gender inclusive talent management practices in
TRANSCRIPT
The Pennsylvania State University
The Graduate School
GENDER INCLUSIVE TALENT MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN
MULTINATIONAL COMPANIES
A Thesis in
Human Resources and Employment Relations
by
Shephali Mahajan
© 2018 Shephali Mahajan
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Science
December 2018
ii
The thesis of Shephali Mahajan was reviewed and approved* by the following:
Elaine Farndale
Associate Professor, Human Resource Management
Thesis Advisor
Antone Aboud
Professor of Practice, Labor and Employment Relations
Hee Man Park
Assistant Professor, Human Resource Management
Paul Clark
School Director and Professor, Labor and Employment Relations
Head of the Department or Chair of the Graduate Program
*Signatures are on file in the Graduate School
iii
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this research was to explore the effect of gender stereotyping and sex-
related discrimination on gender-inclusive talent management practices in multinational
corporations (MNCs) operating in India that impede the growth of the female talent.
Through the questionnaire designed by the researcher and by interviewing twenty-three
female participants working in MNCs operating in India, the effects of gender stereotyping
on managerial roles and career path as well as the effects of sex-related discrimination on
informal networks were explored. Only one proposition was partially supported and other
four were not supported. The results showed that only a few women were exposed to some
kind of stereotypes regarding women managers or women in general, otherwise, most of
the participants agreed that they were equally treated and respected. The women having
responsibilities at home were also supported by their organizations by providing them
access to the talent development programs. New mothers who return from maternity leave
were also treated well and got the required support from their companies. Majority of
women agreed that organizational practices for getting selected for these talent programs
is not gender biased and they received the information about these programs at the same
time. These results indicate that professional Indian women working in MNCs operating
in India are respected and given equal opportunity to grow.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures……………………………………………….……………………….…. v
List of Tables…………………………….…………………………………………. ….. vi
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………….…vii
Chapter 1 Introduction …….……………….……...………………………………….…...1
Chapter 2 Literature Review…………………………………………...….……….………7
Inclusion and Inclusive Talent Management........................................................................7
Female talent in India and the barriers they face......………………………….…….…….9
Chapter 3 Proposition Development…………………………………………….….……15
Chapter 4 Research Methodology……… ……………………………….………. ….….24
Chapter 5 Results………………...……………………………………………………... 27
Discussion…...…………………………………………………………………………. 44
Limitations………………………………………………………………….………....... 50
Future Research…………………………………………………………….......……...... 51
References……………………………………………………………………......………53
Appendix A Semi-Structured Interview Questions……………………………….……. 64
Appendix B Demographics………………………………………………………...…….67
v
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Summary of the literature review and proposition development……………23
Figure 2: Results for proposition 1…………………………………………………….33
Figure 3: Results for proposition 2a & 2b.…………………………………………….37
Figure 4: Results for proposition 3a & 3b….………………………………………….44
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Definitions of Inclusion……………………………………………………….7
Table 2: Demographics of the participants…………………………………………….27
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to take this opportunity to express my heartfelt gratitude to all people who
had made this thesis possible.
First, I would like to thank my thesis advisor Dr. Elaine Farndale, under whose
exceptional guidance I had the privilege to carry out this work. Her constant support and
encouragement are one of the major factors for the completion of this work. Working with
her was the most satisfying experiences for me. I would also like to thank my advisory
committee members, Dr. Antone Aboud and Dr. Hee Man Park for their constant
encouragement and constructive feedback. The quality of this thesis was greatly enhanced
by their valuable suggestion and comments. I am also thankful to Dr. Maria Beamond who
is now teaching at RMIT University in Australia, for her wonderful insights related to my
topic.
I would like to express my gratitude to my family for their continuous support. A very
special word of thanks to my husband, Dr. Sumeet Kumar Gupta for supporting and
inspiring me throughout this journey. I would also like to thank my grandfather Late.
Karam Chand, grandmother Mrs. Preetma Devi, my father-in-law Dr. M.L Gupta, mother-
in-law Mrs. Reeta Gupta, my father Mr. Anup Kumar Mahajan, mother Mrs. Suman
Mahajan and my brother Mr. Aman Mahajan for their constant guidance, support and
encouragement. A special thanks to my brother-in-law Dr. Kartik Syal and sister-in-law
Dr. Geetika Syal for being an inspiration. A sincere thanks to all those who have helped
me during the interview process. This thesis would not have been possible without the
contribution of so many people.
viii
Lastly, I am extremely grateful to the School of Labor and Employment Relations who
made it possible to achieve my dream at Penn State.
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
In recent years, the Indian economy has witnessed an incredible growth. After the
implementation of economic reforms and globalization in the 1990s, India experienced
changes at macro and micro levels (Datt, 2003). These changes witnessed the opening of
various subsidiaries of multinational companies (MNCs) in India. In the sustainability of
these MNCs, emerging economy such as India plays a crucial role (Harvey et al., 2000).
There are several reasons why foreign multinationals want to invest in India. India is known
for its diversity, inclusiveness of its people and suitability of its geography for business. It
is also the fastest growing economy in the world with English-speaking populace base and
robust financial system.
These MNCs created a competitive environment which eventually led to a demand for
the highly qualified workforce (Budhwar & Boyne, 2004). To fulfill the needs of the
current business environment, multinational corporations (MNCs) operating in India are
looking for talented employees (Budhwar & Boyne, 2004). The process has also created
employment opportunities for women in India (Das, 2003). Although women make up
48.5% of the total population (Catalyst, 2015), the representation of women in India,
particularly in the managerial context is quite low. Also, the talent pipeline for women in
India continues to shrink (Catalyst, 2015).
Previous studies show that out of all administrative positions in India, the presence
of women in senior management positions ranges from 3% (Chadha, 2002; Mehra, 2002;
2
Singh, 2003) to 5.8% (Kulkarni, 2002). According to Fortune 500, there are only 10% of
women who are in management positions globally. In India, women are usually seen
working in the human resource (HR), information technology areas and service activities.
A study of forty-two companies in India (Catalyst, 2015) shows that there is a vast gender
gap at each level in the organization and it further widens as women move upward on the
career ladder especially to the management and chief executive level. This hints at a
disconnect between talent management (TM) practices followed by organizations and the
level of gender inclusiveness in these practices. According to Meyers and Woerkom
(2014), TM has various existing definitions (e.g., Blass, 2007; Tarique & Schuler, 2010).
They referred it as appropriate utilization of human resource management activities to
attract, identify, recruit and retain individuals. Further, many organizations find it
challenging to develop and implement the TM practices (Vaiman, Scullion, & Collings,
2012). Due to this, many scholars are looking for the factors that impede the effective
implementation of TM Practices. These factors are the challenges which include a general
shortage of talent especially in global markets like India (Meyers and Woerkom, 2014).
To conduct a successful business, MNCs need effective TM practices in such
economies. Major multinational companies around the world apply different TM practices
to attract and retain their employees. Various research works have explored trends in TM
in countries such as USA, UK, Japan, China and India (Yeung, 2006; Ruppe, 2006; Dunn,
2006; Chugh & Bhatnagar, 2006; Lewis & Heckman, 2006; Branham, 2005; Bennett &
Bell, 2004). However, the conceptual and the empirical knowledge of TM practices with
regards to the inclusion of the diverse workforce, especially women, is limited (Warren
2009; McCartney and & Worman 2010; Dickinson Shepard & Betof 2011). Gender
3
inclusion has become a new buzzword in recent years in the field of human resources
(Khosla R, 2014). This concept provides all employees with equal opportunities so that
they can contribute to their full potential (Khosla R, 2014). Gender inclusion permits access
to a wider pool of talent (Khosla R, 2014) including females. Gender inclusive TM
practices suggest helping female talent to grow in organizations by providing them with
equal opportunities. Gender inclusive TM practices were first discussed in the German
context (Festing et al., 2015), and it needs to be explored further through the lens of
different environments, especially in the Indian context where the number of women is
increasing at various organizational levels in MNCs operating there.
India is a diverse nation and MNCs operating there have a diverse workforce. Other
small and large developed countries have been working on creating diverse and inclusive
workplace through various human resource management (HRM) practices, Indian
organizations do not feel the urge to focus on diversity inclusion (Vohra et al., 2015).
However, this does not mean that the issues of inclusion and exclusion, discrimination, and
stereotypes do not exist in Indian organizations; they appear merely to be ignored.
Nevertheless, organizations are realizing that they cannot ignore the concept of gender
inclusion as it can help them achieve a competitive advantage. Additionally, the traditional
positioning of women in India has hindered the passion of their hard work towards realizing
the benefits of the globalization process (Budhwar et al., 2005). Issues such as gender
stereotypes and sex-related discrimination have influenced the position of Indian women
professionals as seen by their male counterparts (Budhwar et al., 2005).
The term stereotype was first introduced by Walter Lippmann (1922) to represent a
typical picture that first comes to the mind when we think about a social group. These
4
social groups can comprise people of any caste, color or gender. It is a natural tendency to
categorize people according to their membership in certain social groups. Subsequently,
when an individual is under consideration, we attribute these perceived characteristics of
the group to that individual (Basu, 2008). According to Basu (2008), stereotyping is a
pervasive phenomenon that helps in reducing information processing time. However, the
negative aspect of stereotypes also exists as there are widely held inaccurate stereotypes
about individuals. These inaccurate stereotypes tend to generalize people and, in this
process, we miss out on respecting and assessing the individuality of a person under
consideration.
Negative stereotypes play an important role when evaluators try to judge the future
performance rather than evaluating the past performance. Women executives, despite
having an excellent track record, may be subjected to the expectation that they will not
perform as well in organizations as their male counterparts do (Basu, 2008). Many studies
have also explored the impact of gender stereotypes on women in management. In studies
conducted by Heilman et al. (1989) and Broverman et al. (1972), male managers were
asked to describe the style of both male and female managers. The female managers were
described as less confident, less analytical and having poorer leadership qualities than male
managers. Similarly, sex-based discrimination arises due to the skewed distribution of men
and women at the workplace (Kaushik et al., 2014). Due to this distribution, one sex that
dominates a particular profession is highly valued and have better job or talent development
opportunities (Glick, 1991). For example, if men dominate the managerial positions in an
organization, the first image of a successful manager that comes to the mind is that of a
male applicant (Glick, 1991). Thus, the selection of a female applicant for a particular
5
position or particular talent development programs may be affected by the presence of this
sex-based discrimination.
These issues have prevented women from achieving high organizational levels in
MNCs operating in India (Pichler, Simpson & Stroh 2008; Seet, Ahmad & Seet, 2008).
These deep-rooted gendered value systems work at various levels starting from individual
perception and extending to organizational practices (Tatli, Vassilopoulou, & Ozbilgin,
2013). The organizational practices comprise of various talent management practices
including attracting, developing and retaining talented employees (Meyers and Woerkom,
2014). But many organizations are unable to implement these practices effectively due the
gendered thinking, leading to ineffective utilization of talent (Vaiman, Scullion, &
Collings, 2012). One such example is the talented female employees in India, who are not
fully able to explore their potential due to gendered TM practices.
The need to analyze inclusive TM stems from the fact that a lack of gender
inclusiveness could result in an incomplete development of female talent and therefore, a
suboptimal harnessing of companies' talent may arise (Tatli et al., 2013). My research
thesis analyzed gender stereotypes and sex-related discrimination issues in MNCs
operating in India and what impact they have on the TM practices. Based on this my
research question is:
Research Question: How are gender stereotypes and sex-related discrimination affecting
gender inclusivity in TM practices in MNCs operating in India?
