gender-theatre and american reform

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CivicPlay-Housekeeping:Gender,Theatre, ndAmericanReform

ShannonJackson

"We went to Hull-House every Saturdayfor Miss Nancrede'sdance classes,"DorothyMittelman igel's eyesheldmineas she spoke. "And after very lass wewould lineup on ourwayout thedoor .. and.., youknow... as wewent out ..'Thankyou,Miss Nancrede."'

Duringtheellipses n herspeech,Mrs.Sigelrosecarefullynd spokein another

language, hat fthebody.Despitea foot hatwas stillrecoveringromurgery,hisformer ull-Housechild

gotupto demonstrate ow she and her fellowMarionette

Clubmembers owedandcurtsiedn a ritualized erformanceor heir avorite ull-House club eader, dithde Nancrede.

DorothyMittelman,aterDorothyMittelmanigel,now thewidow of LouisSigel,was born n 1900 nan immigrant eighborhoodntheNineteenthWardofChicago'sWest ide soonafter erparentsmigratedo theUnited tates. henow ivesalone ntheWinnetka omeshe and her husbandboughtwhen thesuccessofLouis Sigel'sbusiness llowed them o move toChicago'swealthierNorth hore.And it s to thishome that gotohearMrs. igel's tories fher ife nturn-of-the-centuryhicago ndofthe mpact hat neparticularnstitution,heHull-HouseSettlement, ade on thecourseand character fthat ife.

Mrs.Sigelraised nd loweredherbody, xtendingerhand n a gesturehatwas atoncegracefulfter earsof cultivationnd unsteady fter 5yearsof iving. Thank

you,Miss Nancrede," he said again,now lifting er head to hold theeyes of an

imaginaryeacherwhoseeyeshad once heldhers.

The Hull-HouseSettlementfChicago--which orothyttended ndwhereEdithde Nancrede ived and worked--was socialphenomenon hatwas bothexemplaryofand uniqueto theperiod nwhich t was founded.'Duringtheearlypartsof the

Shannon acksons an assistantrofessornEnglish nd LiteraturetHarvardUniversitynd haspublishedssaysnterrogatinghe ntersectionetweenultural heorynd performanceracticenseveralournals ndcollections.he scurrentlyritingbook nculturalerformancetHull-Houseand a collectederiesf ssays nmeta-historicalheoryndperformance.

Photographs ublishedwithpermissionrom heJaneAddamsMemorialColection,pecialCollections,heUniversityibrary,heUniversityf llinoistChicago.

1This s excerptedrom largermanuscriptntitled Lines fActivity:erformance,pace, ndPedagogytHull-House," projectupported ydissertationellowshipsrom heSpencerounda-tion ndtheNational ndowmentorheHumanities.would ike o hank orothyhansky,wightConquergood,racy avis,Judithamera, ucyKnight, icaeladiLeonardo,MargarethompsonDrewal, ndStacyWolf ornsightndencouragementnto hewritingf his ssay.

Theatreournal8 1996) 37-361? 1996 yTheJohns opkins niversityress

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338 / Shannonackson

Progressivera-the time panning rom he ate-nineteenthenturyo WorldWar -various social and politicalgroups n American ocietybegan self-consciouslyocontendwith heurban, ndustrial,olitical,nd cultural ransformationsroughtn

bystructural orces hat ould no longer e ignored.2 nmonitoredousing nd cityzoningand unregulated actorynd sweatshop ystems ombined o collide witha

huge wave of immigrantsrom outhern nd EasternEurope (includingDorothyMittelman'samily), herebyrofoundlyhanging henature furban ocial life nd

testinghe imits fAmerica'smuch-toutedystem f democratic overnance.Whilesome hereditaryAmericansreacted to urban dilemmasby blamingconvenient

scapegoats uchas union aborers,narchists,nd immigrants,thers egantoform

partial ritiques fthe tructuralorces hatprecipitatedhese hanges s well as thetransformations-inhenature fthecity, he role of thestate, nd theconceptofAmerica-thatwould be necessary o respond o them.Activistnd reformroups

gatheredrounddifferentauses-housing,factoryeform,ublicparks, emperance,immigrationrotection,ood and clothing or the poor-and were propelledbydifferentrinciples-religious, olitical, nd intellectual. hat this era has been

retroactivelyistoricizeds "TheReform eriod" attests o itsfundamental lace inthe nstitutionalnd intellectualistoryf ocialwelfaren theUnited tates, nd it softenplaced as theoriginpointfor hostofcivic,state, nd federal gencies nexistence-and hotly ebated-in ourpresent-dayociety.

Thisessay s npart nattempto theorizeherelationshipetween ighlyocalandintimatemomentsuchas thoserecountedy DorothyMittelmanigeland the argenetworkof national and industrialforces harted n the historiographyf the

Progressivera. suggest hat he renaoftheatrendperformance-characterizedsbotha typeofcase study nd an integratedmethodology-providesn illustrativemeansofreconcilingariouskinds ofinterpretiveilemmas n turn-of-the-centuryAmericanstudies,particularlyhe tension n this fieldregarding he combined

analysisof aestheticndpolitical ractices.Morespecificallyhe case ofHull-Housetheatre ontributeso our understandingf the relationshipetweentheatre ndAmerican ocialreform, connectionhat nlarges hehistoriographyf both fieldsandextends he ypes f heoreticalndmethodologicaluestionswe ask of ach.3 he

2

Backgroundistoricaliteraturen the ettlements vast; ignificantexts ncludeAllenDavis,

SpearheadsorReform:he ocial ettlementsnd he rogressiveovement,890-1914NewBrunswick:Rutgersniversityress,984)ndwithMary ynnMcKree,ds., 00YearstHull-HouseBloomington:IndianaUniversityress, 990);Rivka hpak issak, luralismndProgressives:ullHouse nd heNew

Immigrant,890-1919Chicago:UniversityfChicagoPress, 989);MinaCarson, ettlementolk

(Chicago: niversityfChicago ress, 990);Kathrynish klar, lorenceelleynd heNation'sWork:TheRise fWomen'soliticalulture,830-1900NewHaven:YaleUniversityress, 995) nd"Hull-House nthe 890s: CommunityfWomen eformers,"igns: ournalfWomennCulturend ociety10.4 1985): 58-77 nd"WhoFundedHull-House?,"ady ountifulevisited,d. KathleenMcCarthy(NewBrunswick:utgersniversityress, 990),4-115; lisabethasch-Quinn,lack eighbors:aceandthe imitsfReformn theAmericanettlementovement,890-1945ChapelHill:UniversityfNorth arolina ress, 993);HelenLefkowitz orowitz,Hull-Houses Woman's pace,"ChicagoHistory2.41983-84): 0-55; ill onway,Women eformersndAmericanulture,"ournalf ocial

History (Winter 971-2): 64-77;JohnRousmaniere,Cultural ybridn theSlums,"AmericanQuarterly2 Spring970): 5-66.3Mypreoccupationith owtheoriesfperformancentersectith hose spoused ndpracticed

at theHull-House ettlementfChicago omes midtremendousebate bouttherelationshipbetween theory"nd "history,"articularlyn debates urroundinghepresumed pposition







GENDER,THEATRE,ANDAMERICANREFORM / 339

role oftheatre n themissionofHull-Housereformannotbe fully nderstood yanalyzingthe literaryontent f its repetoire; or can the history f reform e

adequatelyconceived s a seriesof legislative nd governmentalolicychanges.arguethat hegaps inbothof these ines of nquiry onverge nd,furthermore,hatthepointofconvergence inges na willingnessounderstandollective ormationssuch as Edith de Nancrede's Marionette lub and embodiedperformancesuch asDorothyMittelmanigel's graceful urtsy.

The first art of the essay lays a historical nd theoretical oundation or a

rapprochementetweenturn-of-the-centurymericareformnd thatoftheatre nd

performancetudies. tbeginsby foregroundinghe mpact fDarwinist heories fevolution n theworkofreformndcontinues ytrackinghewayfemale eformers

negotiated heir onflicted ositionupon enteringhisarena ofpubliclife.Withinthese

overlappinggenealogiesn reform

istorynd Americanwomen's

history,however,Hull-House settlers istinguishedhemselvesdeologically nd method-

ologicallybyvirtue f their ntellectualnd politicalkinshipwiththephilosophicalschool of pragmatism nd theircommitmento a pragmatically erived social

pedagogy.The nexttwo sectionsfocuson how such historiesnd goals structuredtheatre tHull-House, ocusingirst n tspower ncommunityormationndthen nitsutilitynthe reformationfpersonal dentity.hishistoricallyituated ystem fbeliefs and practicesmakes,to mymind,thematchbetweenturn-of-the-centuryreform nd the theoretical rameworkfperformance productive ne. Sharing n

etymological oot that means "to bring ntobeing" or "to furnish," erformanceunderscoreshematerial ctsof onstructionmplicitnthe erm reform." s a mode

of inquiry hat takesontological ssues of identity,nactment,mbodiment,ocialprocess, and social expressionas centralpoints of entry, erformanceends aframeworko understandwhat it means to re-formndividuals, ommunities,rurban paces.Anunderstandingfthepowerofwhat will callreformanceheds ighton the assumptionsbehindmanyturn-of-the-centuryocial formations:he playmovement,hepublic parkmovement, ousingreform,abitand "character-build-

ing"clinics,modeltenementxhibits,nd variousrecreational ovementshat oughtto re-createndividualsby restoringehaviors nd environmentslong alternativelines.Furthermore,uchpastformationsnd theargumentsupportinghemmighthelp to counter hechargeofahistoricismomehave waged againstcontemporary

performanceheory,herebyxtendinghared heoreticalndmethodologicalnnova-tions nAmerican tudies nd performancetudies.

