. w Crb u(Hxkry Mcu) r b y, L Cc(O-Mu; Mxc). T w cr u w mcy vb b r r ym.

I, w cr umbr r u w -mcy-b ym, w ru mr, .. u wc v

mcy-b w-r ym, mr ym ry PIE, u v y r r m mr rm. Lu r ru, wc rcycr, r w:10 Cc (L), (Mxc); P Cr,Er Ojbw, Pmquy-M, Aqu (C);Hxkry Mcu, Crb (Brz); Mur, Aur-Ac (I).Frm vw yc qucy rcruc y-

10 Cry, rm WALS mu b k rz: m r , r k rm r cc wr u (v u mu b rr cc ym r ry x), ur r uc.

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m PIE, u ru r rbm. T cru u rv cr xm.

Lu w mr w r x c r, WALS, my cy r. Ty r ur Nr-Cu: Bbu Ccw, G, Grb, Krm; Ju|, K u; Ncbr (Cr), M-Kmr u; Wr-m, -Pm-Nyu Aur u Nrr Aur.

Rr Ju|, c b rmrk r K uv x-b r ym (Gm & V 2000: 111112), ym Ju| my w b brrw rm br Bu

u, cr vc r u u c ym qu xv (Akv 2000: 386388): u, u ry r r Arc u w -x-b cmxr ym.

L u w ur r w u. Wrm r -r: myi-, vb ma-, m-m ur bjc wu- (Mr- 1994: 6163). Ary r Mu, Ywj ru, v-r ym, cu: mcuyi-, m i-, vb ma-,ur a-, mcu aK- (Ev 2000). T ym rc-ruc r Pr-Ywj; y rrv Mu, w rr u v r ruc w-r ym, r .A r r r mrkr, Dx (1980: 273) wr: Tr v-c u c rx v u rc u.

T Ncbr r ym cu w c, cmm rr, c w ub-c, m m: u c bcrb mcy-b w-r ym w ub-r. I u, r c-ccur w cr, mrk r

r ru, mrv, umr cr (Br 1970:103108).

Tu, xc -x b r-ym w mr r r m vruy m Nr-C rry r u(); r c r u wc cmx cc ym b ruc (Wrm) r r brrr vr r cr (Ncbr). T Nr-C ym ky v v u rmmcz

r ym cr, I ru x c. A rmrk c 3.4, cr ym wc r ur r-mr r rqu r r wr ( xm c-

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450 Sv Lur

u by M-Kmr u, cy r w Ncbr, wc cr r rm rc u, DLcy 1986;Akv 2000: 443 Ncbr).

5. Te rise of gender systems

5.1. Sm curr vw

Crb (1991) c mrv r r rm

(1991: 310311), y rm u, bu v mr w u NP, rbu: uc, y my ur rmmcz bcm rc; urr cr rmmcz my m bcm x. Nw, u ry mr mrv, .. r m r m, wmrv ur x y ur r mrkr NP. Arm w ury, bcu NP mrk by r rmrmrv r rrr rcy by crr rmrv.

T ccu r rm ( u r) b Grbr (1978), w cu vc my k rm Arc -u. W ur qu w cy mrvr, Grbr wr r urc cu by cr(1978: 78).11 I Grbr vw, cr ym my r byu, r w mrv: c, cr ur rmm-cz, r rm u mrv r bu rm, wc bry. Crb urr v-

b r cr/mrv ( b urc r mrkr), , rw vc rm Jcc (Cr 1986) Z (Cu 1985), vru Aur -u (Dx 1982: 171; Akv 2000: 372372), uc mrv bck rc u. H ccu um urc r ym u, mr ccy u w ccry -b uc wm, m, m (1991: 312).

11 Grbr y c umr cr b urc r r mrkr;vc rm Aur u u m cr c quy wrv m ur, Akv (2000: 376).

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Hc r r ym rmmcz rc wcc b rr w:12

(3) Stages in the rise o gender markersGrc u cr rm mrv rbu-v mrv rmr rm mrkr

Ary, Crb vw y rc y b urcr r r u wc rmry r -r rm.