This research studies and contributes to the knowledge of gender inclusive TM
practices in MNCs operating in India with the help of key variables such as gender
stereotypes and sex-related discrimination and their impact on TM practices. The thesis
6
consists of various sections including Chapter 1 which introduces the topic of gender
inclusive TM practices in MNCs operating in India. Chapter 2 provides the literature
review of the research thesis. Table 1 in Chapter 2 provides various definitions of inclusion.
Chapter 3 includes proposition development, and Figure 1 gives a summary of the entire
discussion. Chapter 4 focuses on the research design and chapter 5 consists of the results
and discussion. Table 2 describes the demographics of the participants. Figures 2, 3 and 4
depicts the results of propositions 1, 2a, 2b, 3a and 3b. The empirical contribution of this
research thesis is that it will provide a qualitative study of the experiences of female
employees in MNCs operating in India. The research question on how gender stereotypes
and sex-related discrimination are affecting gender inclusivity in TM practices in MNCs
operating in India will also be explored in sections below. This research will contribute to
the theoretical knowledge base in the field of human resources regarding the gender
inclusive talent management practices in which literature is still scant. This thesis also adds
to the body of knowledge for the organizations in India which are looking to recruit more
professional female talent. There are many factors that can help in retaining female talent
in the organizations. Gender Inclusion is a crucial TM practice to achieve this, however, it
may get affected by gender stereotypes and sex-based discrimination.
7
Chapter 2
Literature Review
2.1 Inclusion and Inclusive Talent Management
The literature of inclusion is still in development, and there has been limited acceptance on
the conceptual groundwork of the construct (Shore et al., 2011). Table 1 below provides
various definitions of inclusion by different authors.
Table 1: Definitions of Inclusion
Miller
(1998)
"the extent to which individuals are allowed to participate and are
enabled to contribute fully in a group"
Schein
(1971) "the degree to which an employee is an `insider' in an organization"
O'Hara et
al. (1994) “the degree of acceptance one has by other members of the work system"
Holvino
et al.
(2004)
“equality, justice and full participation at both the group and individual
levels so that members of different groups not only have equal access to
opportunities, decision-making and positions of power, but they are
actively sought out because of their differences". It represented the
fairness perspective.
Roberson
(2006)
In order to achieve fairness perspective, the author said, "the removal of
obstacles to the full participation and contribution of employees in
organizations".
Barak,
Cherin &
Berkman
(1998)
"a continuum of the organizational processes where individuals have
access to information, they feel connected to supervisors and co-workers
and have the ability to participate and influence decision making.” In this
study, the authors argued that women are excluded from the informal
networks and decision making.
8
The major theme in these definitions is belongingness and valuing employees by giving
them equal opportunities. For this research, I focused on inclusion as being defined as the
extent to which women are accepted and empowered in the organization while exploring
the various obstacles they face regarding their full participation (Roberson, 2006). Over
the decades, the term TM has had different meanings reflected in the development of the
field of human resources (HR). In this research, I explored the ‘inclusive approach’ to TM
with respect to gender. This approach considers every employee in the organization as
‘potential talent’ (Iles et al., 2010). It assumes that in an organization, by offering little
guidance or support, every employee can contribute to the firm. It is also called the ‘whole
workforce’ or universalistic approach to TM (Iles et al., 2010). From field psychology, this
approach is based on all positive aspects of life (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). In
brief, this approach allows employees to realize their full potential at work and aims at
capitalizing on an extensive variety of different talents (Meyers, & Van Woerkom, 2014)
especially women.
However, women working in organizations face stereotypes and gender
discrimination which prevent them from inclusion and moving upward in their career
ladder (Eagly & Heilman, 2016). For example, stereotypes based on lack of fit between
women’s characteristics, aspirations and skills are major reasons why women are not seen
in the top management positions (Hoyt & Murphy, 2016). These stereotypes also have
severe consequences on acceptance and participation of women at work (Heilman, 1983)
The most prevalent stereotypes associated with these positions describe that “women
should take care” and “men should take charge” (Dodge, Gilroy & Fenzel, 1995; Heilman,
2001; Hoyt, 2010). Women, in general, are associated with communal qualities that
9
indicates concern for others, whereas men as believed to possess agentic and rational
qualities which emphasize confidence and dominance (Deaux & Kite, 1993; Eagly, Wood,
& Diekman, 2000; Williams & Best, 1990).
But recent increase in the female leaders and contemporary approaches to
leadership have labeled women leadership as interactive, collaborative and employee
empowering (Eagly et al., 2003). Previous studies have also shown that female talent
brings along with them a unique style of leadership, participative decision making and
conflict resolution as they possess the quality of being empathetic and nurturing (Khosla,
2014). Therefore, it can be assumed that female employees are an important part of the
talent pool along with men as they can add different experiences and values to the decision
making.
However, female talent has not been utilized in the Indian context to their full
extent. This can be due to the various barriers (like stereotypes and sex-based
discrimination) to the retention and development of women in organizations. The basic
idea of this research is that talent management will be considered gender inclusive if it
allows the potential of female talent to be fully explored. This idea is in sync with the
discussion that suggests that women can be an important solution to the talent shortages
faced by MNCs operating in India. Based on this idea, I will explore female talent in the
Indian context and potential barriers to inclusive TM practices.
2.2 Female talent in India and the barriers they face
The amplified participation of women in the workforce offers a golden opportunity
for organizations to attract and retain female talent and to fill their talent gaps (Beechler,
10
S. & Woodward, 2009). In emerging economies like India, a substantial number of women
have entered the organizations that were traditionally male-dominated (Elliott, 2007). Also,
the global trend shows that more women are seen in the management positions than ever
before. According to Grant Thornton International business report (2013), women
constitute 35 per cent of the average global workforce. Asia leads with 29 per cent of
women in senior management positions compared to 25 per cent in European Union and
21 per cent in the North American region. Country wise, women in China occupy 51 per
cent of senior management positions, Vietnam has reported 33 percent of female
representation in these positions. While India had 19 percent of women working in
managerial positions. A survey of 70,000 job seekers was conducted by Kelly Services, a
global staffing provider in 2006 (Kaushik, Sharma & Kaushik, 2014; Kelly services, 2006)
in 28 countries including India. Their results showed that gender discrimination is quite
high in India when compared globally where India stood fifth out of 28 countries (ENS
Economic Bureau, 2006).
There is an extensive gender gap in India which is defined by the set of social and
economic indicators such as economic empowerment, education, social and political
trends. Out of 136 countries, India’s gender gap is ranked as 101 (Bekhouch et al., 2013).
The Indian government has also enforced equal opportunity and affirmative action to
abolish discrimination faced by weaker sections of the labor market such as women
(Ratnam & Chandra, 1996). The Indian judiciary has played a crucial role in eliminating
gender-based discrimination at workplaces and ensuring equal employment opportunities
(Ratnam & Chandra, 1996). Nevertheless, although equal opportunity laws are in place,
discrimination remains a pervasive issue in Indian society (Batra, 2007).
11
Despite all the challenges faced by the organization, Indian women are being viewed as
a unique talent that can add value to the organization. The Society for Human Resource
Management (SHRM) (2009) recognized Indian women as an important pool of talent that
was not fully recognized. SHRM (2009) suggested an increment in "female managerial
employment as a force to change the status of women in India." As per Budhwar (2005),
women have an elevated level of commitment, can multi-task, they tend to share power
and seek feedback (Budhwar et al., 2005) from organization. One of the potential ways to
improve gender inclusive TM practices in MNCs operating in India is to increase the
number of women at various level. To do so, these companies may focus on the issues of
gender stereotypes and sex-based discrimination and how they affect TM practices.
Gender Stereotypes and Sex-based discrimination
Before analyzing a range of gender issues faced by Indian women, the below
paragraph intends to familiarize the reader with the definition of ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ and its
relevance in the Indian context. The organizational behavior school of thought considers
the terms ‘sex' and ‘gender' as individual biological characteristics and uses these terms
alternatively (Ely & Padavic 2007). The term sex can be described in terms of biology,
anatomy, hormones and physiology while gender is more concerned with sociocultural
factors (Ahl,2006; West & Zimmerman 1987; Unger, 1979). While sex, "male and female,"
refers to what people are born, gender, on the other hand, gender is concerned to what work
people "do" when they describe the characteristics of male and female (Bruni, Gherardi &
Poggio, 2004). To further analyze the concept of ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ in the Indian context,
12
it is important to examine the historical, socio-cultural and economic factors related to
women in India.
Historically, women in Indian society did not enjoy equal status to men; these roots
of female suppression can be traced in ancient times where males were considered as
breadwinners and female were restricted to household chores and family care (Budhwar et
al., 2005). Regarding female subordination, the great Hindu writer Manu in 200 BC said,
‘be a young girl, be a young woman, or even be an aged one, nothing must be done
independently even in her house’ (Natarajan, 2001, Budhwar et al., 2005). This philosophy
still prevails in most of the Indian families and girls are raised in a culture where it is
presumed that their duties and capabilities are different from boys (Budhwar et al., 2005).
Women acquire these cultural and traditional inhibitions from their childhood and society
plays a significant role in reinforcing them They are socialized to be submissive and this
patriarchal attitude has resulted in a sparse number of women in employment (Budhwar et
al., 2005).
These attitudes towards women’s role in society have also resulted in gender
stereotypes and sex-based discrimination in the Indian society (Budhwar et al., 2005;
Kaushik et al., 2014). These issues are passed through generations and are associated with
the cultural and institutional context of the country. These gender stereotypes can result in
bias and inaccurate valuation of a person under consideration (Koch et al., 2015). For
example, Indian women are stereotyped to work in ‘soft field' such as human resource,
public relation, fashion and clothing (Budhwar et al., 2005).
The effect of gender stereotypes can be analyzed through women who are faced with
the challenge of interrupted career pathways. Many women in India have child rearing and
13
parental responsibilities. The study conducted by Buddhapriya (2009) in India showed that
due to the influence of the patriarchal value system, women with children and parental
responsibilities tend to restrict their career aspirations. Due to high family involvement and
devoting less time to their jobs, the career prospects of these women seem to be negatively
affected. Many organizations tend to stereotype these women and believe that their primary
role is of the caretaker of the family and therefore they might not be able to concentrate on
their jobs fully. Due to this belief, the organizations may not give them more
responsibilities and opportunities to develop their talent.
Another reason for employment bias in India is due to sex-based discrimination arising
from the disproportionate distribution of male and female in various occupation and
activities in the organizations (Koch et al., 2015). It has been only three decades since
Indian women have started entering all types of occupation and branched out to diversified
professions which were earlier considered in the male domain (Budhwar et al., 2005). The
presence of a male in most of the managerial positions in India is considered to be a great
hurdle for the career progression of women as their work is not acknowledged and thus it
is difficult to achieve higher managerial positions (Khandelwal, 2002).
Sex-based discrimination can also lead to the exclusion of women from informal
networks (Budhwar et al., 2005). These informal network forums are a great way to
enhance a career. Budhwar et al. (2005) found that in India these informal networks are
seen as in the male domain due to the greater number of men working in organizations.
The exclusion of women from these networks due to cultural and personal inhibitions may
prevent them from developing their talent.
14
Based on this discussion, I will analyze how gender stereotypes and sex-related
discrimination are affecting gender inclusivity in TM practices in MNCs operating in India.
It includes: (i) gender stereotypes in TM practices and managerial positions, (ii) gender
stereotypes in TM practices and interrupted career paths (iii) sex-related discrimination of
TM practices and access to informal networks. The next chapter focuses on the
development of the propositions.