Reform and Performance at Hull-House

Edith de Nancrede'spresence, heprinciples ehind the Marionette lub, and

DorothyMittelman'sodily omportmentoincided ta placewhere ssues ofgender,class,community, orality,nd embodiment lso coincided.Theplacewas the ate-nineteenth-centurymerican ity,pecificallyhicago,wheremany athered o createa differentayof iving nd totheorize heobstacles hathinderedtsachievement.

between"language" and "experience." n a largermanuscript, argue thatperformancenalysiscanintervene n discussions such as those thattookplace around JoanWallach Scott's Gender nd thePoliticsofHistory,ytheorizinghediscursivemediation fexperiencewithout lways resortingo the"culture s text"model thatdisturbsmanywho questionthe"linguistic urn" n historical tudies.







340 / Shannonackson

Whilereformersifferednvision ndmethod,most nvoked imilar xampleswhen

identifyinghe manifestationsf the problem.Many pointed to the increasingfragmentationnd segregationf urbancommunitiesuchthatdifferentmmigrantand laboring roupsremained loisteredogether ithout larger ense ofthecity'sheterogeneity.omeprogressiveeformersdded a critique fthe ncreasingegrega-tion etween ich ndpoorpromotednthe ity,rguinghat uchdivisionsmadeanyformationf urbancommunitympossible.Additionally, ost reformersiscussedtheproblemsfpoverty,nemployment,aborunfairness,nd mmigrantdjustment,using ropes fdifferencendress, rammar,ocalvolume, aze,bodily omportment,spatialhabits, nd "habitsofthought"hatoftenmetonymicallytoodin for ocial

problems hatneeded tobe addressed, nvestigated,nderstood,nd in somewaychanged.4 gain,the orientationn theseperceived ifferenceshifted.Whilesomecrafted arbledrhetorichatmanagedto interpretoxiouscity mells s a signofa

tenementesident'smmoralityr child abor as a signof mmigrantultural ack-wardness, thers irected heir ttentiono thecity'sfaultyewage system r totheeffect funrestrainedompetitionnthefamilywage.

Ideologicallyupportingmany fthesereformfforts as thepervasivefuneven

impactof Darwinisttheories f humanity. etereogeneous eadingsof evolutioncould underwritemanydifferentindsofprojects.omeused them o tout heunityofmankind nd others he nevitable progress" fProgressiveociety; t stillother

times, ome nvoked uchtheoriesoarguefor he upremacy f "civilized" ultureson a dubiousevolutionaryadder.Most mportantormy oncerns, owever, erethe

waythat hey othprovided discursive asis for heorizingdealhumancommuni-

ties and induced an animating elief n thestructuringelationship etweenthematerialnd themental.As reformersheorized ew kindsof urbangroupings rom

amidstthecity'sheteroegeneity,heyappealed to "primitive"memories f racial

collectivitynd to thepowerofadaptation n the raceprogress.As historian aul

Boyerhas notedof kindofPositive nvironmentalism,anyreformerslso arguedthatthe substantive ualitiesof the environmentnd of environmentalracticesengaged na recursiveelationship ith heformationfcommunitynd individual

identity.5he ingenuityf this dea for tstime ay in thefact hat t retrievedhe

perceiveddifferencesf urban nhabitantsrommoral,political, ativist,nd some

religious rguments hatnaturalized ertainbehaviors s inherento particularly

depravedgroups.What t did not lwaysdo,however,was question hecultural ndclassist ignsofdepravity;nstead tgavereformersoth n ideology ndmethodol-

ogyto effect reformationf uchproblematicndividuals.

Before xtrapolatingnthe pecificharacterfHull-Houseand theperformance-inflected hilosophies upporting nd derivingfrom t, I want also to resituate

Progressive eformn light fanother verlapping istoriographicaltrain-thatofAmericanwomen'shistory.his mportantrame n Hull-House s central ounder-

4 Paul Boyer,UrbanMasses andMoralOrder nAmericaCambridge:HarvardUniversity ress,1978);RobertWiebe,The earch orOrderNew York:Hill andWang,1967); ee also,JohnKasson's differently

conceivedproject nRudeness ndCivility:Manners nNineteenth-CenturyrbanAmerica

NewYork:

Hill and Wang,1990).

SBoyer,UrbanMasses, 220. See also, Thomas Haskell, The Emergencef Social Science Urbana:

Universityof Illinois Press, 1977) and George Stocking,Race, Culture, nd Evolution Chicago:

University fChicago Press, 1982).







GENDER,THEATRE,AND AMERICANREFORM / 341

standingthe social role of theatre nd otheraestheticpractices n enablingand

legitimatingemale eformers hile also fillingut Edithde Nancrede's omplicatedlocation.Concomitant ith heProgressivera's urban umultnd emergentpirit f

socialchangewas another ocial trendnvolving newgenerationf ate-nineteenth-century omen.White,middle nd upper-class,nd usuallyofProtestantescent,groupofhereditarymericanwomenemerged s thefirstdentifiableenerationf

college-educatedemales nly o find hat heir ewlywonaccess tohigherducationdid not come withreciprocalhanges n thegendered haracterfAmerican ubliclife.That s, latenineteenth-centuryoungwomen received xposure oa worldofideas and possibilitiesncollegeonly ofind hemselvesxpected oreturn othe ifeof heterosexualmarriage,motherhood,nd leisureddomesticityhatwas boththeburden ndprivilege fwell-to-do oungwomen.JaneAddams andEllenGatesStarrweretwo suchwomen.Cognizantf omewhat aively o ofthegreat socialmalaise"

that laguedChicago,deeply wareof he imitationsf privilegedndheterosexualdomesticityn their ersonal ulfillment,tarr nd Addamsembarked n an alterna-tive ife courseby moving ntoWestSide rooms n an abandoned mansionof theNineteenthWard.Working rom er ownsnareofdepression-andwiththeknowl-

edge thatherdissatisfactionas notunique-Jane Addams often epresented ersettlement cheme as an antidoteto youngwomen's inactivitynd feelingsofuselessness, aterwritingt length f whatshe named "thesubjective ecessity orsettlement ork" and theorizing he importance f providing cultivatedyoungpeople" with a "recognized utletfor heir ctivefaculties."6 hilethismotivation

maybe interpreteds an incarnationfclassist elfishness-using helives of the

marginalized or ne's ownfulfillment-thehetoric as in a sense morehonest hanthe language of traditional hilanthropyhatreveled in the unselfishnessndbenevolence fthewealthy.

Soon otheryoungwomen-includingEdithde Nancrede-and latermengatheredaroundwhatStarr nd AddamseventuallyalledtheHull-HouseSettlement ith

vague and self-consciously odesthope ofbetteringhecityand, perhapsmost

urgently,fsavingthemselves. he institutionrewtoa thirteenuilding omplexand a cadreofvolunteers nd residentswhopaid room nd boardwhile iving nd

working here, xercising ower nalmost veryvenue and for very ause imagin-able. While theHull-HouseSettlement as exemplary f a number fturn-of-the-

century eform fforts,his largelyfemale networkdistinguishedt. When JaneAddams eventuallyooked back to analyzeHull-House's initial etofcollectivized

yearnings,he would theorize hisparticularnvolvement fwomenas a distinctiveand essential ontributiono the welfare f American ociety. singthe term civic

housekeeping,"hearguedthat hetransformationsfthecityscapend citypoliticscreated ontingencieshat nraveled nynotion fthe private"home.Furthermore,women-skilled as theyhad beenhistoricallyntendingo the helter,hildren,ood,sanitation,nd healthof theirfamilies-were now best equipped to tend to thereformationf thecity, cityfigurativelyositioned s a largerhome. "The very

6Addams,TheSubjective ecessity"1892);ater epublishednTwentyearstHull-HouseNewYork:Macmillan,910), 3.Historicalnquiriesnto his tructureffeelingnclude, .Jacksonears,

No Place fGrace: ntimodernismndtheTransformationfAmericanultureChicago:UniversityfChicagoPress, 981);TomLutz,Americanervousness,903 Ithaca: ornell niversityress, 991);Elaine howalter,he emale aladyNewYork: enguin,985).