Grbr (1978: 79) mk c bw r r

ym r x: [] wy wc r r b m by wc ym c x by vm w r. H cr by x rrmmc cr bcm r mrkr m cr w r: []r ym my x by w r; ry u x mrc mr. (1991: 313). Axm uc vm r mcy b ub-r rmcu u Svc u.

I r ccu b urc r u c ym, Akv(2000: 377) mr vw; Akv (2004), c Kw- u Nr Amrc, wc umbr . . . c- m u c, xm r r -r ym u r rmmc cry. Ary, Akvcr b r rv x m cr w r w x r ym (2004: 1042; y c vc uc PIE). um u, mu r w r -m: () r r ym u wu r;

(b) x ry x r ym.A w v bv, r my r vry wy, bu cur-

r vw y y (3) (rmmcz cr) urc r (), w (b) my v r cu. A mr br vwc b u Fr (1959: 213), wc rc m bwym xc-mc r (uc r ru rmmcz rc kc (3)), r ym wc

12 Cu (1997) r mr cmx cr, wc rmmcz wc rm rc u r mrkr c w r ub-, .. rcu my ru cr , mrv , r rv .

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452 Sv Lur

r r mrc r ycc r. Sc vc r -c rv by PIE r ym, I rur u rcu I-Eur .

5.2. T r PIE w-r ym

T cr kc (3) c ccu r r PIE -mcy-b w-r ym, wc rmmcz rc u r mrv, cc r mrkrr vv. A w kw, rc bw w r -

r PIE, m m, w c by bc r mv ccuv m r (M 1921).A , rm r y ccr mv

ccuv, w m A u, r-r Fur 1.

A r w c by cc r mrkr, brr mr fc r; r w v c byc c , bu by bc r m c m r. Hw rm cm bu? Vry my, bcumrv w m r c mrk w rrr m r m, .. y r y r m-v ccuv r . I, ry PIE c vk rm r mrv, c w r mrvwr u r m (*so) m (*to), r ccr-y.13 Tu, r crm Crb y rym my v r xc w r m-rv, bu vm PIE w ubqu rmmc-

z mrv cry r c r.

I c jcv, rm c umbr rc -r rm. Prvv rm c b x w w-b rcruc bck Brum (1888), wcccv jcv u wc c qu PIE; yccm r u , y r, u rqu

13 Rfx mrv r vr I-Eur u,

.. Skr sa (mcu), s (m) v. tad(ur), r Ac Grkho (mcu

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ccurrc w r u, ur cc cry (M& Vry 1924; Lur 2010 r urr rrc). Tu, r-m r cquc cr c jcv, cr cucy ( urr Fr 1959).

5.3. Arm PIE r-r ym

A uy f ym r rm, vv w rm,r y r PIE, w m w cr, m kycrbu cr r c jcv. Tr vc, cy rm Grk, m u ry k m-cu rm jcv. Hc w cr m rm c b u:

. m mrv *so v m rm ru - ux *-h

2; mcu m w m r-

m r w jcv;b. m rm jcv wr cr y m-

rv, r w ( m u m ) r cjcv.14

T ru rm r ummrz Fur 2. Fw rcruc, c bw m (y vu)

14 Fr c jcv r w -o- c r mcu ur w -- c r m. Tu, -- m vw uc mrkr m r w jcv.

w r: m m (A)

Sur Pur

Am Im Am Im

Nm. -(o)s /-om Cu S () = Pr-PIE urAcc. -(o)m /-om S () = PIE ccv (< brc)

A rc

Sm Nm. -es -h2 > -a

Acc. -(o)ns -h2 > -a

A rc

Sm rm

Figure 1. T I-Eur w-r ym rm

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454 Sv Lur

u m (ry vu) r PIE w c mrk r by wc m u k cc c

, wc mv c, .. cwc cmmy c . T c b k vc rrcruc r y m r PIE, u I curu r: w rv r r w-r ym u m r, wc cu uc , cry rrr wc wr r cur c. I r wr, mcy rrcy c rfc r r currmc.