15
Chapter 3
Proposition Development
3.1 Gender stereotypes in TM practices and managerial positions
The collection of beliefs about the apparent qualities of men and women are defined
as gender stereotypes (Kaushik et al., 2014). These beliefs are prevalent, widely shared and
are resistant to change (Heilman, 2001; Dodge, Gilroy & Fenzel, 1995; Leuptow, Garovich,
& Leuptow, 1995). Kaushik et al. (2014) found that according to these traditional role
stereotypes there are different appropriate roles for men and women in society. These
stereotypes portray men to be the breadwinners, strong, security providers, entrepreneurs
and responsible, whereas women roles are homemakers, family caretakers, and emotional
persons (Kaushik et al., 2014). It is evident that the society uses these stereotypes all the
time and due to this, women are perceived as having a lower status than men. At the
workplace, these stereotypes affect the advancement and development of the women.
Historically, there is a difference between seeing a woman at work compared to their
male counterparts. The men are attributed to have ‘agentic’ qualities and believed to have
achievement-oriented traits (Heilman, 2001). They are thought to have characteristics such
as being aggressive, forceful, independent and decisive (Heilman, 2001). On the other
hand, women are attributed to have ‘communal’ qualities and believed to have service-
oriented traits such as being helpful, sympathetic and concerned about others (Heilman,
2001).
16
These traditional beliefs about men and women are predominant in work settings as
well as non-work settings (Heilman, 2001). The study conducted by Heilman, Block and,
Martell (1995) on managers from various industries, revealed that in general women
managers are competent, potent and active compared to men. But the jobs that require
traveling, overnight shift or to be a tough supervisor are believed not to be meant for
women (Kaushik et al., 2014). Previous studies have shown that the way women handle
the senior managerial roles is different from men (Kaushik et al., 2014). It is suggested that
women perceive and address business requirement differently than men (Brush, 1991).
They have shown that there are significant differences in skills, business goals,
management styles and business characteristics of men and women (Kaushik et al., 2014).
The image of an ideal manager is related to more masculine stereotypes such as
assertiveness and competitiveness rather being caring or nurturing (Festing et al., 2015).
This thinking is prevalent in today's organizations (Koenig et al., 2011).
A study conducted by Gupta, Koshal & Koshal (1998) found that Indian men feel
comfortable in managing and administrating women rather being juniors to them. Haynes
&Ghosh (2012) in their research found that Indian male traditional beliefs are spread
throughout their personal and professional lives. They fail to accept women in leadership
roles at work as they have not ever seen their mothers, wives and daughters leading them
in their families. These predisposed cultural beliefs in Indian males have made them think
that women have inferior business skills. They perceive that women understanding human
relationships and having caring nature is a sign of weakness instead of strength in making
the business decision. They believe that Indian women in any organization have let go of
17
their feminine traits and adapt masculine traits to be successful in the leadership position
(Gupta et al., 1998). A similar study conducted by Gulhati (1990) confirmed that men
believed that women are not qualified to hold senior managerial positions. It is quite
evident that patriarchal Indian society has an influence on the definition of an ideal manager
in any organization (Gulhati, 1990). The qualities of an ideal manager are perceived to be
of a man that is, firm, ambitious and aggressive and women are expected to take submissive
roles to him (Gulhati, 1990). In India, where mostly men dominate the senior leadership
and managerial positions, the prevalent male thinking in organizations is loaded with
stereotypes about women in managerial roles (Bagati & Carter, 2010).
A study conducted by Khandelwal (2002) in India, with a sample of 230 respondents
working in the field of marketing, sales and production, considered men as good leaders
and decision-makers with the ability to do ‘hard’ fieldwork and challenging assignments.
On the other hand, female managers were stereotyped and were not given challenging
assignments or risk-taking jobs during the allocation of jobs (Budhwar et al., 2005).
According to the response by female respondents, these above-mentioned beliefs were due
to various prejudices and stereotypes which impeded the growth of female talent in the
organization (Khandelwal,2002). The definition of manager in the organizations is
associated with masculine traits (Shrank and Kanter 1994). This is also called as ‘male-
manager’ syndrome (Chugh & Sahgal, 2007) ‘Think Manager-Think Male’ phenomena
(Schein 1973, 1993, 2007). My analysis of gender stereotypes in TM in the Indian context
is based on this notion and considers that stereotyping of management positions and
18
considering it to be a male domain is a major obstacle for the talented women who are
qualified and skilled for these positions. Based on this, I propose:
Proposition 1- Managerial positions are gender-stereotyped in favor of men in MNCs in
India.
3.2 Gender stereotypes in TM practices and interrupted career path
Another important reason that inhibits women’s rise to a top management position in
India is the interrupted career path for the women who have children and parental
responsibilities (Buddhapriya, 2009). There is a vast amount of existing literature that
suggests that these responsibilities inhibit women’s career progression as they can devote
less time to their jobs (Buddhapriya, 2009). Also, traditional role stereotypes suggest that
women are portrayed as homemakers, and family caretakers (Kaushik et al., 2014). In
certain cases, these women want to invest more time in their career progression, but high
involvement in family affairs can have a negative impact on their career prospects. Many
organizations in India tend to stereotype these women (Buddhapriya, 2009). The
organizations assume that women, especially with children and parental responsibility,
should primarily play a role of caretaker of their family (Rosen & Jerdee, 1973; Schwartz,
1989). Due to this stereotyping, these companies exclude or invest less in capacity-building
activities of this female talent through talent development or learning programs, which can
reduce their chances of gaining managerial positions in organizations (Buddhapriya, 2009).
According to SHRM BOCK (2014), talent development and learning programs play a
significant role in enhancing the competencies of the employees and thus leading to the
advancement of their goals. Based on this thought, I propose:
19
Proposition 2a- Women in MNCs in India who have interrupted career paths or family
responsibilities have very limited access to talent development programs.
The gendered-distribution of work and family roles in emerging economies like India
also affects the inclusion of women who return from their maternity leave. According to
Bharathi and Baral (2014), maternity leave is seen as a form of interrupted career path and
women in India despite having various job opportunities find it difficult to regain their
career momentum. This is because they face various demands at home and workplace.
Further, formal and informal support from the organization helps to retain talented women
employees in the organization and create an inclusive environment for the women returning
from their maternity leave. This social support is referred to as the protection of individuals
from the effects of stress with the help of interpersonal relationships and social interaction
(Kessler, Price, & Wortman, 1985; Nielson, Carlson, & Lankau, 2001). For the well-being
and good health of any individual, social support is an important asset (Aycan and Eskin,
2005). It is also perceived that availability and receiving of social support is related to
higher job satisfaction, lower job-related stress, thereby reducing the probability of an
employee to quit the organization (Bedeian, Mossholder, & Touliatos, 1986). Many
organizations offer their social support to these women who return from maternity leave in
the form of schemes and policies such as flexible working hours, equal opportunities,
childcare provision, career breaks, the option to work from home and mentoring. Alimo &
Metcalfe (1993) in their research showed positive effects of these policies for organizations
who implemented them. These family-friendly policies when implemented effectively for
new mothers, have shown results in an increment of their population in any organization
20
(Bharathi & Baral, 2014). In the absence of these policies, women who return from
maternity leave, may face various problems in their career growth. Based on this, I propose:
Proposition 2b- Women in MNCs in India who return from maternity leave do not get
support from their organization.
3.3 Sex Related Discrimination in TM and access to the informal network
When an employee or an applicant is treated in a different way because of
characteristics that are not related to their merit and job requirements, it means there is a
discrimination in employment (Kaushik et al., 2014). These characteristics comprise of
race, color, sex, religion and political opinion (Kaushik et al., 2014). Discrimination based
on these characteristics is in violation of human rights that can lead to the waste of human
talents with a damaging effect on economy and efficiency (Kaushik et al., 2014). Many
studies have shown that one of the reasons behind sex-based discrimination is due to a
disproportionate number of men and women in a different level of organizations (Koch et
al., 2015). An economic survey conducted by the government of India in 2003 showed that
the female-male ratio was 0.319 or there were 319 women per one thousand males working
in the private sector including MNCs. This figure represents the true picture of sex-related
discrimination prevalent in the society (Kaushik et al., 2014).
Gender discrimination may also include visible biases such as being alienated from
an informal network of communication (Catalyst, 1996, 2001b, 2004). By keeping female
talent out of the informal network, hinders them to become the central players within the
firms (Welle & Heilman, 2007). Since their input may be considered less valuable, it is
likely that they are being omitted from key discussions (Welle & Heilman, 2007). They are
21
left out when there is critical information sharing about talent development programs. If
organizational TM practices are gendered, women encounter more difficulty in forming a
social network at work than men do (Welle & Heilman, 2007). Only a very few women are
able to reap the benefits from the relationships they form at work as they may find it more
difficult to establish a relationship with male colleagues than men do (Ragins & Cotton,
1991).
TM practices play a key role in providing an inclusive work environment for women
by providing them access to informal networks. But the presence of sex-related
discrimination prevents them from doing so (Festing et al., 2015). Recent works suggest
that access to informal networks can influence the career trajectories by regulating access
to jobs (Ely et al., 2011), opening avenues for the flow of information and referrals, provide
emotional support, feedback and political advice which further increase the chances of
promotion (Burt 2004; Granovetter, 1985; Higgins & Kram, 2001; Ibarra, 1993; Podolny
& Baron, 1997; Westphal & Milton, 2000). These talent development programs such as
external conferences and workshop events, internal knowledge sharing events and in-house
development programs are great platforms to build informal networks (Festing et al., 2015;
CIPD 2010) and to open gateways to leadership opportunities (Ely et al., 2011). In India,
these networks are considered as male domains and virtual exclusion of female talent
prevents them from developing the necessary acumen to handle organizational politics
(Budhwar et al., 2015). These practices are prevalent in Indian society (Budhwar et al.,
2015) and they increase the chances of sex-related discrimination risk. Based on this
thought, I propose:
22
Proposition 3a- Women in MNCs in India perceive that their access to informal networks
in organizations is more limited for women than for men.
Furthermore, information and knowledge about talent development programs can
increase the chances of identifying talent (Festing et al., 2015). The exclusion of female
talent from informal networks (Budhwar et al., 2005) and a lack of information about the
selection process, however, suggest the prevalence of sex-related discrimination. Based on
this, it is proposed that:
Proposition 3b- Women in MNCs in India believe that a lack of access to informal networks
in organizations reduces the opportunities for women to gain access to talent development
programs.
Figure 1 provides a summary of the above discussion. In summary, extant literature
suggests that gender stereotypes and sex-related discrimination, whether they are real or
perceived, exist in Indian society and organizations. It is proposed that they contribute to
reducing opportunities for women in the organization because the TM practices are not
gender-inclusive.
23
Figure 1 Summary of the literature review and proposition development
24
Chapter 4
Research Methodology
The aim of this study was to explore gender inclusive TM in the Indian context. This
study was qualitative and used in-depth semi-structured interviews. Since there was limited
literature available on gender inclusiveness in TM practices, especially in the Indian
context, a qualitative approach was selected. This technique was appropriate as it helped
in investigating unstudied population. The descriptive and the exploratory nature of this
approach helped to understand the experiences of female participants in Indian corporate
environment (Liamputtong & Ezzy, 2009). The research was conducted by combining the
conceptual knowledge from the various literature streams (TM, gender, and inclusion) and
applying these to the Indian context. The data collection was done by interviewing women
working in multinational companies operating in India. The objective of this research was
to gain insight into how employees inside these companies perceive the idea of gender
inclusive TM practices. The qualitative nature of this study helped to analyze the individual
experiences of talent in the Indian context with special focus on gender inclusiveness. The
following paragraphs include the data collection, interview instrument and sampling and
analysis of the collected data.