342 / Shannon ackson

multifariousnessnd complexityf a citygovernmentemands thehelp ofmindsaccustomed odetail nd variety fwork, o a sense ofobligation or hehealth ndwelfare fyoungchildren,nd to a responsibilityor hecleanliness nd comfort f

others."'7 hile omepresent-daycholarsmayquestionAddams's reluctance o offera moreradical critiqueof gender categories, see Addams's rhetoricalmoves as

discursivelyxpedient,ecastingvailablegenderedmetaphorsoargueforwomen'stransitionrom rivate o public ife nd exposingthe nstabilitiesf theprivate/public division n theprocess.As KathrynKish Sklarhas recently rgued,suchdiscourses urtheracilitatedlarger ational ransition,nwhichwomenbecame essand less exclusivelyssociatedwiththe"private"world ofdomesticitynd increas-

ingly ook na symbolic osition s the mbodiment fcivicvirtue or arger ationalcollectivities.he significancef this transition ould also have ramificationsnwomen'scultural roductionnd on theirmore pecific ole nthemaking ftheatre.

To theextent hat ivicvirtue arriedwith tconnotationsf bothcommunityndmorality,nd to theextent hat volutionaryheory oregroundedhe collective ndembodied aspectsof civicvirtue, heatre-making-orcivicplay-housekeeping"-would becomea productiverena forfemale eformers,llowingthem o incarnatetheir deal rolebyoverseeing modeof reformancehat xercised heir feminine"

capacitiesn moraldevelopment.

Finally, owever, ull-Housewasunique n ts ime or nother ointed nd,tome,

perpetuallyhallengingeason.WhenEllenGatesStarr ndJaneAddamsmoved ntotheNineteenthWard,theydid notdo so with the set ofhigh deals and abstractreformistrograms hatmanynow retroactivelyssociatewiththe modernist nd

scientificallyationalmethods ftheProgressivera;nor did theyhope toreplicatethe institutionaltructuresf themanycharity rganizationslready n existence

throughouthicago."There s to be nothing f the nstitutionrorganizationbout

it," wroteStarr. nstead,she said, they simply"intendedto live thereand getacquainted"and "to ask their riends f bothclassesto visitthem."Abiding n thebelief hat a personality as theonlything hat eally ouched nybody," tarr ndAddamsproposed highlyocal form f ociality,nethat ouldpropel flexiblend

contingentmode of reformhatresembled neighbor-to-neighborelationship armore han hierarchicalone.sThegoalsofreform ouldtherebyvolvepragmaticallyfrom hemidst nd struggle f thisrelationshipather hanfrom reformer'sre-

determined lan or abstractedet of urban deals.Thisepistemologyfproximityworkedon the lives of boththeprivileged nd themarginalized eighborswho

presumablyearnedof new behaviors nd realms of knowledgethrough actualcontact" nd daily nteractionith achother. s a journalist ould laterwrite, theladies fully elievewithTolstoy hatEnlightenments notpropagated ypictures,'not chiefly' ythe pokenword, rthemedium fprint,utbythe nfectiousxampleof thewhole ife f men."'

While not everyonewho eventually lustered roundHull-Housepracticed he

principle f"infectiousxample"consistently,nd whileAddams,Starr,nd others

7JaneAddams, Newer dealsofPeace New York:Macmillan,1907),185.8Ellen Gates Starr o MaryBlaisdell (Feb. 23, 1889)Box I Folder3 Ellen Gates StarrPapers,Smith

College.9MaryH. Porter, A Home on Halsted Street,"AdvanceJuly 1,1889).








took severalyearsto understand he difficultiesnd contours f such an ideal, itwould steerPositive nvironmentalismna slightly ifferent,ore ocal and flexibledirection. s the settlementrewand its network f affiliatesncreased, he Hull-

House methodparticularlyained from nd offeredntellectual inshipwiththeschool ofChicago pragmatism.hilosophersnd activeHull-Houseaffiliatesuch as

GeorgeHerbertMead andJohn eweyused the ettlementxperiences a case studyfortheir wn philosophical heories n thenatureof identity,motion, ociability,pedagogy, nd political ractice. onsequently, ead cametoproposethat he dealmethod freformhouldnotresembledealismpersebutthemoremobile onceptionof a "workinghypothesis."10eplacing finalizing erminology ith thispresentparticiple, eformmightbeginwithideas or goals,but theyshould stayflexible,readilyadapted or altered to meeta variety f circumstancesnd unanticipatedevents.Such a sensibilityn turn nformed is pragmatic heory f the social self,

promptingMead toemphasize heformativeowerof ocial nteractionndmimeticexchange n theon-going ormationnd reformationfpersonal dentity.imilarly,thispragmatic heory f theselfand sociality ay at the basis forJohnDewey'sformative edagogicaltheory." ewey theorized ducation s "a continual econ-structionfexperience"n whichchangeand growth rew from nd added to anindividual's storeofadaptableexperiences. ransformativeepetition-thedaptedrestoration f past events nto thepresent-was a central enetof active earningwhere each repetitiondjusted to fitnew circumstances hile new circumstancesadded toan identity'set ofrepeatable xperiences. roductively redating ontem-

poraryperformanceheory, eorgeHerbertMead's mimetic heories fthe self nd

John ewey'santi-formalist

heoryf ducation idnot

replicatehehostof cientific

methods,quantitative ertainties,nd attempts o "search for order"thatsomehistoriansssociatewith theProgressive ra. "We cannotmake a personsocialbylegislative nactment," roteMead; however, we can allow theessentiallyocialnatureof their ctionsto come to expression nderconditionswhichfavor his."'2Pragmatistsnd sympatheticull-Housesettlersmaintained faithnthepowerofcross-class nd cross-culturalociality o effectasting nd relevant ocial reform,understandinghat he ourse ndcharacterfthis iveddemocracyouldnot lwaysbeforeseennd wouldbe subject o constant evision. t the ametime,he nevitable

power inequities etween ettlersnd neighborss well as settlers' wn relativelyresilientredispositionstillmadeassumptionsboutwhoshouldbe imitating hom

inthismimetic nteraction.

This complicatednetwork fideals,sharedspaces,mimeticnteractions,owerinequities,gendered hopes, and latentbiographiesforms context n which to

interprethemethod, haracter,nd affect f Hull-House reformance.ettlers rac-ticed their thicofneighborlinessnd manifestedheir ommitmento locality nd

proximityhroughmanymodes ofculturalproduction,everal ofwhich, uch as

10George erbert ead, TheWorkingypothesisnSocialReform,"mericanournalf ociology5 (1899): 70. eealso, The ocial ettlement:tsBasis ndFunction,"niversityfChicagoecord2(1907-8),10,George erbert eadPapers, niversityfChicago. ndrew efferncludes chapter

on thesettlement ovementn TheChicago ragmatistsnd AmericanrogressivismIthaca ndLondon:Cornell niversityress, 993).11 ohn ewey, School s SocialCenter,"roceedingsf heNationalducationssociation1902),

374-83.12Mead, Working ypothesis,"70.








athletics,estivals,agentry,ong, ocialclubs, nd other ames,had a performativeelement. t also impinged pon thepragmatic heatref"civicplay-housekeeping"where ommunitiesndbodieswere ubject oconstant ecreation.