W r r r, rr w c c-wry u, rv m r rr rck -cur, wc k c quy cur-rv , uc m m um (c 6.1).

6. Gender from above and gender from below

I rc c I ru r ym c r

w cmy r wy. I r c, y my r rm r-r ym m cc, wc bcm cry b-ry, r rr rm, m ky r w mr-v r r ru. I c y rc r rm bv; crb (3), c xc-mc by Fr (1959). I c- c, r c r rm c r c mrk, w- vm wc I c r rm bw. Suc rc rc my cr r mrkr,

PIE w-r ym; crr mrcy r yc-cy mv r ym Fr (1959).

Tr r: PIE r A

Gr I (

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6.1. T uc r

T w r r ym r urr cc wr (rmry) uc. T bc uc cr bv-uy cc: cr my cqur r uc, cucur rv crb Hr (1986); c, rcu cr my w b urc r rmr crb Grbr (1978) Crb (1991), u bcm rm mrkr.I r ym wc r uc wy, rm w uc rmmcz cr; r mrkr r ccry

uc yc cr, rm wc y v.Hwvr, r mr cc vc: w -

Hck (1958: 231): []r r c u rfc bvr c wr. Tu, ur r rm, bu cc cry uc rm.Rr, r rm w NP rv rm wcm b r, w r rm w ru crrrc NP cur. A D (2000: 113) u , mk k r ym ym r cy : x y cry r uc mk r k rck k bw cu. Hc r my b vw bvc r cr c w NP mk m b curc. I rcur, r c ru -

vu rrcy, .. bw m m um, rv -b m r r rr rck cur. T c c rm, .. rm w ru, m rv r r PIE m r.

Fur 1 2 w rm rvv I-Eur, y vv r, bu umbr c. A umbr c rm x br r rm, rm ru cr r. I c ru, I v rc bv,m m wr rrr by w r mrv.A ru by M (1931: 1720), cr x-b cbw mcu m mrv w rm x- ux -*h2 m m mrv: r

wr, u rm w m r. I, m- r w mcu c mrk, cc - r ccuv wc k c rm mv (M

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456 Sv Lur

1931: 19). Tu, mrv w cr rr rr m w r m u, bu rr m um: r-m ruc x-b c.

T w r my v c mjry m u( brc), bu bcm r y w w mv byx. A w v bv, x rmr r rm -mcy rmr, rfc rr x, w mcy rmrrfc vry r rmmc ur, uc vu. I k r mc mv wc my v cu u-x -*h2 b rrr m: ru Lur (2009b),

mrcy mv c ux u w mv m-cy m r ju bcu x rmr r yb mv r r r w r ym uc ry PIE.

Oc m r ruc mcy-b rym, my k r vu c, I-Eur u: u Grm r c vu- wc vv brc u wc m - bw mcu ur (c 3.2). Hwvr, wrrr um b, mcu m rfc r vu. T r bw mcu mrm mrv rr rv m r rrc m m um cur. T c m mrv bu m m mcu, w ur mrv b r m, rfc qu r cur rm-c rr.

Tu, r r r ym u m r

uc: r rv rm cr cc rmryuc, w r r rm r c mrk, PIE, rmry mv by cur, x r cc cry uc. T ur w y u r ymc b ummrz b 2.

able 2. Gr ym r r

Gender from above Gender from below

Numbr r Rvy Mm (w)Ovr r mrkr Awy My b bPrmry uc Cc Rr rck

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6.2. Gr rv

T r m r PIE rcy cc w rv- mry: w v , ux *-h2 w r rv- ux wc rv uc bu brc u (myvrb c u). T ux r bcm m vw cw m r. A , c fc c (..rm -o- -- m, L. amicus amica) r rvuc, kw r m. I m mr I-Eur -u, r my r b rr rv cry. Fr

xm, I r Rmc u, rur -r, uc ragazzo by v. ragazza r, maestro cr(mc) v.maestra cr(m),gatto -c v.gatta -c, (Lur& O 2006: 1617). I uc c, r u uc yc rv, .. rc xc. Hwvr, rv uc r m; m , r my c bw mb rvv, bu r- uc m cc ux ( Lur rcm r uru cu u).