Data collection
Data collection for this study used semi-structured interviews. This method helped to
understand the different perceptions of women working in MNCs operating in India.
25
Secondly, these interviews helped to confirm information regarding the effects of gender
stereotypes and sex-based discrimination on gender inclusivity in TM practices in MNCs
operating in India. The sample consisted of a mix of female participants working in
managerial and non-managerial positions in the respective companies. The male
participants were excluded in order to focus on female perspectives on the points in
question. The objective is not to compare male and female participants but to understand
women’s experiences in these organizations. A total of twenty-three women were
interviewed for this research.
Interview instrument and data sampling
The interview instruments used for the data collection are specifically developed for
this research and are based on the literature review (see Appendix A). The interview
questions were divided into four parts: 1) demographics, 2) Gender stereotypes in TM
practices and managerial roles, 3) Gender stereotypes in TM practices and interrupted
career path, and 4) Sex-related discrimination in TM and access to the informal network.
These questions also reflect the research question and its aim. The snowballing sampling
technique was used to secure and locate the interviewees. Female participants from 11
multinational companies operating in India were interviewed. The companies in which
these participants worked were service firms, telecommunication and software providers,
global management consultants, financial service providers, research and advisory, health
care providers, distributors of information technology (IT) products, oil company, IT
security providers and IT products manufacturers. The selection of the interviewees was
based on personal and professional contacts. The announcement for semi-structured
26
interviews was made with emails, phone calls, and Skype calls. The interviewees were
asked the same set of questions.
After receiving ethical clearance from Institutional Review Board (IRB), telephonic
interviews were conducted. Each interview was conducted at one point in time over the
course of one week. The length of the interviews ranged from 15 minutes to 35 minutes.
All the interviews were recorded and transcribed. To ensure anonymity and confidentiality
of the participants, upon completion of the interview, each participant was given an
alphanumeric code.
Analysis Methods
Interviews were recorded with the help of speech dictation device with the permission
of the interviewees. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed with the help of
qualitative analysis software Nvivo 12 Pro. Interviews were transcribed manually. Since
the interviews were based in India, a translator was used to avoid any error or if the
interviewee did not understand the question in English or answers in another language. The
translator was used in only one case for this research.
Further, common themes were identified and analyzed separately. The propositions
were explored for agreements and each proposition was either supported, partially
supported or not supported. For supporting a proposition, all twenty-three participants
agreed to the statement. For partially supporting the statement, the minority of the sample
agreed to the statement. Lastly, for not supporting the statement, zero agreement was found
among the sample.
27
Chapter 5
Results
The data collection was done with the help of semi-structured interviews which are
largely open-ended questions. The interviews were conducted with twenty-three female
employees working in MNCs operating in India. None of the interviews were discarded.
Table 2 shows their demographics. Appendix B gives further information on their years
of experience and field in which they work. The age of the participants ranged from 20
years to 50 years. All the women were well educated. Fifteen out of twenty-three women
had a master’s degree such as MBA or master’s in engineering. Eight women were
bachelor’s in engineering and three were master’s in engineering. Most of the women did
not have parental or children responsibility (N=17). Ten out of twenty-three women had
managerial experience working from mid-level to the senior level positions in the
organization.
Table 2: Demographics of the participants
Number of participants=N=23
Age Range
20-25-N=4
25-30-N=9
30-35-N=5
35-40-N=2
40-45-N=3
Managerial Experience Yes- 10 No-13
Women with parents or Children Yes-6 No-17
Women with a bachelor’s degree 8
Women with a master’s degree 15
28
Research Question: How are gender stereotypes and sex-related discrimination affecting
gender inclusivity in TM practices in MNCs operating in India? This is one major research
question provided in the introduction of this thesis. This question further helped to explore
the perception and experiences of these working women who were interviewed with the
help of propositions followed by a thorough and analysis of the collection of responses.
The results are as follows:
Gender stereotypes in TM practices and managerial positions
The first set of questions analyzes the gender stereotypes in TM practices and
managerial roles.
Proposition 1 posited that the managerial positions in MNCs operating in India are gender-
stereotyped in favor of men. Each interviewee was asked about the characteristics and
abilities that their employer looks for in the managerial positions. Most of the women
answered that their company was looking for leadership qualities (N=20) and people
management skills. One of the women stated, “The company looks for the manager who is
a decision maker, can manage conflicts and is flexible. The expectations are the same for
male and female managers” (female talent,21). Eight women mentioned work experience
and approachability as an important skill to be a manager in the company. Regarding this
one participant stated,
“the prerequisite will be the number of years in the company plus the
current band level experience. We have a different type of band level in
which an employee has worked for a certain period. We also have to give
interviews to the Human resource department in which they give different
29
scenarios of employee issues. You need to have the knowledge of the
company's policy and understand employee needs” (female talent, 18).
Another woman stated that,
“A manager should be a person who is approachable. The person should
be quick in resolving issues or problems and is able to work with different
kinds of people. He/she should be able to handle clients in adverse
situations” (female talent, 2).
Six out of twenty-three women stated that communication skills were necessary for being
a manager. Seven women said that the knowledge of process or domain knowledge was
important skills that an employer looked for. Participants also expressed their expectation
from leaders in senior management positions, for how they perceived their leaders in senior
management positions. Fifteen out of twenty-three of the participants agreed that their
leader or manager should have the domain knowledge or the technical knowledge as well
as people management skills and the ability to work in teams. Twelve out of twenty-three
female participants also said that their ideal manager should be a good mentor. All the
qualities desired by their employer and expected by the interviewees did not indicate any
specific demand for masculine-trait leaders. In other words, as per these women, the
managerial qualities or competencies demanded by their employer were non-gender
specific.
The responses also analyzed the perception of women managers in their workplace.
Seventeen of twenty-three women agreed that women managers were treated equally and
respected as men. Four participants from this group of eighteen also said that they had
women managers or women leadership teams. One of the participants happily stated that,
30
“Fortunately, I am part of the women leadership initiative in my firm. We
as a group are trying to have more leaders in the company. To do so, we
are helping every woman to feel good about themselves and make sure that
they have the right infrastructure and the support from the company to
become future leaders. Women are perceived well in the company and
company supports more women being a part of the leadership” (female
talent 13).
The remaining five of those twenty-three agreed that women managers were not
considered equal in terms of salary, traveling and competence. One of them from these
five participants said, “The women managers are not treated as equally as men. People
think that a female manager cannot give more working hours to the required senior
management post compared to their male counterparts” (female talent, 16). Amongst
these five women, three women were from the same company. This company is the
distributor of IT products in India. These three women were working in purchasing and
sales department. Other two female respondents from this group of five said that there is
a disparity in terms of income and promotion. According to them, male managers had a
slightly higher income compared to women, and for promotions, males are preferred first.
Only one female said that women managers are bossy and dominating as there is a
smaller number of female managers in the Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) industry
she works in. In her view, women managers are supposed to behave like their male
counterparts. She also mentioned that in her team, topmost leaders are women and gender
balance is maintained (female talent, 9)
31
Eleven out of twenty-three women were exposed to some type of stereotypes
regarding women managers and women in general, which partially supports Proposition 1.
Out of this, ten women said that they had seen or heard negative stereotypes about women
managers. One participant who was a manager herself mentioned that “There are many
stereotypes and salary inequity in all the positions” (female talent, 9). Additional female
interviewees said that there were stereotypes about female manager mood swings and their
monthly cycles and they are not competent (female talent,4). Three participants, out of
which two were senior managers from the same company, claimed that there were
stereotypes that women cannot travel or work late night. One woman also commented that
women were stereotyped for coming to and leaving the office at a fixed time. There was
one female participant who said that women in her company are aggressive. She also stated,
“The stereotype is that women managers are considered not to be
hardworking as compared to men managers and they don't have time as
they have a lot do apart from work and they are not as approachable as
men. If women managers are strict, they are being bad-mouthed more than
male managers” (female talent,13).
On the similar note, another woman said,
“My perception is that in certain instances for senior management
positions, women are asked to adapt the manly qualities. She is asked to be
rude, authoritative and unfriendly to the people. On the contrary, if there is
a male manager who is friendly to the people, it is completely fine for them
32
to act or behave as they want. But for females, there are some restrictions."
(female talent,3).
There was one female who provided a sympathetic response regarding perception of
women in senior positions in her company. According to her, they have a little more
responsibility in terms of their work at office and home. Rest of eleven the participants said
that they did not see and hear any stereotypes regarding women in senior management
positions.
When the participants were asked about the stereotypes that women face regarding
their capabilities at the time of promotion in Indian corporate environment, eighteen
women said that they had not faced this issue. Most of the females agreed that it was based
on performance and men and women were given equal opportunities. Remaining five
females had a different opinion. According to them, women are stereotyped when it comes
to promotions or advancement opportunities. One of them stated,
“During promotions, preference is given to male colleagues in my current
company. In sales and marketing departments, preference is given to male
employees during hiring and promotion. They ask if a woman will be able
to handle the senior position. It is a general stereotype there. The sales and
marketing department is more male-dominated. Otherwise in, HR, IT and
Legal departments, their head is female. Accounting, sales and marketing
departments consider males to be better leaders” (female talent, 11).
Hence, Proposition 1 was supported partially after reviewing the responses of these
participants. Figure 2 below represents the summary of results for Proposition 1. It shows
33
whether the participants agreed, not agreed or had mixed reviews about their equal
treatment, stereotypes for women managers and stereotypes regarding capabilities.
Gender stereotypes in TM practices and interrupted career path
The proposition 2a expected that working women who had family responsibilities
would have limited access to the talent development programs that their company sponsors.
Six out of twenty-three women had children or parental responsibilities. Firstly, all the
participants agreed that they had talent development programs in their company. One
female said that in her previous organization, which was also an MNC in India had many
talent development programs. According to her, they also had women network
development programs which helped women to grow in the organization (female talent,7).
Most of the people said there was some mandatory training for skill building for growth in
the company. Everybody also agreed that these programs were essential for the career
growth except one interviewee. In her company, projects are essential for career
Figure 2: Results for proposition 1
34
development (female talent, 23). For the response regarding whether their boss refuses or
is skeptical to send them for training as these participants have too many responsibilities at
home and at work, twenty-two of them responded in the negative. In fact, five of them said
that their boss or managers asked them before sending them to any training. Only one
female participant said,
“There is no restriction like that in terms of training but for project
allocation there are biases. But I have observed that for some projects that
require traveling, some senior managers assume that I cannot travel being
a woman" (female talent, 23).
This was the only outlier in this case. Hence, Proposition 2a was not supported.
Proposition 2b stated that women who return from maternity leave, do not receive
the required support from their organization. Participants were asked how inclusive their
organization is when it comes to women who had returned from the maternity leave. Out
of twenty-three women, sixteen said that females who return from the maternity leave are
treated well, although they have to make up for the lost time by putting in the extra effort
by relearning or getting retrained on the processes they used to work on. Otherwise, there
is no reduction in their salary, and it does not affect their career growth. One of them said,
"The women who return from maternity leave are also treated equally and
they have to put in the same amount of effort as men do. The company
expects you to work equally. There is no change in their pay or performance
rating once they return from the leave” (female talent, 14).
Another female added,
35
“In my organization, the female employees are treated pretty well. There
are two programs dedicated to the special needs of women employees. I
believe that females have more personal and professional responsibilities.
These programs offer them flexibility and ensure that their issues are heard.