Theatre and theMakingof Community

WhenDorothyMittelmanigelrememberedow "we came toHull-HouseeverySaturday," he invoked the simultaneous ense of collectivitynd routinethatcharacterized errelationshipo thesettlement. he "we" referredo a particularsocialformation-theMarionette lub-that existedwithin larger etwork f ocialclubs and classes. "Every Saturday" llustrated he degreeto whichHull-House

sociality ouldbecomean incorporatedartofeverydayife nd act as a symbol f

continuityndstability ithin heneighborhood.ull-House ettlerseganmodestly

to overcomethe fracturednd segregatednature of WestSide Chicago throughgatherings,inners,nd side-walk onversationshatater ormalizednto ocialclubsand routinized vents.As theneighborhood isitors ncreased nd thecoterieofsettlers nd volunteers rew, herewere soonthirtyofortylubsor classesthatmet

regularlyn tsparlors, ining ooms, tudios, nd anexpanding etofnewbuildings.Some-such as theWorkingMen's Social ScienceClub-gathered arounda shared

politicalnterest,thers-such s the talianMother's lub-based onshared thnicity.Manycame for edagogicalreasons,whether o earn rthistory,o mprove nglish-speaking, rtocultivate articularndustrialkills.JaneAddams nterpretedhebasic

principle ehind hese ocial formationsithin he volutionaryiscourse fcommu-

nity.Thusthe valueofthe ocialclubsbroadens ut n one's mind o an instrumentfcompanionshiphroughhichmanymay e ed from sense f solationooneof ivicresponsibility,ven s anotherype f lubprovidesecreationalacilitiesor hosewhohavehadonlymeaninglessxcitements,r s a thirdypepens ew nd nterestingistasof ife othosewho re mbitious.'3

The most ignificantroportionfthese ocial clubswerecomposedofchildren nd

youngpeople,partly erived rom he onstraintshatwork ndparental esponsibil-ity lacedon adultneighborsndpartly rom dispositionoward heyoung s more

adaptableand therefore oreresponsive o the mission f reform.nteringHull-

House franklynsearch fthat leasure nd recreation hich llyoung hingsrave,"theseyoungpeopleformedntogroups, doptednames uch as The DrexelClub,theLincolnClubortheAriadne lub, ndparticipatedn activities nder heguidanceof

assigned lub eaders.The Hull-HouseWoman'sClub was one oftheonly dultclubsthat nteracted iththechildrennd youngpeopleon a regular asis,a connection

supported ythediscourse fcivichousekeeping.It s butnatural, erhaps, hat hemembers f theHull-HouseWoman'sClub .. shouldhave offeredheir ssistance nour attempt o provide recreation orthese restlessyoungpeople," wroteJaneAddams.Women's ttentiono such concerns eproduced heir omestic ole n thecivicsphere, urturingheemotional ife f a throngfcity hildren.14

13Addams, Twenty ears tHull-House, 53.

14bid., 54.








In light ftheattempt o createpragmatic ocialities hatwould "broadenout inone's mind to an instrument f companionship," ddams increasinglyame torecognize hesocial value ofnon-verbal orms f interaction,nvestigatingmodes

other han themedium ftalk"for he reation fvitalpublic pheres.15hiftingerattentiono thecommunity-makingower of "play" and the "public game," she

developed a performance-centeredocabulary hatfurtheredheMeadian hope of

creatingconditionswhichfavor" he essentiallyocialnature fhuman ction."

These ublic ameswould lsoperformsocial unctionnrevealing en oeach ther,fort s nmomentsf leasure,f motionalxpansionhatmen o thismost eadily.lay,beyondnyother uman ctivityulfillshis unctionfrevelationfcharacterndisthereforeost sefulnmodemities hich refull fdevices or eeping en partndholdinghemgnorantf ach ther.16

Predating ohnHuizinga's conceptfhomoudensndVictor urner's

well-circulatedtheories fcommunitas,ucha theoryfplay nturn nderwroten argumentor herole of theatricalracticesnpragmaticocialreform,lbeitwithin modified isionof "Art." n thefollowing assage,fornstance, ddamsquestioned he ogicbehindsomeart-based eformracticesyre-evaluatinghemwithin newsocialconceptionof aesthetics.

Ifweagreewith recentefinitionfArt,s thatwhich auses he pectatoro osehissense f solation,heres nodoubt hat he opularheatre,ith ll ts aults, ore earlyfulfillshe unctionf rt orhemultitudefworkingeople hanllthe freealleriesandpicturexhibitsombined.'7

While retaining prejudice gainstthe "faults"of the popular theatre,Addamsemphasized differentunction or he aesthetic bject. ocusing n itscommunica-tivepower and on thekind of felt ollectivityt engendered, he connected hemediumof theatre o the social functionfplayand to thehope thatthesingularindividual ould "lose his senseof solation."

A recognitionf the roleof theatre n forging spirit fcommunitynChicago'sWestSide underwrotemanydescriptionsnd accounts,nd itshistoricizationeces-

sarilyrequires nalysisof theatrical ehearsal s much as of theatrical roduction.Additionally,t forces ttentionn therole ofperformance racticewithin largernetworkof settlementociality. ettlersfound thatthe process of producinga

performance eneratedunique affectiveonds amongsttentativelyormed ocialgroups.Thus,receptionshat pawnedweeklymeetingsnd socialclubsof ndividual

immigrantnd young people's groups, ater urningo clubs of mixedgender ndmixedethnicity,ainedsoliditynd staying owerwhencautious nsembles urned

intoperformancensembles. hedevelopment f whatRaymondWilliams alls the"formations"fcultural roduction-thoseforms forganizationnd self-organiza-

isJiirgen abermas,TheStructural ransformationfthePublicSphere:An Inquirynto Category f

Bourgeoisociety,rans.T. Burger nd F. Lawrence Cambridge:HarvardUniversity ress,1989).Some

critiques nCraigCalhoun's editedcollection,Habermasnd thePublicSphere Cambridge:MIT Press,

1990) lay thebasis for heorizing heatre nd performancesproductivepublic spheres,particularlyNancyFraser, RethinkinghePublicSphere,"Geoff ley,"Nations,Publics,and PoliticalCultures,"

and MaryRyan,"Genderand PublicAccess."16JaneAddams, "Public Recreation nd Social Morality," roceedings1907),24.17Addams, Democracynd SocialEthicsNew York:Macmillan,1902),57.








tion" createdby artists hemselves-was in itself pragmatic eformoal of Hull-House theatre.'8While other rt forms equire xtra-artisticrganization etweenfellowpractitionersn the formof guilds and academies,some type of groupformations generally uilt ntothe execution f the theatricalrtistic rocess tself.Therefore,twas ideally uited n Hull-House'sformativeears s a meansof reatinggroup amaraderiewithintsvarious ocial clubs.AsEdithde Nancredewould sayof"dramatics" oa conferencefreformers:Certainly e at Hull-House have foundnoothermeans so successfulnholding largegroup ogetherromhildhood, hroughadolescence nd intomaturity."'9heargued hatmembersould ose nterestn other

typesof social activitieswhile neverallowingthe sense ofcollectivity ercolatingaround thepractice ftheatre-makingodiminish.Allofthe lubs have a decidedlysocial side, and give numerousparties, otillions, nd picnics,untilmost of themembersrethoroughlyrown p andbegin omarrynd tosettle own,whenthey

becomepurely ramatic lubs."20incethe ocial clubs tried oencouragemeaningfulsocial nteractionetween oyalmembers,heatricalctivity as extremely elpfuln

enabling uch ensemble ociality.dithdeNancredewouldwrite oJaneAddams that"there s one thing absolutely now. t is the art'side thatholds themwhentheygrowolder.No matter owgood a time givethem ocially,heywould driftpartafter hey regrownup butfor heplays."''21

Individualaccountsgivea picture f howpragmaticociality peratedwithin hetheatricalerformancerocess tthehighlyocal evelofpersonalnteraction. adgeJenison,irector ftheLincolnCluband of ts1901performancefTheMerryWivesfWindsor,ecalls how theprocessofrehearsingheplay together evelopedbonds

amongstthe club members nd served a pedagogical function. he particularlyfocuseson how the rehearsal rocessprecipitatedalued social nteraction.

Sometimesheyame hroughlizzards.. they o notget wayfrom ork ntilix; twasninewhen heyame.Werehearsedntilleven 'clock,nd then ometimes esatand alkedf he lay ntilmidnight.twas nendless elighto alk f t, speciallyf hecostumes.... neverold hem oread henotes ndcommissaries,ut hey id;therecame his ungerounderstand.22

After certain oint, heplayovertook hesocial ife fthe lub."Itwas splendidtosee theplay unfoldingtself rommonth omonth,nd enteringntotheir peech;

conversationould onlybe conducted nterms fTheMerryWives."23hisemphasisonprocess ndgroup ohesion idnotmeanthat heatricalroductionsid notcauseoccasionalepisodesof ntra-clubonflict.Whilesuch incidents suallyrequired he

improvised nterventionf club directors,morenoteworthy ere thosemomentswhen the young performersmanaged such crises amongstthemselves.After

1"RaymondWilliams,he ociologyfCultureNewYork: chocken ooks, 982), 7.19Edith eNancrede,DramaticWorktHull-House,"layground2 Aug.1928): 71,Jane ddams

Memorial ollection eel51-1259 nd "Creative ossibilitiesfArt or hildren,"aperdelivered tMidwest onferencentheEmotional ife ftheChild, almerHouse,ChicagoMarch ,1930),

JAMCReel51-1259.20Edith eNancrede,DramaticWorkt HullHouse,"278.21NancredeoAddamsAugust 3,1931)JAMCReel22-801-806.22MadgeJenison,AHull-House lay,"Atlanticonthly1906), 6.23Ibid., 8.







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Figure . "LeBourgeois entilhomme,"920. orothy ittelmanigel second rom heright) laysLuc








particularlyrduousand disappointingehearsal, enison ecounted ne such inci-dent.