I ry PIE w-r ym, r , k,uc rv vc. A rmrk bv, r w wy m c mrk r, r cquc m u v r mv ccu-v c. I , y wr rrr by c mrvwc w r fc, jcv r juxu, wc rrr qu ycy rc cc ,c y r m fc u

. W m r w cr by vrr mrkr, r cqur uc cr w wr.Tu, uc w cry cqur by PIE r ym.

T uc r vc r rc xc mucmr rm Bu u, u by vr ur.Muw (1980) vw xc rv rmry uc Bur, w r wc rc bck ry rrc Ar-c uc ( urr Kmb 2003: 106). Fr rm b ur

yc Nr-C u, rvc u c rv vc b u rv r u w.Sr (2009) cu m cc Mr. Mr c

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458 Sv Lur

mrkr r r ybr cry, b mr cr vrurc (.. y r c), bu crucy mr r mrk-r rr rm vru r, cu mrv.Accr Sr [] mjr uc Mr c mrkr rmw u m rm br u r r rv u m. T uccu r mjry ccurrc c mrkr k x.(2009: 344).15

6.3. Gr, cr ybr cr

T Mr cc ym m bw cr r. Sr (2009) mr rm rc cu wy rm br y by rvy w crcr-c wr rr umbr mr crcrc, c crr- rmr mum yy. I, -r, cr, r uc y b y rmr, .. rm. I r wr, curr rrc r ym, rm Crb (1991) wr, um Hck qu bv, c 6.1, rrr cry u-c ur r ym.

Hwvr, r m x umbr rv rc bw u c ym Nr-C u mr rym, k r- cy w-r ym PIE, c rm uc mry. Suc rc cr-r w r r w ym, wc r w cm-y r wy, ry rv r uc, yry vr ym cc.

I u cuum rr Fur 3 c b u,wc ccmm r y u cc vc ccr-

15 N wvr cr r wy bcm r mrkr cr-y v rv mrkr ( Akv 2000: 373); Grv & Sr(2004) r cmr Nr-C ym w Mr.

PIE 2-r PIE 3-r Nr-C Mr yc cr

cc +cc+ rrc rck rrc rck

Figure 3. Fuc u cc vc

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x wc y u rmry ccry uc, r uc rrc rck.

7. Summary

I rc I vm PIE r ym rcruc yc rmwrk. I ru -crr bw r r vu my vv r r I-Eur u; vu c,

mr my b c ry, b w y r c-cuz. Dc r vu cx w r,-cr c, my c b x rmr,wc rfc rr rry (x) um b. Rvw -r ym r vc m cc cr u,I w r ym v mr r r -m y c y r x-b, w b xc Nr-C u. O r , cr ym wc u bw m m um r mr rqu.

I xm b r r ym, ru -r ym c r w qu r wy, r rm rmm-cz cr (r rm bv), r rm bm rm w r mr(ycc) bvr ru u (r rm bw). Crucy, -x b r ym wmr w r m by r y rm rmr ym cr. I ru r ym v r rmry uc- r r: w r rm bv rv c-

cry uc r c, r rm bw rmry u uc rv m r rr rck. Fr r, y b x-b, c m m um r quy cur-rm c-wry .

I c, I cmr b rv uc vr-u vc u cc, w rc Nr-C u c ym r w r ym, uc Mr, wc r cr cr r. I rr um

u my , I r c u cc vc, wcr ym rm bw rm bv rk ry, rmry rvc r uc (rr rck v. cc).

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460 Sv Lur

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