For example, women employees who come back from maternity leave and
who are newly married may have the option of work from home or
relocation so that they do not leave the company. These programs are
offered so that the company has a good male to female ratio. The company
right now has a good male to female ratio and it is also encouraged to have
more women in the organization. I never felt that I am less capable than
men employees or that I was not offered the opportunity to grow. Regarding,
women who return from the maternity leave, I have not heard any case of
pay reduction or yearly evaluation being affected by this. (female talent,
21).
One participant who herself experienced this kind of situation said,
“We get fair opportunities as women in my company. I had an equal chance
and there was no gender discrimination. Regarding maternity leave, the
company is very supportive of pregnant women and who return from
maternity leave. I had the flexibility to work from home in this situation.
These women are made comfortable and the company provides facilities
like medical rooms for them to take rest. There is no discrimination towards
them and the company is really sympathetic towards them. In my case also,
the performance is not affected by this maternity leave and I was reinstated
36
on the same position after returning. There was no disparity in term of pay
scale or promotion” (female talent, 2).
Four participants did not face any situation themselves related to women returning
from maternity leave. Three others believed that these women are not treated equally as
compared to men. One participant complained,
“I have not gone through this situation. But if a women colleague who gets
married, has children and takes a break, it hampers her career. These
women have to struggle hard to reach an upper level. These responsibilities
may impede the growth of career-oriented women” (Female talent, 12).
She also admitted that many women set priorities for themselves and her company makes
sure that all male and female colleagues get equal opportunities. According to her,
“Some women may prefer to spend their time with their family and they
may understand that this may affect their career growth. In my firm, the
average age is between 25-27 and many women are not married, and, in my
view, everyone is treated equally.” (Female talent, 12).
Another female participant added to this thought that a company tries to encourage
these women, but it is some people who create problems for them. She said,
“For women who return from maternity leave, the company encourages
them but people in the company may form an opinion regarding them. I
would also like to add that such opinions for male managers who go on
paternity leave are also formed as they may not be able to give more
working hours” (female talent, 23).
37
Overall females agreed that women who return from maternity leave get the required
support from their company. Additionally, majority women in this sample did not have any
child or parental responsibilities. Hence, proposition 2b was not supported. Figure 3 shows
the results for propositions 2a and 2b. The figure depicts whether the female participants
agreed, not agreed or were not aware of approval for trainings/talent development programs
and support after maternity leave from their respective organizations.
Sex-related Discrimination in TM and access to the informal network
Proposition 3a theorized that women in India perceive that their access to the informal
network is more limited to them as compared to men in their company. When they were
asked about how they receive the information about the talent development programs, eight
of them said that they receive emails from their talent development team or they have an
Figure 3: Results for proposition 2a & 2b
38
online portal or intranet on which such information is posted. Nine of them said that they
also receive emails from their HR team. Among them, one of them stated,
“The information is trickled down through emails by the higher
management. If there are limited seats for a particular program, the
company asks for volunteers and asks the employees to sign up for these
programs. If there are too many volunteers, the managers check for
employee’s application and employee’s role. The best application sent for
these training programs and senior persons are given preference first”
(female talent, 21).
Another participant said that they have talent development projects and consulting projects
that help them to climb up the career ladder. According to her,
“The information for talent development projects is sent by the HR
department through emails. The consulting projects are decided by the
business leaders like a senior manager” (female talent, 23). Another female
added to this discussion, “The information for talent development is sent
through emails. Any person interested can nominate himself/ herself for the
training. If there are high-level programs, then the person is evaluated on
the basis of performance, interviews and test as lots of money is spent on
these high-level training. Irrespective of gender, the person needs to clear
the test for these training. There are equal opportunities for male and
female employees” (female talent, 2).
The participants were also asked if they have to make any special efforts to get
selected in these talent development programs. Twenty out of twenty-three mentioned that
39
they did not have to make any special efforts to get selected in these programs. One
participant very excitedly said, “If you are talented enough, the company always reach
you” (female talent, 10). But another woman mentioned that although she did not have to
make any special effort to get selected into these programs, males who have good networks
may have an edge over the others. She stated,
"The information about these programs is available to all at the same time.
There are e-learning programs and for other programs, the information is
available through transparent channels like emails. Also, an employee can
reach out to the senior managers if they want to undergo special training
essential to their work. Also, the company looks at this selection in a
unbiased fashion in terms of gender and sees it in terms of ROI (return on
investment). But sometimes male employees may get the information about
these programs over a smoke break or during informal networking from
there senior male managers. Sometimes, male employees share a close bond
with their senior male managers due to this informal networking as
compared to women. This may be a little disadvantageous for women who
are not part of this informal networking and may lead to biases in terms of
promotion” (female talent,21).
On the same line, another participant added to it that a male colleague of her company
was sent to do a project in a location outside the country (female talent, 23). It was the
same participant who had mentioned that projects are important for their career
development in an earlier section. According to her, both the employees were equally
capable of handling the project. The third participant who agreed to the fact that they have
40
to make special efforts to get selected, said, “…it was the part of the job” (female
participant, 2). Participants were also asked if the selection process is competitive. All of
them said no except female talent 21. According to her, everybody can volunteer for some
training, but if there are more people or volunteers, the selection is based on performance.
Therefore, the proposition 3a is not supported.
Proposition 3b was along similar lines. It postulated that women in MNCs in India
believe the lack of access to an informal network in their organization reduces their chances
to get access to these talent development programs. To explore this, participants were asked
whether they receive the information about these talent programs at the same time as the
male counterparts do. Twenty-one out of twenty-three said that everybody gets the
information at the same time. One of them said, “All the colleagues whether male or female
receive the information at the same time. The company is very professional about it and
never leaks information about these programs” (female talent 12). Most of them said that
male and female employees get equal opportunity to get selected as they receive the
information at the same time. One interesting point was made by female talent 18. She said,
“All the employees receive information equally about these training from
the company's intranet site at the same time. Additionally, training
regarding emerging technology is circulated to everyone and we have to
enroll and finish the training online by ourselves, or we can take classroom
training as well" (female tale, 18).
Another participant stated that in their company one could approach their manager and
ask them about the upcoming training (female talent, 10). But another participant from the
same company said that everybody does not receive the information about these talent
41
development programs at the same time (female talent, 22). She also said “For every grade
or level there are different types of training programs. Sometimes it depends on bosses
regarding nomination for these training. You can always ask them if you want to go for
any training” (female talent, 22). The second participant who disagreed on getting the
information at the same time said,
“We get the information about these programs through emails and through
other teams and colleagues in the company. Sometimes male colleagues go
for informal networking like a smoke break or tea break with managers, due
to which their chances of getting promoted to a senior level increases
(female talent,5).
These female participants were also asked whether informal networking further helps
in getting selected in these programs. Sixteen participants agreed to this fact that informal
networking helps in getting selected in these programs and building further contacts. Only
seven females denied that informal networking does not help in the selection and relation
building. A female participant who added in favor of this argument said, "The informal
networking helps you get recognized, but it's the work that helps you to grow in the
organization. The informal networks create a perception about you in the leader’s mind,
but ultimately it’s the work that has to speak for you “(female talent,13). One female
participant enthusiastically said,
“It is not part of the job. But the more you interact with your seniors, the
more they get to know about your interests. During work hours, you only
discuss work-related problems and there is no time to discuss your career
plan. Informal networking accelerates your chances of being selected. If
42
you build rapport with your manager, you may also receive the first-hand
information regarding upcoming projects even before you receive the
emails. The manager can recommend or consider you for this kind of
projects or can guide you for it. Informal networking is an added advantage
which you can do it over your coffee break but not a requisite and it is not
based on gender. It helps both males and females” (female talent,2).
Another female participant said, “Informal networking does not help in the selection. It is
based on performance” (female talent 19).
Female participants were also asked a whether women in their organization get
equal chance to be recognized as a talent. Twenty-one women agreed to this. One
participant said, “In my organization, women get equal chance to be recognized as talent.
My organization promotes fair work culture and diversity” (female talent,2). Another
female also said, “I am from a human capital domain and women are much more
in number than men in this kind of roles. Therefore, I haven’t faced any real challenge in
this area” (female talent,9). Only one female had a negative review with regard to an equal
chance. She said,
“In my experience, for many projects, my male colleagues were chosen over
me. Time and again, it has happened with me that for good business
development projects, my male colleagues were chosen. In my view, there
are gender biases present in the company in terms of project allocation. The
reason for these gender biases is that it is perceived that women cannot
travel. For married women, it is believed that they may not be able to give
that much time or she might go on a break. In some cases, if there is a new
43
training opportunity, the company is always ready to invest on a male
employee rather than a female employee. The senior managers
automatically assume these factors and many times they give projects to
male employees” (female talent, 23).
Another woman had mixed reviews about this. According to her,
“I feel that there are two parts to it. One is recognition and other is
remuneration. The boss can say that this female employee is really doing
well and recognize her. But at the time of promotion or getting a
performance review, things take a different shape” (female talent, 22).
By reviewing this, proposition 3b is not supported. Figure 4 represents the responses of the
participants who either agree, not agreed or had mixed reviews about efforts for selection,
competitiveness of selection process, receiving information at the same time, informal
networking and equal recognition.
44
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to discover how women working in MNCs in India
perceive gender-inclusive TM practices in their organization. This study intended to
determine whether these women faced any challenges and gender-based barriers in terms
of selection or career growth. Three perspectives were used to examine these professional
women: Gender stereotypes in TM practices and managerial positions, Gender stereotypes
in TM practices and interrupted career path, and Sex-Related Discrimination in TM and
access to the informal network. These professional women working in the Indian corporate
environment were believed to face gender biases in terms of stereotypes and sex-related
discrimination based on extant literature. These biases were argued to further impede their
growth in the organization and the companies may not fully utilize their female talent. The
major findings were as follows.
Figure 4: Results for proposition 3a & 3b
45
Proposition 1: Managerial positions are gender-stereotyped in favor of men in MNCs in
India.
Proposition 1 was partially supported as there was evidence regarding negative
stereotyping of women managers. Eleven out of twenty-three women faced some type of
stereotype regarding the women manager. There was an instance in which a female
participant said that women managers have to adopt manly qualities for senior management
positions. The competence of women managers was also questioned in one case. There
were three cases where women were not offered higher positions due to the demand for
late-night working hours. As mentioned by Kaushik et al., (2014), there is a perception that
late night shift and traveling are not meant for women. However, women managers in terms
of their capabilities in comparison to their male counterparts were considered equal.
Twelve out of twenty-three female participants believed that women managers are treated
equally. Most of them agreed to the fact that men and women are given equal opportunities
at the time of promotion. Further, the evidence was clear that the employers were not
looking for managers who had masculine traits as twenty female participants agreed to it.
Contrary to Gulhati (1990), the results do not indicate that employers desired leaders
with masculine-traits. This is an interesting and provocative result. This could mean MNCs
operating in India are doing a good job in addressing challenges that women face and
meeting their needs. Further, this research shows that these women are not necessarily
disadvantaged by traditional beliefs such as patriarchy and prevalent male thinking. This
change in attitude can also be attributed to the influence of family on life choices.
According to Valk and Srinivasan (2011), family influence plays a major role in the life
46
choices on work and family for all females. Family influence can be defined as the extent
to which family members play a role in value creation and meaning around work and family
for a child (Valk and Srinivasan, 2011). The family influence can range from setting goals
for higher education, relocating from small towns to big cities for higher education and
work and ultimately getting the dream job. By looking at the demographics, most of the
participants were engineers and MBA graduates. According to one participant, the family
members had played important role in shaping her career. Also, these companies may put
extra effort in to retain these highly educated professional women.