Oneboywastired,e wanted is upper,ndhe took ishat ndovercoatogohome;hadseenhim ackednto corner,ith hreerate ewishoys hakingheir istsnhisface,nd hriekingmprecationsnhis ar;n fewmomentsecame round,hamefacedandapologetic.24

Thus, nmany ases,theperformancerocess ould combinewith ther ontingenciesofgroupdynamics-time onstraints,ower nequities,ndpersonaldifferences-to

bring mbeddedsocial difficultieso the surface. o theextent, owever, hat uchconflicts erenegotiatedwithin hegroup, heresolution f moments f crisis ould

encourage heformationfcommunity.

Despite personalconflicts nd logistical ilemmas,descriptionsf the theatrical

process onfirmtsenormous tilitynbuildingntra-clubommunity.s an artformthat equired he o-operationf ndividualsn a group, s a creative ndeavorwhosesuccesshingeduponmutual upport ather han ompetitionetween rtists,heatrewas mostproductiventhe service f a reformgenda.Edithde Nancrederomanti-

callydescribed he ll-nightechnical ehearsals hat, hroughharedtrial,nevitablysolidified hecast.Additionally,enisonecalled hepleasures fgroup nvolvement.

Best f ll was the spritecorps ithwhich heyame o ineupabout heirlay, hisworkingor commondealwhich aswithouthemselves.taket hat nofficeoywhofeels hat e spart f he irms nstep obecome he irmtself.25

When theactualproduction fher club's TheMerryWives fWindsorookplace,analreadyestablished ense ofcommunity as celebrated hroughout,ach member

watchingwithout hemselves" ponthe reationf heir o-operation.Atthe ndofeach actthey mbraced ach other nd shookhands.During he cenes, hey tood nsilent,xcited roups t thewings, istening." ccounts uch s these llustrateheroleof theatrenachieving highlyocalform fsociality,ne that ormed provisionalcommunity long pragmaticinesand that ncarnated theatrical ersionofJaneAddams'stheoryfplay.

In so far s the llusion fthedrama ucceedsnputtingmanback nto ncestralndprimitivemotions,thas close elationo he unctionf lay .. the heatren ts bility

tobringmen ogethernto common ood ndtounite hemhroughmutualnterestnelementalxperiencesasmanyuggestionsor ormsf ublic ecreation. as the imilarand nterchangeableseof heword play"mayndicate.26

Itwas throughuch aesthetic ractices hat he settlementould actualize tssocialideal ofcommunity,lbeit n the otherwise nremarkable ealm of a modest socialclub, ed by a less thanfamousfemalereformer,nd receivingess thanmarginalstatus n theconventional istoryf theAmerica heatre.

Additionally,ull-House theatre rovided way forfemale eformersopartici-pate in the active arena of sociallyconsciousworkwhile positioning hemselveswithin herelatively nthreateningiscourseof civichousekeeping.While not all

24Ibid.,8.25 Ibid., 0.26JaneAddams, "PublicRecreation nd Social Morality," roceedings1907),22-23.







350 / Shannonackson

Hull-House settlers nd theatre irectors ere female,womenplayedmostofthe

important oles in its creation nd promotion.n additionto the generalaid inrecreationalevelopmenteceived ytheWoman'sClub,women ed a range f ocial-cum-dramaticlubs.Edith de Nancredeeventuallyheaded a six-clubnetwork fchildren'sndyoungpeople'sclubsvaryingnagefromhree otwenty-one;orothyMittelman'sMarionettes ere mongthem.WhenLauraDaintyPelham eft erpostas president f the Hull-HouseWoman'sClub tohead up theHull-HousePlayers-the ettlementheatricalroupe hatwouldreceive hewidest ttentionndesteemed

reputation-thewogroupsmaintained strong elationshipfmutuality,heformer

financiallynd materially nabling heatrical roductions,helatter erformingtteas,talks, nd gatheringsponsoredbytheformer. he gendered uthoritynder-

writing ull-Housetheatre ouldevenexist t the acit evelof patialrelations.Whenthe ettlementonstructedseparate uditoriumohouse ts heatricalroductions,t

was perhapsno coincidence hattheHull-HouseWoman's Club transferredhelocation f tsmeetingso thisnewspace,storing ups and saucers for heirweeklyafternooneas amid thepropsand costumeskept by theyoungpeople's clubs.27Furthermore,hen thesettlementaterbuilt Bowen Hall-a separate buildingtohousetheHull-HouseWoman'sClub-Edith de Nancrede gainenacted herecipro-cal relationshipetween emale eformnd theatrey moving heproductionsfher

youngpeople'sclubstothisnewspace.

The roleofthetheatrencreating ommunityxistednotonly t the evel of ntra-club interaction.escriptionsnd editorialsn the Hull-House ulletinuggestthattheatre lso serveda uniquefunctions a facilitatorfinter-clubelations. ettlers

made such use of severalaspectsof the theatre-its tatusas a public event, tsinterdisciplinarity,nd its paradoxicalcapacityto break up structuralnsularityamongst heclubs.First, he theatricalxperiencewas inherently collective ventthat xtended oan audiencebeyond tsclub'sperformancensemble.MadgeJenisonacknowledgedhat club'sdecision oengage n dramaticserved functioneyondintra-clubohesion or uch"a publicoccasion... lendsprestigeoa club o smallthatit would otherwise emain bscure."28Thus,performanceolidified hestatus and

identityf a particularocialclub n theeyesof other nes.Furthermore,hepublicnatureof theatre ncouragedcommunicationnd mutualsupportbetween clubs.

Particularlyoteworthynexploringhis elationships thefact hat hefirstublica-

tionof theHull-House ulletinoincidedwith he ettlement's ore ctivepromotionof dramatics. heopening ssueofthebulletin xplicitlytated tsgoalas a meansof

encouraging ommunicationmongstthe variousbranchesof the settlement.n

articulatinghishope,JaneAddams borrowed he anguagereformersenerally sedtotheorizenteractivelayand ideal human ommunitiesn thecity t large.

Duringhe astyear hereasbeen ome ifficultynestablishingommunicationmongthemembersfthe ariousocieties,lubs,nd classesmeetingt Hull-House.Withoutthisommunicationhe dvantagef omingo social nd ducationenteruch sHull-House s largelyost.As a studentn a large chool ecomesnterestedn studies ndmethodsutside isownpursuits,o ata settlementachmemberhould earn oknowotherharacters,houghts,ndfeelings... It is hoped hat hese oticesmayprove

27Hull-Housenventories1901 nd1903), heJaneAddamsMemorial ollections,niversityfIllinois tChicago, ddendum0.

28Jenison,A Hull-House lay," 5.







GENDER, THEATRE, AND AMERICAN REFORM / 351

suggestivend timulatehe lubs ot nly o greaternterestn ach thers'ursuitsuttoward more enerouso-operation.29

Therhetoric fthebulletinuggested hat he ettlement'sffortstcreatingntra-clubcommunitywere almost too successful, hat the social clubspromoted kindof

insularityhat,funchecked, an counter o the dealsof Hull-House's mission.ThatHull-House participantshould "learn to know othercharacters,houghts, nd

feelings" lignedwith themetropolitanensibilityhe settlementromoted.twaswiththese oncernsnmind hatHull-House residentsmade a temporallyoincidentdecision ostage series fChristmas lays ndholiday ontatas. If heChristmasf1896 hould do somethingowardbreaking p theunconscious endencyfthe lubsand classes toward solation nd absorptionn their wn affairs,twould proveablessedChristmasndeed forHull-House."30hus, he ncreasendramaticctivitynthe middleof the ast decadeof thenineteenthentury trategicallyoincidedwith

shift n the structural rientation f the Hull-House settlementn general.Sincecommunicationnd co-operationcrossdifferenceas an integral artof theHull-House agenda,thenoveltyndpublicnature f heatricalerformanceroved obe a

productive ool nactualizing hisgoal.

Later,Addams would note an additional attribute f theatrical rtthatprovedfruitfulncreatingnter-clubommunity.otonlywas theatre n expressly ublic rtform,twas also an essentiallynterdisciplinaryne,often ombiningheskills ofseveral esthetic orms-music,movement,peech,visual magery-andthusrequir-ingthe nteractionf everal esources f he ettlementor ts xecution. sStuart oelHechthas

argued,esidentswere

quickto note nd

appropriateheatre's

olyphonicnature.31

Sometimesllthe rtisticesourcesf heHouseunitedn Wagnerianombination;hus,the ext f he Troll's oliday'was writtenyoneresident,et omusicy nother,ungby heMusic chool,ndplaced pon he tage nder he arefulirectionndtrainingfthedramaticommittee;nd the ittle rown rolls ouldnever avebumbled bout ogracefullyntheirleamingavesunlesshey adbeen aughtn the ymnasium.32

Thus, Hull-House residents apitalizedupon particular spects of the theatrical

medium-specificallytspublicnature nd itsinterdisciplinarity-toromote spiritof communicationnd co-operation.his use ofdramatics oes notonly lluminate

the means and methodsbywhichresidentsctualized a Progressivegenda in thesettlementocality, owever, or he nsights fHull-Houseworkers nto theuseful-ness oftheatre lso foregroundmportantharacteristicsf thetheatricalvent tself,particularlyhe extra-dramaticspects of its performancepace, its ensembleofindividuals,tsprocess,tspublics, nd itspolyphonicombination fartistic orms.