Proposition 2a: Women in MNCs in India who have interrupted career paths or family
responsibilities have very limited access to talent development programs.
Proposition 2a was not supported. In this case, the majority of the women (twenty-
two out of twenty-three) denied that they have limited access to talent development
programs. Everyone agreed that their senior managers asked them before sending them on
any talent development programs or mandatory company training. Although the number of
women with parental or child responsibilities was small in this sample, these participants
did not face any challenges regarding getting into a talent development programs or
receiving required support from the company they were working in. It could be possible
that women in this sample having children or parental responsibilities were given more
attention by the organization they were working in. These organizations in which these
participants are working may have work-family supportive policies that may help women
in overcoming the inherent challenges simultaneously taking caring of their family and
performing well in their jobs. Based on the information on the company’s websites in
47
which these participants are working, they had such supportive policies that encouraged
female talent to pursue their career. Due to confidentiality reasons, the website addresses
of these companies are withheld. These supportive policies included flextime, work from
home policy, leave of absence policy, maternity leave, childcare facilities, and sabbaticals.
Many women in the above sample mentioned these policies. According to Roy (2003),
these flextime policies are supportive for new mothers or with small children.
Proposition 2b: Women in MNCs in India who return from maternity leave do not get
support from their organization
Proposition 2b was not supported. Out of twenty-three women, sixteen agreed that
they received the required support from the organization, however, they stated that they
had to put in the extra effort in terms of extra work when they return from the maternity
leave. The extra effort here refers to the re-learning and revising the processes the
individual used to work on as they may be out of touch. Only three participants believed
that women who return from maternity leave receive an equal chance compared to what
their male counterparts receive. Four women did not face this kind of situation as they were
not married or aware of maternity policy of their company. As stated above in proposition
2a, most of the companies in their website mentioned about the organizational policy
support to women who return from maternity leave. As mentioned by Aycan and Eskin
(2005) in their research, the organizational family- supportive policies such as flextime,
childcare facilities, career break and option to work from home help these employees to
make arrangements to balance their work and family responsibilities (Thomas & Ganster,
48
1995). This organizational support also helps in greater job satisfaction and less employee
exodus from the organization (Bedeian, Mossholder, & Touliatos, 1986).
Proposition 3a: Women in MNCs in India perceive that access to informal networks in
organizations is more limited for women than for men.
Proposition 3a was not supported. Twenty women out of this sample suggested that
they did not have to make any special efforts to get selected for these talent development
programs. These talent development programs are a gateway for informal networking. This
networking further helps women in their career to grow. It was believed that if the
organizational TM practices are gendered, women face more challenges in forming social
networks as compared to men (Welle & Heilman, 2007). Due to the sex-related
discrimination, women are believed to be excluded from informal networks as mentioned
in above discussion. Twenty-one women from this sample mentioned that they get equal
chance to be recognized as talent. This means organizational practices in term of getting
selected for these talent development programs is not gendered biased and these
participants have equal opportunities for informal networking.
Proposition 3b: Women in MNCs in India believe that a lack of access to informal networks
in organizations reduces the opportunities for women to gain access to talent development
programs
Proposition 3b was not supported. The majority of the women agreed that they
received information about these talent development programs at the same time as their
male colleagues. As per Festing et al., (2015), transparency of information about the
existence of talent development programs increases the chances of an employee to be
49
identified as talent. Also, the presence of company’s intranet where the information about
these programs is available to all has increased the chances women to get selected for these
programs. These women in this sample said that informal networking further helped them
to get selected in the talent development programs and built further contacts or relationship
building. Looking at their demographics in Appendix B, twenty-one women have two years
or more experience as a professional. Their current work experience may have widened
their social networks. These social networks are already helping them to get the required
information about their career growth.
Overall, all the propositions were only either partially supported or not supported at
all. In this sample of women, most of them did not face any kind of problems like not being
treated equally or not getting opportunities to climb up the career ladder as described in
extant literature (Kaushik et al., 2014; Budhwar et al., 2005; Heilman, 2001; Gupta et al.,
1998; Gulhati, 1990). The reason for this may be that this group was privileged. Privilege
as a social concept is defined as a special advantage which is not earned and is enjoyed by
members of one group excluding others (Black & Stone, 2005). Privilege comes in multiple
forms, including race, gender, socioeconomic status, and age (Black et al., 2005). As can
be seen from the sample demographics, this sample was privileged in term of educational
status and socioeconomic status: Fifteen out of twenty-three women had a master's degree
in engineering or had pursued bachelor’s in engineering and the remainder had a bachelor's
degree in another fields. Higher education is a privilege as many people do not get a chance
to go to college. Further, in India getting into a college again is not an easy task as one
should get good marks, clear an entrance exam and have money to pay for tuition
50
(Chenney, Ruzzi & Muralitharan, 2005). Another privilege that these females had that they
were working in urban cities like New Delhi and Pune where demand for educated women
professional is more as there are large number of MNCs in these cities (Bushwar et al,
2005; Shaw &Satish, 2007). Due to the advent of globalization, the urban societies in India
have become more progressive that support these women personally and professionally.
Budhwar et al., (2005), in their research mention that women with higher education in India
are striving for independence, are career focused and are eager to move up in the career
ladder. The future research can include women of different education status and privilege
to explore whether this factor affects the findings of this thesis.
Limitations
There were several limitations to this study. First, it was a qualitative study in which
only twenty-three participants were interviewed. Further, all women were from only two
cities in India, that is, New Delhi and Pune. Hence, the experience and opinions shown in
this research may not be applicable to other female participants working in different MNCs
and cities. Also, results this study may not be applicable to women working in other Indian
companies. Further, all the female participants were well educated. As fifteen out of
twenty-three women had a master’s degree such as MBA or master’s in engineering, it is
possible that these organization may not want to lose highly educated professionals and
hence, may give special attention to these women. The sample does not represent
participants who have graduate degrees in other fields. Also, most of them were unmarried,
and so this sample may not be a good representation of large women population in India.
51
The study may also have limited perspectives. All the participants in this sample
were working in MNCs whose headquarters were in United States of America (USA). It is
a well-known fact that managing diversity is becoming an important area in strategic HRM
today in USA (Woodard &Saini, 2006). There are large number of MNCs from USA that
are operational in India (Woodard &Saini, 2006). The HRM practices related to diversity
and women empowerment in these companies may be seriously considered. A number of
companies have mentioned in their websites in India that they are working towards
inclusion and women empowerment. The perspective of participants from MNCs from
other countries was missing in this sample. This research may not have taken into account
other factors that could further enrich the analysis. For example, the male employee
perspective was not considered. It is possible that they may feel different about the female
colleagues and opportunities that are given to them. Analysis of gendered perspectives
could have provided a better understanding of stereotypes and sex-based discrimination. It
is also important to note that the majority of the women in this sample did not have parental
or child responsibilities. This is not typical for women working in MNCs India. This
sample also does not represent women working in other sectors such as government
institutions and Indian enterprises. Finally, it is also possible that my limited experience in
qualitative research may have led to the omission of additional variables.
Future Research
Due to a wide range of responses generated, this study has opened various
avenues for further research. Various elements that can influence females in the working
environment in India especially in MNCs in India can be investigated in separate groups.
One of the groups can include a full description of the demographics of female employees
52
and how this factor relates to their experiences. Another factor could be their marital status
and number of children they have. Women with varied educational backgrounds can also
be considered. These factors can be further explored in-depth as a number of married
women were less in this sample. Also, there were very few women who had managerial
experience. More women managers can be included to widen the horizon of this research.
Since the major limitation was the number of participants in this study, the large-scale
investigation is required to replicate these findings. This can also help in exploring research
questions such as: Can increasing the number of women in a leadership position help in
reducing sex-related discrimination and stereotypes or vice versa? Will providing work-
life balance approach to the working mothers help in the inclusion of female talent?
53
References
Aarti Shyamsunder, Alixandra Pollack, Dnika Travis & Catalyst (2015), India Inc: From
Intention to Impact, Catalyst
Ahl, H. (2006). Why research on women entrepreneurs needs new
directions. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 30(5), 595-621.
Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (1993). Women in management: Organizational socialization and
assessment practices that prevent career advancement. International Journal of Selection
and Assessment, 1(2), 68-83.
Aycan, Z., & Eskin, M. (2005). Relative contributions of childcare, spousal support, and
organizational support in reducing work–family conflict for men and women: The case of
Turkey. Sex roles, 53(7-8), 453-471.
Bagati, D., & Carter, N. M. (2010). Leadership Gender Gap in India Inc. Myths and
Realities. Catalyst.
Bandyopadhyay, D. (2000). Gender and governance in India. Economic and Political
Weekly, 35(31), 2696-2699
Batra, A. (2007). Managing Diversity in India: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Workforce
Diversity Initiatives of three US-Based Multinational Corporations in India.
Basu, S. (2008). Gender stereotypes in Corporate India: A glimpse. SAGE Publications
India
Bedeian, A. G., Mossholder, K. W., & Touliatos, J. (1986). Individual propensities for
emotional supportiveness within a dual career context: Work and non-work reactions.
International Journal of Management, 7, 7–12.
Beechler, S., & Woodward, I. C. (2009). The global “war for talent”. Journal of
international management, 15(3), 273-285.
Bekhouche, Y., Hausmann, R., Tyson, L. D., & Zahidi, S. (2013). The global gender gap
report 2013. Geneva Switzerland World Economic Forum 2013.
Bennett, M. and Bell, A. (2004), Leadership & Talent in Asia, Wiley, Singapore.
Bilimoria, D., Joy, S., & Liang, X. (2008). Breaking barriers and creating inclusiveness:
Lessons of organizational transformation to advance women faculty in academic science
and engineering. Human Resource Management, 47(3), 423-441. 10.1002/hrm.20225
54
Black, L. L., & Stone, D. (2005). Expanding the definition of privilege: The concept of
social privilege. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 33(4), 243-255
Blass, E. (2007). Talent management: maximizing talent for business performance.
Chartered Management Institute and Ashridge Consulting Limited.
Branham, L. (2005), “Planning to become an employer of choice”, Journal of
Organizational Excellence, Vol. 24 No. 3, pp. 57-68
Broverman, I. K., Vogel, S. R., Broverman, D. M., Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P. S.
(1972). Sex‐role stereotypes: A current appraisal1. Journal of Social issues, 28(2), 59-78.
Bruni, A., Gherardi, S., & Poggio, B. (2004). Entrepreneur-mentality, gender and the study
of women entrepreneurs. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17(3), 256-268
Brush, C.G. (1991), “Antecedent influences on women owned businesses”, Journal of
Managerial Psychology, Vol. 6 No. 2, pp. 9-17
Budhwar, P. & Boyne, G. (2004) Human resource management in the Indian public and
private sectors: an empirical comparison, International Journal of Human Resource
Management, 15(2), pp. 346–370
Budhwar, P. S., Saini, D. S., & Bhatnagar, J. (2005). Women in management in the new
economic environment: The case of India. Asia Pacific Business Review, 11(2), 179-193.
Buddhapriya, S. (2009). Work-family challenges and their impact on career decisions: A
study of Indian women professionals. Vikalpa, 34(1), 31-46.
Burt, R. S. (2004). Structural holes and good ideas. American journal of sociology, 110(2),
349-399.
Catalyst.1996. Women in corporate leadership: Progress and prospects. New York:
Catalyst.
Catalyst. 2001. Women in financial services: The word on the street. New York: Catalyst.
Catalyst. 2001b. Women in law: Making the case. New York: Catalyst.