Occasionally, ull-Housesettlersmade even moreovert ttemptso use theatreobreakup the elf-containmentfthe ocialclubs, complicated eformancehat ameprecipitouslylose toviolating ragmaticociality venas it reliedon thecollectivespiritofplay.Such episodes trouble naive celebration f Hull-House settlers y

29Hull-HouseBulletin1896)JAMCReel 53-503.30bid. Dec. 1896)JAMC eel53-563.31' tuart oelHecht,Hull-House heatre: nAnalyticalndEvaluative istory"Ph.D.disserta-

tion,Northwesternniversity,983).32Addams, wentyears,73.








showingtheir nterventionsn neighorhood ociality,lbeit with an informednd

insightfulnowledgeofhuman nature nd human interaction. he mostnotable

example nvolved hecreation fa new theatreroupe omposedofthe "best"actors

from ifferentlubs.Suchan endeavorhad beenproposed arlier,ut"the oyalty ftheseyoungpeopleeachto their wnsocialorganization,reventedarryingutanysuch idea .... [I]nspiteof theenvyand jealousythatwas bound to occur, twasdecidedtotry o form Hull-HouseDramaticAssociation."33hiletheHHDA was

ostensibly ormedo thatHull-Housecouldproduce"better" lays, t s difficultobelievethatJaneAddams would have agreedto thisplan solelyon thebasis ofaesthetictandards.n ight fthe ettlement'sargerttemptodiscourage clannish-ness" ncommunityormation,owever,hedecision oform newtroupe uggestsdecidedly ocialmission hat ould be couched n the anguageof rtisticuperiority.To the extent hat newformation ould loosenclub oyalties,twas worth isking

"envyand jealousy" in order to achievean ideologicallyustified tructuralhift.Negativefeelingsmongstndividual lubperformers ight ave been a necessaryphase at an institutionhat now soughtto discourage ocial insularitynd club

autonomy.

Not surprisingly,heendeavor ncounteredmany difficultyn itsactualization.The idea ofselecting rom pool of"somehundred nd fiftyo two hundredyoungpeople" immediatelymposedan element fcompetitionmongst large groupof

performershohad beensafely istanced rom his ommon spectofthetheatrical

process. ventually,production as stagedfollowed ythe emporaryisbanding fthegroupand return findividual ctors o their espective lubs,a development

analogizedbyonechroniclers akin to"thedaysofthefeudal ystem, here ofightfor heoverlordwas considered greater onor hantofight or heking."M3ater,however, he associationregrouped nd continuedwithanother eries of plays,eventually ormingn entire heatricaleason.Gradually,he DramaticAssociationbecamea more ntrenchednsemble f tsown, development escribed ysome n

celebratory rosethat lso echoedmany reformer'sdeal for tssegregatedmmi-

grant ities.

Itsmembersraduallyecamemoreoyal o t nd acrificedts nterestsess nd essfortheirlder ffiliation....romhat imehe ermanencynd success f heHull-HouseDramaticssociationasassured.heplayersecame unifiedody. raditionsormed

and oyaltyssertedtself.nthusiasmook he lace fdoubt.35The firsttories ftheDramaticAssociation xemplifyheroleof dramaticsn thecreationnd re-creationfcommunitiestHull-House. nparticular,treflects ull-House's commitmento certainkindsof communities,nes thatwere outwardly-directed s well as inwardly table. t encouraged ndividualsto be members f

severalcommunitiesather hanto remainnsulatedwithin single group, o be a

memberof a social club and a dramatics lub and so "to knowothercharacters,

thoughts,nd feelings" esidesthose lreadyfamiliar.Whilesecondary istoriogra-phyonHull-Housetheatreas nterpretedheformationf heHHDA as a triumphf

33AlbertD. Phelps, How theHull House PlayersFoughtTheirWaytoSuccess,"Theatre agazine 0

(Nov. 1914):230.

34bid.,231.35 bid.








"aesthetic" oncerns ver "social" issues,another erspectivehat ncorporateshe

complexityf the settlement'sxtra-theatricalrouprelations emonstrateshat heHHDA also servedparticularlysocial"ends.36Whileselectingbetter" erformersmay well have produced "better"plays,the fact thatmembersof several clubsparticipatedn a singleensemble lso marked transformationn thesettlement'sgroup relations nd a theatricallychieved step towardthe ideal of progressivecommunities.

Theatre and BodilyReformation

Inaddition otheproductiveole heatrelayed ntheformationf ommunity,he

practicewas also placed in serviceof anotherparallelbrand of reform. dith deNancrede'sdance class-its orderlyine, tsbowsandcurtsies,tsmodesof ddress-illustrates he settlement

orkingwithin nd

againsta discourse hat ssessed the

everydayperformancesfself enactedby heterogeneous ity nhabitants. s sug-gested arlier,erformativelements uch s dress, aste,manners,peech, ndbodilycomportment eredulynotedbyurban nterpretersnfamiliar ith mmigrantnd

working-classifference.ull-Housegenerally ollowed he belief hat uchdiffer-ences were not innatebut cultivated nd, therefore,ould be recultivatedlongalternativeines.AsJohn asson has argued, eformersften ocused ntherealmofmanners s a meansofre-creatingumanbeings; thevaluesofthese odesradiatedbothoutward nd inward.Theyprovided tandards ywhichtoassess entire ocialclasses,ethnic roups, nd culturesoftenustifyingheirubordination),hileatthesame timetheyextendeddeep intothe individualpersonality."37hus, formany

reformersnd Hull-House ettlers,uch materialspects fpersonal dentityngagedinteractivelyith a person'smental ife nd could lay thebasis forthe ndividual

development f moral"character." his was especially rue ofyoungpeople who,because theirhabitswere ess entrenched, eremore daptableand therefore ore

responsive o transformativeepetitionnd the"continual econstructionfexperi-ence." Hull-Housesettlers ften ombined his ffort ith Deweyianmodeloftheself, ecognizinghat earning appenedpragmaticallynthe ubtlegiveand take ofdaily interaction nd experientiallyn the accumulation nd adaptationof newencounters. nticipatingierre ourdieu's oncept fhabitus,eweyandhissympa-thizers ecognized he mportancefdisposition,ommon ense, ndembodimentn

theconstitutionf ocialsubjectsndofhowsuch"tastes nddistastes .. more handeclaredopinions, orge he unconscious nity fa class ... impressinghemselvesthrough odily experienceswhichmaybe as profoundlynconsicous s thequietcaressofbeige carpetor the thin lamminess ftattered,arish inoleum."38nceagain,female eformersound hat hisfocusonyoungpeople'smoraldevelopmentcouldeasily upport nd be supported ythediscourse fcivichousekeeping. tthesame time thatHull-House promoted hisreformationf the self n a lightof apragmatic heory fthe elf, therHull-House residents nd agenciesparticipatedndevelopingdiscourses f uvenilehealth nddelinquencyhat nderwroteegislative

36

Hecht.37 asson,RudenessndCivility,.

38Pierre ourdieu ndLoicJ.D.Wacquant, n nvitiationoReflexiveociologyChicago: niversity

ofChicago ress, 992), 27.Theconnectionetween ewey ndBourdieu as alsobeen entativelysuggestedn this ook.








reformsround hild abor r the nstitutionf eparateuvenileustice ystems. hus,as the argumentsnd enactments round theatricalollectivityeproducedHull-House discourses furbancommunitynd attendant ffortst social formation,o

those round hematerialnd mental ormationfyoungpeopleadvanced longwiththe ettlement'sepresentationndadministrationf uveniledevelopment. ogethertheseoverlapping rguments,methods,nd extra-theatricaleform ffortsoincidedwiththeform fpersonalrecreationnactedbyHull-House's civicplay-housekeep-ing.