Catalyst. 2004. Women and men in U.S. corporate leadership: Same workplace different
realities? New York: Catalyst
Catalyst, January 2007, October 1. Companies with more women board directors
experience higher financial performance. Retrieved from: http://www.catalystwomen.org/
pressroom/press_bottom_line_2.shtml
Chadha, R. (2002) Of Mars and Venus, Businessline. Available at http://proquest.umi.com/
pqdweb?Did ¼ 0000000270062871&Fmt Characteristics,’ Journal of Applied Psychology,
57, 95 – 100.
55
Cheney, G. R., Ruzzi, B. B., & Muralidharan, K. (2005). A profile of the Indian education
system. Prepared for the New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce.
CIPD (2010), Learning and Talent Development, London: Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development.
Chugh, S. and Bhatnagar, J. (2006), “Talent management as high performance work
practice: emerging strategic HRM dimension”, Management and Labour Studies, Vol. 31
No. 3, pp. 228-53.
Chugh, S., & Sahgal, P. (2007). Why do few women advance to leadership
positions?. Global Business Review, 8(2), 351-365.
Collings, D. G., & Mellahi, K. (2009). Strategic talent management: A review and research
agenda. Human resource management review, 19(4), 304-313.
Das, K. B. (2003) Employment scenario under globalization, in: R. Datt (Ed.) Second
Generation Economic Reforms in India, pp. 151–163 (New Delhi: Deep & Deep
Publications Pvt. Ltd).
Datt, R. & Sundharam, K.P.H. (1999) Indian Economy. New Delhi: S Chand & Company
Ltd.
Datt, R. (Ed.) (2003) Second Generation Economic Reforms in India (New Delhi: Deep &
Deep Publications Pvt. Ltd)
Deloitte (2012). Waiter, is that inclusion in my soup? A new recipe to improve business
performance. Deloitte Research Report, Australia
Deaux, K., & Kite, M. (1993). Gender stereotypes.
Dickinson Shepard, M., and Betof, N.G. (2011), ‘Building a Reservoir of High
Performance and High Potential Women,’ in The Talent Management Handbook (2 ed.),
eds. L.A. Berger and D.R. Berger, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 409– 419
Dodge, K. A., Gilroy, F. D., & Fenzel, L. M. (1995). Requisite management characteristics
revisited: Two decades later. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10(4), 253-264.
Dunn, M.W. (2006), “Motorola’s program to recruit and develop new talent at its
automotive electronics business”, Employment Relations Today, Vol. 33 No. 2, pp. 19-24.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the
evidence. The leadership quarterly, 14(6), 807-834.
Eagly, A. H., & Heilman, M. E. (2016). Gender and leadership: Introduction to the special
issue. Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 349-353.
56
Eagly, A. H., Wood, W., & Diekman, A. B. (2000). Social role theory of sex differences
and similarities: a current appraisal. In T. Eckes, & H. M. Trautner (Eds.), The
developmental social psychology of gender (pp. 123–174). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
Elliott, J., 2007. Riding the elephant: Kochhar of ICICI leads Indian Women bankers to the
top. Retrieved from: http://ridingtheelephant.blogs.fortune.cnn.com/category/ chanda-
Kochhar/, October 22
Ely, R., & Padavic, I. (2007). A feminist analysis of organizational research on sex
differences. Academy of Management Review, 32(4), 1121-1143.
Ely, R. J., Ibarra, H., & Kolb, D. M. (2011). Taking gender into account: Theory and design
for women's leadership development programs. Academy of Management Learning &
Education, 10(3), 474-493.
Economic Survey (2003-2004), available at: http://www.indiabudget.gov.in/es2003-
04/esmain.htm
ENS Economic Bureau (2006), “Most Indians experience bias while applying for jobs:
survey”, Indian Express, October 19, available at:
www.indianexpress.com/story_print.php? storyid ¼ 14982 (accessed 29 March 2012).
Ferdman, B. M., Deane, B., & Books24x7, I. (2014;2013;). Diversity at work: The practice
of inclusion (1st ed.). San Francisco: Wiley.
Festing, M., Knappert, L., & Kornau, A. (2015). Gender‐Specific Preferences in Global
Performance Management: An Empirical Study of Male and Female Managers in a
Multinational Context. Human Resource Management, 54(1), 55-79.
Festing, M., Kornau, A., & Schäfer, L. (2015). Think talent–think male? A comparative
case study analysis of gender inclusion in talent management practices in the German
media industry. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(6), 707-
732.
Forret, M. L., & Dougherty, T. W. (2004). Networking behaviors and career outcomes:
differences for men and women?. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(3), 419-437.
Ghosh, R., Reio, T. G., & Haynes, R. K. (2012). Mentoring and organizational citizenship
behavior: Estimating the mediating effects of organization‐based self‐esteem and affective
commitment. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 23(1), 41-63)
Glick, P. (1991). Trait-based and sex-based discrimination in occupational prestige,
occupational salary, and hiring. Sex Roles, 25(5-6), 351-378.
Grant Thornton International Business (2013). Women in Senior management: Setting the
stage for growth. Retrieved from: www.grantthorton.ie/db/Attachment/IBR2013
57
Granovetter, M. (1985). Economic action and social structure: The problem of
embeddedness. American journal of sociology, 91(3), 481-510.
Gulhati, K. (1990). Attitudes toward women managers: Comparison of attitudes of male
and female managers in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 17–24
Gupta, A., Koshal, M., & Koshal, R. J. (1998). Women managers in India challenges and
opportunities. Equal Opportunities International, 17: 14–18.
Harvey, M. G., Buckley, M. R., & Novicevic, M. M. (2000). Strategic global human
resource management: A necessity when entering emerging markets. Research in
Personnel and Human Resources Management, 19: 175–242
Heilman, M. E. (1983). Sex bias in work settings: The lack of fit model. Research in
organizational behavior.
Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., Martell, R. F., & Simon, M. C. (1989). Has anything changed?
Current characterizations of men, women, and managers. Journal of applied
psychology, 74(6), 935.
Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent
women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674
Heilman, M. E. (2001). Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent
women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. Journal of Social Issues, 57(4), 657–674
Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., & Martell, R. F. (1995). Sex stereotypes: Do they influence
perceptions of managers?. Journal of Social behavior and Personality, 10(4), 237.
Higgins, M. C., & Kram, K. E. (2001). Reconceptualizing mentoring at work: A
developmental network perspective. Academy of management review, 26(2), 264-288.
Hoyt, C. L., & Murphy, S. E. (2016). Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women,
and leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(3), 387-399
Hoyt, C. L. (2010). Women, men, and leadership: Exploring the gender gap at the
top. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(7), 484-498.
Ibarra, H. (1993). Personal networks of women and minorities in management: A
conceptual framework. Academy of management Review, 18(1), 56-87.
Iles, P., Chuai, X., & Preece, D. (2010). Talent management and HRM in multinational
companies in Beijing: Definitions, differences and drivers. Journal of World
Business, 45(2), 179-189.
Izraeli, D. N., Banai, M., & Zeira, Y. (1980). women executives in MNC subsidiaries.
California Management Review (Pre-1986), 23(1), 53.
58
Jacobs, D., 2005. In search of future leaders: managing the global talent pipeline. Ivy
Business Journal Online 1 (March/April).
Johnson, R., & Phillips, R. (1999). Sex Discrimination and Sexual Harassment in the
Workplace in Bulgaria. Minnesota Advocates for Human Rights.
Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774-788
Kaushik, N., Sharma, A., & Kumar Kaushik, V. (2014). Equality in the workplace: a study
of gender issues in Indian organisations. Journal of Management Development, 33(2), 90-
106.
Kelly Services. (2006). Discrimination emerging in new forms in the global jobs market.
Retrived from: https://www.business-humanrights.org/sites/default/files/reports-and-
materials/Kelly-discrimination-survey-2006.pdf
Kessler, R. C., Price, R. H., & Wortman, C. B. (1985). Social factors in psychopathology:
Stress, social support, and coping processes. Annual review of psychology, 36(1), 531-572.
Khandelwal, P. (2002) Gender stereotypes at work: implications for organisations, Indian
Journal of Training and Development, XXXII(2), April–June, pp. 72–83
Khosla, R. (2014). An inclusive workplace: a case study of Infosys. Review of HRM, 3,
119.
Koenig, A.M., Eagly, A.H., Mitchell, A.A., and Ristikari, T. (2011), ‘Are Leader
Stereotypes Masculine? A Meta-Analysis of Three Research Paradigms,’ Psychological
Bulletin, 137, 616– 642
Koch, A. J., D'Mello, S. D., & Sackett, P. R. (2015). A meta-analysis of gender stereotypes
and bias in experimental simulations of employment decision making. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 100(1), 128.
Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2014). Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype
content: Observations of groups’ roles shape stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 107(3), 371.
Kulkarni, S. S. (2002) Women and professional competency – a survey report, Indian
Journal of Training and Development, XXXII(2), April–June, pp. 11–16
Lahoti, R., & Swaminathan, H. (2013). Economic growth and female labour force
participation in India.
Lewis, R. E., & Heckman, R. J. (2006). Talent management: A critical review. Human
resource management review, 16(2), 139-154.
59
Liamputtong, P. & Ezzy, D. (2009) Qualitative Research Methods (3rd edn). Oxford and
NewYork: Oxford University Press, 5
Lippmann.(1992), Walter. Public Opinion. New York: Macmillan
Lueptow, L. B., Garovich-Szabo, L., & Lueptow, M. B. (2001). Social change and the
persistence of sex typing: 1974-1997. Social Forces, 80(1), 1-36. 10.1353/sof.2001.0077
Lyness, K. S., & Thompson, D. E. (2000). Climbing the corporate ladder: do female and
male executives follow the same route?. Journal of applied psychology, 85(1), 86.
Manning, T. T. 2002. ‘Gender, Managerial Level, Transformational Leadership’, Women
in Management Review, 17(5): 207–16
McCartney, C., and Worman, D. (2010), ‘Opening Up Talent for Business Success.
Integrating Talent Management and Diversity,’ London: Chartered Institute of Personnel
and Development.
McDonnell, A. (2011), ‘Still Fighting the ‘War for Talent’? Bridging the Science Versus
Practice Gap,’ Journal of Business and Psychology, 26, 169– 173
Mehra, P. (2002) Women managers: to the top and beyond, Hindu Businessline, Saturday
27, April
Meyers, M. C., & Van Woerkom, M. (2014). The influence of underlying philosophies on
talent management: Theory, implications for practice, and research agenda. Journal of
World Business, 49(2), 192-203.
Meyerson, D. E., & Fletcher, J. K. (2000). A modest manifesto for shattering the glass
ceiling. Harvard Business Review, 78(1), 126-136.
Miller, F. A. (1998). Strategic culture change: The door to achieving high performance and
inclusion. Public Personnel Management, 27(2), 151–160
Minnesota Advocates for Human Right (2012), Retrieved from:
www.mnadvocates.org/sites/
608a3887-dd53-4796-8904-997a0131ca54/uploads/sexharas.PDF (accessed 29 March
2012)
Mobley, W.H. (1982). Employee turnover: Causes, consequences, and control. Reading,
Mass: Addison-Wesley.
Mor Barak, M. E., Cherin, D. A., & Berkman, S. (1998). Organizational and personal
dimensions in diversity climate: Ethnic and gender differences in employee
perceptions. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 34(1), 82-104.