Suchuses of theatrenthecombined ultivationfaestheticnd moral ensibilitylay n the mbodied, nvironmental,nd enactednature fthemediumtself,nethat

uniquelyfacilitatedhe nculcationfa transformationnsensibilityndbehavior.Atvariouspointsn her alks ndramatics, ddamscommended he heatre s a "meansof

traininghe

youngpeopleofthe

neighborhoodnmannersnd

personalefinement

andcourtesy"39othe xtent hat heatricalerformanceequired certain mount f

bodilydiscipline nthepartofperformersnd to the xtent hat rainingnpersonalrefinementlsorequired neighbor's odilydiscipline,heformerould beemployedin serviceofthe atter. heatre lub leaders,for nstance,amentedyoung people'sundisciplinedomportmentsingreformistanguage.Describing ow a youngboy"had that trollingendencywhich seemsto go nowhere nd comenowhere, hat

moonlight-walk-by-daylightanner fexit nd entrancewhichwillmakeanyscene

lag," one director ramed his esthetic eficiencyn languagethat lso echoed thediscourseof juveniledelinquency eingformulatedn other ettlementrenas,adiscourse hat ttemptedocategorize nd describe heperformedignsof uvenile

"incorrigibility,"truancy,"nd "loitering."40To effect transformationn thestudents' odily comportmentequiredforthe

stage,Hull-House often olicitedthe aid of the dance studios, for, s Edith deNancredewrote, [f]olk ancing ndrhythmicancing orm very mportantart n

thetraining,nd are nvaluable nteaching xpressionhroughheuse ofthebody."41Since the body was a sign systemboth on and offstage,ts co-ordinationnd

familiarityithnewsignals nd motions lso symbolized he uccessofHull-Housetheatrend of theHull-Housereformrojectmoregenerally. n theday DorothyMittelmanmarried ouisSigel,Nancrede elebratedhegracewithwhichMittelmanwalkeddownthe isle, ttributinghe uccessof he rhythm"lasses naestheticizing

thisperformancefeverydayife.42hus,Nancrede nacted classed cultivation ftaste,whatPierre ourdieuhas called"distinction,"n which gents earnednotonly"to take n aesthetic oint fviewonobjects lready onstitutedesthetically.. [butalso]the venrarerapacity o constituteestheticallybjectsand would added self-

presentationaltyles] hat reordinaryf ven common'" pplying uchprincipleso"themost verydayhoices feverydayife."43Moreover,uch statementsfEdithde

39JaneAddams, Spirit fYouthntheCity treetsNew York:Macmillan,1909),76.

40Jenison, 6. See Kasson,RudenessndCivility,12-214.As an example ofHull-House residents'

theories f therelationship etween hilddevelopment nd environment,ee SophonisbaBreckinridge

and EdithAbbott,TheDelinquent hildnd theHome

NewYork: CharitiesPublication Committee,

1912).41 Nancrede,"DramaticWorkatHull House," 277.42Author'sPersonal nterviewwithDorothyMittelman igel,May 1994.43Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction:A Social Critiqueof theJudgementf Taste,trans. Richard Nice

(Cambridge:HarvardUniversity ress,1984),40.







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Figure .Saturdayance lass nBowenHall, irca 930. hoto:WallaceKirkla







356 / Shannonackson

Nancrede nd otherwomencolleaguestacitlynvoked heir wngendered uthorityas female heatre orkers,ppealingtotheatre's eformativeowersby highlightingitsrole ncreating irtuous nd healthy hildrenndyoungpeopleand thusplacingtheatricalractice n a gendered lanewith ther anctioned ffortsfwomen'scivichousekeeping.Moreover,heperformed emorynacted y DorothyMittelmanigelin my openinganecdote a memory hat he has performed orme severaltimes)attests o the mpactofsuchreformationsn herembodiedhistory,ne thattakes

shape in an extended rm,workingnside agingmuscles thatcan stillmanage a

gracefulurtsey.

Suchcultivationsndistinctionnd their eformationfneighborhabitus" ontin-uedwhen settlers emonstratedhat uchbodily djustments ere ntimatelyelatedto spatialhabits-thatbodydisciplines nd thespatialconfigurationsfrooms ndfurniture

mutuallyreinforcedach other. ince the assumption hatchanging n

environmentouldchange he haracterf ts nhabitantsnderpinnedhemovementof PositiveEnvironmentalism,hecreation f and performance ithin lternativetheatricalettings einforcedhe nvironmentaleformsoughtduring hisperiod n

Chicago. By producingplays thattook place in parlorsand by inculcating hecharacter ehavior ppropriateo sucha space,some Hull-Houseproductionsndi-

rectlynitiated articipantsn the set ofspatial tyles lso taughtn thesettlement'smother's lubs and model tenementxhibits crossthe street. dith de Nancrede

favorably nderscoredhe ntensity ithwhichhertheatreroupes ttended o the

beautyof their ets-whether bourgeois ining oomor a more ymbolic esign-suggesting otonlythedevelopment f an aesthetic ensibility er se but also the

applicationof thissensibilityo a surroundingnvironment.f youngneighborslearned o nhabit ndappreciateuchsettingsn-stage-setswhosefurnitureas of

such"goodtaste," costumewardrobegleanedmostly romhedonations fwealthy

Chicagophilanthropistsnd Hull-Housebenefactors)fsuch"well-to-do eritage,"and propssporting chinacollectiono lovelythat, s one reviewer aid, "manya

woman envied thepossessor"-theyideallybecame interestedn recreatinguch

settingsn their wnhomes."WhenJaneAddamsaskedEdithde Nancrede ohelpherargueto theCarnegieFoundationfor he mportance f thearts n settlement

reform, ancredeexplicitly otedthisvalued relationshipetween aesthetic nd

everyday nvironments.I am sure hat t simpossible o udgeoftheresults,nlyby

thosewhomake professionf omeformf rt... Onehasonly ogoto theiromes

to see theeffects.ou would be amazed at thecharmingpartmentshatgirls ike

Anna Behr,DorothyMittleman, hickie, nd indeed mostofthemyolderyoung

people have."4sNotingthatsuch "charming partments" eptby dramatics lub

memberswereproof f there-creativeoweroftheatre, ancrede nvoked heatrical

practice-orcivicplay-housekeeping-oncegainas a means o nculcatehehabitual

behaviorsand dispositions f a "better"habitusand moremorally ound urbanhomes.

Besides the embodiedand environmentalatureof themedium,theatre's ral

componentproved useful n reforminghe speech of its participatingeighbors.

Deviationsfromertain abits f peech ignaled ackof refinements obtrusivelys

44 AuthorUnknown, Hull-House Theatre,"June1902) JAMC51-1080-1081.

45 NancredetoAddams (August13,1931).








did lapses inbodilydiscipline. ramaticswas thusparticularlysefulwhen teachersmade "a greatpointof theuse of thevoice,ofpronunciationnd diction; ndwhatcould not

possiblyetaught

n oneplay

ayear,

an be inculcatednoneplay

ayear

fortenyears."46ome times uchvocal reformationocused ndeveloping rammatically"correct"habitsof pronunciationn place ofpatterns ndemic to a working-classperformancefpersonaldentity.ddams,fornstance, oted hat articipationnthe

playsofthegreat ramatistsecessarilyequiredmuchwork nd"hours f abor hatthe 'th' may be restored o its properplace in English speech."47 ometimes he

perceivedneedfor rainingnpronunciationrosefrom he ultural iversityfHull-House's immigrant eighborhood, vocal reformationhatfacilitatedmmigrantassimilation. hus,manywould celebrate hefact hat,despitethepresenceof "aFrenchman, German, everal rish, nd twoRussianJewswho could not speakEnglishwhen they anded in America" n one particular ast,"theelocutionwas

almostwithoutxceptionn a levelof xcellence nknown othe ommercialtage."48This micro-leveleformancectivityecame venmore ersonal ndintimate hen

itchanneled he motional omponentftheatricalxpressionnd hence heemotion

management ecessary or tsexecution.Associating perceived xcessof emotionwith ack ofrefinement,ettlersauded Hull-Houseperformershenthey efrainedfromuchaffectivendulgences.nthe arly roductionfAChimneyorner,ddamsnoted that his pretty omestic lay .. might asilybe spoiled byranting,ut...because twas givenwithdelicacy nd realfeeling,eld the ympathyf he udience

throughout."49ddams thusaligneddelicacy, otwithrepressed motion, ut with"real"feeling.While, ike allperformancef thepast, uchenactmentsre"lost"to a

performanceistorian,t s interestingospeculate n thedegree o which o-calledrealistic cting stylesderived from he class and cultural ensibility fbourgeoisresidents nd whether ther erformancetyles hat eceived he abel"indelicate" r"theatrical"idso becausethey xceeded he onstraintsfdelicacyndrefinementfsuch "naturalized"behavioralstyles.For instance, ertain xcessiveperformancestyleswere tolerated nd evenperceived s "life-like" hen used toportrayertaincharacters. ne theatre eviewerpplauded a youngHull-Houseactor'sdepiction fa dishonest nd immoral abor leadernamed BuckFoleyin TheWalking elegate,sayinghis "brassy,magnetic, hrewd,and evil labor pirateis photographicallyconceived ndcolorfullyxecuted." hat characterouldbe "colorfully"erformed

and stillbe "photographicallyonceived" uggests hatrepresentationsfworking-class mmoralityasily urned oa broader erformancetyle. heperceptionhat hiscolorfulportrayalwas also "accurate" reflects heextent o whichstereotypesf

working-classmotionalism,ocalvolume, ndbroadenedgestural tyles unctionedas naturalized mages and aural synechochen the Progressive ra's bourgeoisimaginary.he text ftheplayfurthereinforcedhe tereotypeywritingll ofBuckFoley's lines in "improper nglish peech"-ungrammatical hraseswhose wordsdroppedtheir ndings nd their th's."UnlikeBuckFoley, omKeating-thehonestworking-classabor eader n TheWalking elegate-spoke n an accentlesslyerfect

46Nancrede,DramaticWork t HullHouse,"277.47Addams, pirit fYouth,9.48Maurice rown,TheHull-House layersn Justice,'"heatreagazineSept. 911): 0.49Hull-HouseulletinJan.nd Feb.1898)JAMC eel53-652-653.







358 / Shannonackson

grammarnaccompaniedy"colorful"esturesndbodily omportment,erformativestyles hatpresumablyymbolized onestyndmorality.??

Whilemuchhasbeen madeof"realism" nd "naturalism" s ideologicaldramaticliterarytrategieshatworkon their udiences, ess has been made of therole ofrealism s an acting tyle n ideologically inding ts embodiedperformers.t asettlementhat rguedmore ften or hereformativeoleofperformanceorts ctorsthanfor ts udiences, he onnection as more hanperipheral.hisquestion s also

particularlynterestingn light f thenaturalizinghetoric sed finallyoarguefortheatricalerformancendfor erformance-basedettlementeformance.orNancrede,its ultimate ecreativefficacyame from hefact hat uchperformanceselt aturaltothe ctors hemselves. ancrede's heatricalehearsalsntroduced ew behaviors na waythatdidnotfeel ntrusive.nstead, abitswereproduced, estored,ndaltered

graduallynd in sucha way that heir nactmentelt pontaneous,s if temanated

from within"rather hanbeing "directed"from without."Consider one moredescriptionf Nancrede'smethod.

In twomonths-oftenn esstime-theyavemasteredheirineswithoutnowingt.Theyreneveret o asks fmemorizingutnaturallybsorb he lay.Hence heworksever pleasure.hey reepnto perfectllusion ndall iskeptweet,wonderfulndspontaneousorhem.5'

Thus,Nancrede'sdrillswerenotexperienceds "drill-like"o theyoungperformers,andher bilityn this egards themark fher ensitivitys a theatreirector.ndeed,theatre irectors illrecognizeuchan ideal of natural bsorptions a soundmeans

ofcreating ood theatre.n the ettlementontext,owever,uch an abilitywas alsothemark fNancrede's apacity s a productiveeformer.hequality fspontaneityand pleasantabsorptionn theseenactmentsbscured he tacit nculcationf indi-vidual reformation,n unregisteredatency hatalso exemplifiedhe distinctive

pragmaticmethod fHull-Housereform.ather han ssuming hetraits fabsolute

power,modernizingontrol, r hierarchized ondescensionhat irculatedn other

Progressivera reformrojects,uch ettlementheatrematched he thic fneighbor-liness, ubtlety, roximity,ontinuity,nd quietside-by-sidenessrticulateds themethodof settlement ractice. n a complicated ncarnation f the Hull-House

paradox, his eviceusedpragmatic nderstandingven as its nterventionistpplica-tion

side-steppedthe ideal of

reciprocityn a mimetic

xchange.Successfulat

infiltratinghecorporeal tyles f the ndividual o deeplythattheirperformanceappearedandfelt pontaneous,heatre'seelingf unmediatedensationnabledthere-creationf theProgressive ineteenthWardbodies.As DorothyMittelman igelhasrepeatedlyrticulatedome n an effortoconveyher xperiencef he ettlement:

"Weneverfelt hatwe werebeing taught' nything.t'sonlywhen look backnow

that realizeMissNancredewas teaching s ourmanners. ut hedidn't teach' t; t

justhappenednaturallyndbyexample."52

S0 heWalkingelegate,dapted yHildaSatt, AMC eel51-1107-1200.

51James 'Donnell ennett,Music ndthe rama," hicagoecord-HeraldMarch ,1906), ;JosephRoach xploresmbivalentefinitionsf"naturalness"nd"spontaneity"n earlierctingtylesnThe layersassionAnnArbor: niversityfMichiganress, 985).

52Author's ersonalnterviewith orothy ittelmanigel,May1994 ndApril 995.







....... . ...

r

-... ........ ..._

i.....

_;-now

. . . . . .. . .4'1f

77::

4 -0 -.. --

Figure . Childrens' ehearsaltHull-House,910.








Thus,Edithde Nancrede's nfectiousxample upremelyxemplifiedhe xperien-tial deal ofboth ettlement imesis nd pragmatic edagogy.And tothe xtent hatMrs.Sigelnow credits hese acit essons nmannerswithher own rise neconomic

mobility, ancredeequipped her withvalued cultural apital,even as Nancredeparadoxicallymade life decisions thatsuccessively istanced her from conomiccomforts.orothyMittelmanigelwould takeherreformedorporealtyles,teratingher peechand comportmento and a much-covetedosition tChicago'sMerchan-dise Mart in her late-teens. nd now that she has iterated nd reiterated uchenvironmentalracticesn herexchange f"charming" ineteenthWard partmentsfor arger nes fartherorth nd finallyo hercharmingWinnetka ome, he framesHull-House'simpact s an extension, ot a repression,f her own capacities, kills,andpowersofexpression.hese recorporealtyles hatMrs.Sigeltakesup andputsdown, ven n an oralhistorynterview here heappropriateshemuscular racings

ofthehistoryf her reformotranslatetsonce-therenesso thenow-herenessfmyconversations ith her.Meanwhile, s Mrs.Sigel embarked n a classic American

story feconomic ndgeographicmobility,dithde Nancrede tayedput, iving ntilher death at Hull-House,committingo a decisionto abandon theburdensandentitlementsf her gendered nd classed familialupbringing,nd, at one point,askingDorothy's usbandLouisto hock pieceof Nancrede'sfamilyewelry o thatshecould continue opayherroom ndboardatthe ettlement.

Conclusion

Awider nterpretationf estheticsndperformancehallengesomeassumptions

in thehistory f reform.t particularlyroubles he nterpretationhatmanyhavegivento nineteenthnd turn-of-the-centuryoluntaryssociations nd reformn-deavorson themovefromesssignificantultural ctivitiesothe "more mportant"work n changing abor, mmigration,rban, nd welfare olicy.Mostsignificantly,investigationf therole of "artistic ractices"n theeveryday ifeof Hull-House

uniquely lluminatestsrole ntheproductionf ocality, commitmento communi-cation,ontact,nd co-habitationmongst iverse roups hatwas both he ettlement's

goaland itsmethod. ultural nd socialformationsuch s festivals,xhibits,heatre,music,reading groups,dances, coffeehouses,ocial clubs,sports, nd recreationclasseswere the centralmethods ywhichHull-Housereformersorked to create

neighborhoodocality,n endeavor hatwas fundamentalather hanperipheral otheirmodel ofsocial change.At the same time, hisproduction f locality lwaysoccurrednan unequalencounter etween ettlernd neighbor,ne wheremimetic

exchanges idnotalways happenreciprocallynd whereresidentsntervenednthereformationfcommunitiesnd identitiessing method hat erivedparadoxicallyfrom n anti-interventionisthilosophy.Hull-House theatre nd reformancehus

exemplifieshesignificancef theexperientialo realmof thetheoretical, signifi-cance thatmeansattendingononverbal istoriographicalocumentsuch as inven-tories nd blueprintsnd taking eriously he embodiedaspectsof an oralhistorytransmissionnaddition o tsverbal ranscript. hatwas theorized erballyrounddiscourses fevolution, omanhood, ragmatism,ommunity,ndmorality as alsoenactedcollectivelynd embodiedviscerallyn themotionof a municipalhouse-keeper,hefocusedgaze of female heatre irector,heperformedsprit ecorps fgroupofyoungpeople,and theextended rmof a first-generationolish mmigrant








girlnamedDorothyMittelman. inally,he work ofsettlersikeEdithde Nancrede

epitomizedtheintersectionfperformancend reformn all itsbreath-takingndconflicted roductivity, productivityhatnow circulatesn theinfinitelyompli-cated,perpetually roblematic,nd always breath-taking omentswhen DorothyMittelmanigelraisesher rm, owersher eg, nd lifts erhead toholdthe yesof n

imaginaryeacherwhoseeyeshad onceheldhers.

gender-theatre and american reform

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