60
Naqvi, F. (2012) Perspectives of Indian women managers in the public sector. Indian
Journal of Gender Studies, 18(3), 279-309
Natarajan, K. (2001) Gendering of early Indian philosophy: a study of Samkhyakarika,
Economic and Political Weekly, 1, April 28, pp. 398–404
Nielson, T. R., Carlson, D. S., & Lankau, M. J. (2001). The supportive mentor as a means
of reducing work–family conflict. Journal of vocational behavior, 59(3), 364-381.
O'HARA, K. B., BEEHR, T. A. and COLARELLI, S. M. (1994) . `Organizational
centrality: a third dimension of intraorganizational career movements'. Journal of Applied
Behavioral Science, 30, 198±216
Pichler, S., Simpson, P. A., & Stroh, L. K. (2008). The glass ceiling in human resources:
Exploring the link between women's representation in management and the practices of
strategic human resource management and employee involvement. Human Resource
Management, 47(3), 463-479.
Podolny, J. M., & Baron, J. N. (1997). Resources and relationships: Social networks and
mobility in the workplace. American sociological review, 673-693.
Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1991). Easier said than done: Gender differences in
perceived barriers to gaining a mentor. Academy of Management Journal, 34(4), 939-951.
Ravindran, B., & Baral, R. (2014). Factors affecting the work attitudes of Indian re-entry
women in the IT sector. Vikalpa, 39(2), 31-42
Roberson, Q. M. (2006). Disentangling the meanings of diversity and inclusion in
organizations. Group & Organization Management, 31(2), 212-236.
Rosen, B and Jerdee, T (1973).Sex Stereotyping in Executive Suite, Harvard Business
Review, 52(2), 55-58.
Rosener, J. B. 1990. ‘Ways Women Lead’, Harvard Business Review, 68(6): 119–25
Rothschild, J., & Davies, C. (1994). Organizations through the lens of gender: Introduction
to the special issue. Human Relations, 47(6), 583-590.
Roy, P. K. (Ed.). (2003). Family Diversity in India: Patterns, Practices, and Ethos. Gyan
Books.
Ruderman, M. N. (2006). Developing women leaders. In R. J. Burke & C. L. Cooper (Eds.),
Inspiring leaders (pp. 320–340). New York, NY: Routledge.
Ruppe, L. (2006), “Tools and dialogue set the stage for talent management at Johns
Manville”, Journal of Organizational Excellence, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 37-48
61
Schein, E. H. (1971). `The individual, the organization, and the career: a conceptual
scheme'. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 7, 401±26.
Schein, V. E. (1973). The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite
management characteristics. Journal of applied psychology, 57(2), 95.
Schein, V.E. (1993), ‘Think Manager, Think Male,’ Management Development Review, 6,
24 – 28.
Schein, V.E. (2007), ‘Women in Management: Reflections and Projections,’ Women in
Management Review, 2, 6– 18.
Schwartz, F (1989). Management Women and the New Facts of Life, Harvard business
Review, 67(1), 65-76
Seet, P.S., Ahmad, N.H. and Seet, L.C. (2008), “Singapore’s female entrepreneurs-are they
different?”, International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, Vol. 5 Nos 3/4,
pp. 257-271
Seligman, Martin EP, and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. "Special issue: Positive
psychology." American Psychologist 55, no. 1 (2000): 5-14.
Shaw, A., & Satish, M. K. (2007). Metropolitan restructuring in post-liberalized India:
separating the global and the local. Cities, 24(2), 148-163.
Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Ehrhart, K. H., & Singh, G. (2011).
Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal
of Management, 37(4), 1262–1289.
Shrank, N. and R.M. Kanter. 1994. Reach for the Top: Women and the Changing Facts of
Work Life. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
SHRM (2009): Perspective on women in management in India; Derived from:
https://www.shrm.org/hr-today/news/hr-magazine/documents/09-
0677_india_women_ldrshp_fnl.pdf
Shore, L. M., Randel, A. E., Chung, B. G., Dean, M. A., Ehrhart, K. H., & Singh, G. (2011).
Inclusion and diversity in work groups: A review and model for future research. Journal
of Management, 37: 1262–1289.
Society for Human Resource Management. (2014). The SHRM body of competency and
knowledge (BOCK). Alexandria, VA: Society for Human Resource Management.
Retrieved from http://www. shrm.org/certification/Documents/SHRM-BoCK-FINAL4.pdf
Singh, I. (2003). Boys will be boys: Fathers' perspectives on ADHD symptoms, diagnosis,
and drug treatment. Harvard review of psychiatry, 11(6), 308-316.
62
Singh, K. (2003) Women managers: perception vs. performance analysis, Journal of
Management Research, 3(1), pp. 31–42
Swailes, S., Downs, Y., & Orr, K. (2014). Conceptualising inclusive talent management:
Potential, possibilities and practicalities. Human Resource Development International, 17,
529-544.Tarique, I., & Schuler, R. S. (2010). Global talent management: Literature review,
integrative framework, and suggestions for further research. Journal of World Business,
45: 122–133
Tarique, I., & Schuler, R. S. (2010). Global talent management: Literature review,
integrative framework, and suggestions for further research. Journal of world
business, 45(2), 122-133.
Tatli, A., Vassilopoulou, J., & Özbilgin, M. (2013). An unrequited affinity between talent
shortages and untapped female potential: The relevance of gender quotas for talent
management in high growth potential economies of the Asia Pacific region. International
Business Review, 22(3), 539-553.
Terborg, J. R., & Ilgen, D. R. (1975). A theoretical approach to sex discrimination in
traditionally masculine occupations. Organizational behavior and human
performance, 13(3), 352-376.
Thomas, L. T., & Ganster, D. C. (1995). Impact of family supportive work variables on
work-family conflict and strain: A control perspective. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80,
6– 15.
Thornton, G. (2007). Grant Thornton International Business Report 2007.
Unger, R. K. (1979). Toward a redefinition of sex and gender. American
Psychologist, 34(11), 1085.
Valk, R., & Srinivasan, V. (2011). Work–family balance of Indian women software
professionals: A qualitative study. IIMB Management Review, 23(1), 39-50.
Vaiman, V., Scullion, H., & Collings, D. (2012). Talent management decision making.
Management Decision, 50: 925–941
Veiga, J. F., Baldridge, D. C., & Eddleston, K. A. (2004). Toward understanding employee
reluctance to participate in family-friendly programs. Human Resource Management
Review, 14(3), 337-351.
Venkata Ratnam, C. S., & Chandra, V. (1996). Sources of diversity and the challenge
before human resource management in India. International Journal of Manpower, 17(4/5),
76-108.
63
Vohra, N., Chari, V., Mathur, P., Sudarshan, P., Verma, N., Mathur, N., ... &
Dasmahapatra, V. (2015). Inclusive Workplaces: Lessons from Theory and
Practice. Vikalpa, 40(3), 324-362.
Wakhlu, A. and B.Singh (1996), The Super Women Syndrome- Dilemmas of Career
Women, in Dharani P. Sinha et. al. (Ed), Aligning Human Resource Processes: Challenges
of Development.
Warren, A.K. (2009), Cascading Gender Biases, Compounding Effects: An Assessment of
Talent Management Systems, New York: Catalyst
Welle, B., & Heilman, M. E. (2007). Formal and informal discrimination against women
at work. Research in social issues in management: Managing social and ethical issues in
organizations, 229-252.
West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & society, 1(2), 125-151.
Westphal, J. D., & Milton, L. P. (2000). How experience and network ties affect the
influence of demographic minorities on corporate boards. Administrative Science
Quarterly, 45(2), 366-398.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-
culturally. Sage Publications, Inc.
Woodard, N., & Saini, D. S. (2006). Diversity management issues in USA and India: Some
emerging perspectives.
Yeung, A. (2006), “Setting people up for success: how the Portman Ritz-Carlton hotel gets
the best from its people”, Human Resource Management, Vol. 45 No. 2, pp. 267-75.
Younger, B., Tatavarti, K., Poorswani, N., Gordon-Mandel, D., Hannon, C., McGowan, I.
K., & Mandayam, G. (2015). Innovative Career Support Services for Professional Women
in India: Pathways to Success. Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health, 30(1-2), 112-137.
64
Appendix A
Semi-Structured Interview Questions
Personal Questions and Job-Related details
What is your age? You may specify a range, e.g., between 25 to 30, 30 to 35 and so on.
What is your educational qualification?
How long have you been working in the company?
In which department do you work in?
What is your business title?
Do you have managerial experience? If so, how many employees do you direct?
Do you have any children or parental responsibilities? You may specify ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Gender stereotypes in TM practices and managerial roles
What kind of ability and characteristics does your employer look for in managerial
positions available in the company?
How do you personally see the senior management positions? According to you what
are the characteristics or definitions of an ideal manager or leader in your company?
If you have a women manager or leader, what kind of qualities and characteristics you
see in her?
Do you feel that there are general perception and stereotypes about women who hold
senior management positions in your company? If yes, what is it?
65
Do you think there are stereotypes that question a women employees’ professional
capabilities in the Indian corporate environment when it comes to promotion/ elevated
job responsibilities?
Gender stereotypes in TM practices and interrupted career path
Are there any talent development programs in your company? If yes, can you provide
the description of them? (For example- executive development programs, non-
executive development programs, mentoring, skill building for managers, etc.)
Do you feel by taking these programs, it could benefit your career growth?
Have you ever felt that your superior does not send you for training as you have
elevated responsibilities at home or outside of work?
Sex-related Discrimination in TM and access to the informal network
How do you receive the information about the talent development programs in your
company?
Do you feel that getting selected for these talent development programs is difficult for
you as compared to your male counterparts?
How competitive is the selection process for these programs?
Are there any networking forums in your company? Does networking help in the
selection in these programs?
Do you think females have the same chances of getting selected to these programs? Or
do you think women in your company get equal chance to be recognized as talent?
66
Do these programs help to build further contacts and help in career progression?
67
Appendix B
Demographics
Demographics of the participants, N=23
Code Managerial experience
Years of Experience
Field Recording
Time
Female talent 1 Yes 8 years Project Management 31:05 minutes
Female talent 2 Yes 6 years Learning and Development
23:20 minutes
Female talent 3 No 2 years E-learning Content
Development 20:00 minutes
Female talent 4 Yes 7 years E-learning Content
Development 21:00 minutes
Female talent 5 No 4 years Finance and Pricing 16:40 minutes
Female talent 6 No 2 years 7 months
Management Consulting
15:30 minutes
Female talent 7 No 5 years Financial
Operations and Investment Banking
25:00 minutes
Female talent 8 No 2.3 years Research and Data-
Analytics 20:00 minutes
Female talent 9 No 2 years Human Capital 25:00 minutes
Female talent 10 yes 18 years Logistics,
Procurement, and Buying
15:06 minutes
Female talent 11 Yes 10 years Marketing 20:00 minutes
Female talent 12 Yes 4 years Project Management
Consulting 15:08 minutes
Female talent 13 Yes 5 years Sales and Marketing
Consulting 23:10 minutes
Female talent 14 No 10 months Analytics and
Consulting 11:40 minutes
Female talent 15 No 8 months Operations 15:20 minutes
Female talent 16 No 6.5 years Purchasing and
Procurement 16:40 minutes
Female talent 17 No 9 years Purchasing 16:40 minutes
Female talent 18 Yes 14 years
Information Technology and
People's Management
21:40 minutes
Female talent 19 No 18 years Data analytics 16:40 minutes
68
Female talent 20 No 3 years 4 months
Technology 21:40 minutes
Female talent 21 No 5 years Quality Assurance 40:00 minutes
Female talent 22 Yes 12.5 years Product Sales
Manager 15:10 minutes
Female talent 23 Yes 2 years Advisory and
Consulting 23:02 minutes