Common Name: Wood Stork

Scientific Name: Mycteria americana

Relationships to other birds: Wood Storks are members ofthe Family Ciconidae (storks) and are related to ibises, herons,vultures, and pelicans.

Nicknames: wood ibis, flinthead, ironhead, gourdhead, andgannet.

IntroductionSize and description ........................................................ 1Range ............................................................................. 1

Population StatusHistory in the United States ............................................... 1When and why was this species listed as Endangered? ...... 2

Natural HistoryBreeding ......................................................................... 2Foraging .......................................................................... 4Roosting .......................................................................... 5Flight ............................................................................... 5Seasonal movements ....................................................... 5

ConservationStork–human interactions ............................................... 5Contaminants .................................................................. 6Research ......................................................................... 6

Managing for StorksNesting habitat ................................................................. 7Foraging habitat .............................................................. 8

Programs to Assist LandownersU.S. Department of Agriculture ......................................... 9U.S. Department of Interior .............................................. 9Other groups ................................................................... 9

White Ibis Great Egret Wood Stork

(Harris Neck NWR)

Wading bird comparisonsWading bird comparisons

General InformationGeneral Information ContentsContents

RangeIn the United States, Wood Storks currentlynest in only three southeastern states: Florida,Georgia, and South Carolina. In the latesummer and early autumn months, after thebreeding season, storks disperse from theircolonies and are also seen in North Carolinaand the Gulf Coast states (Alabama throughTexas). Storks marked with leg bands asnestlings in Georgia have been observed asfar west as Mississippi. However, most, if notall, of the storks seen in Louisiana and Texasmay be dispersing north from populationsin Mexico. Wood Storks also are found inCentral and South America. The populationstatus of Wood Storks outside the UnitedStates ranges from healthy to threatened tounknown.

History in the United StatesHistorically, Wood Storks may have nested inall of the southeastern coastal states fromSouth Carolina through Texas. In the lastcentury, prior to the 1970s, all Wood Storknesting occurred in Florida, primarilysouthern Florida. As human population andagriculture grew in the late 1900s, demandson that region’s water supply increased andthe natural hydrology of southern Floridachanged. Numbers of nesting storks, whichfeed primarily on fish and therefore areclosely linked to regional hydrology (seemore below), dropped considerably in the1900s. At the same time, Wood Storks began

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Wood Storks are large wading birds thatusually feed in shallow fresh- and saltwaterwetlands and breed in trees or shrubs overwater or on islands. The appearance andbehavior of Wood Storks make them adistinctive sighting in wetlands insoutheastern states. The population of storksin the United States is at risk and is protectedas a federally Endangered Species. Thepurpose of this brochure is to informlandowners and other interested groupsabout the habits of this unique species andpresent ways to possibly aid in their recovery.

Size and DescriptionWood Storks stand 33 to 45 inches tall, weigh5 to 8 pounds, and have a wingspan of 58 to65 inches. Adult Wood Storks are generallywhite, except for their tails and the ends andtrailing edges of their wings, which are black.The head and neck of adults are unfeatheredand the skin appears dark and scaly. WoodStorks also appear to have a bald “cap” justover their eyes. The bill of the stork is dark,thick, and curves slightly downward near thetip. Their legs and feet are dark, althoughtheir toes are lighter in color and often appearpink during the breeding season.

Three “age-classes” of Wood Storks can bedistinguished, including the adults described

Adult Wood Stork (J. N. “Ding” Darling NWR).

above. Young storks in their first year afterleaving the nest have yellow bills and grayfeathers on their head and neck. Sub-adultstorks, between 1 and 4 years of age, have

darker bills than the younger birds and theirbald “cap” is apparent, but they still havesome feathering on their necks.

Because of their unique appearance, it isdifficult to confuse storks with other wadingbirds. White Ibis, which are all white with

black wing tips, aremuch smaller thanstorks and have red bills.

Juvenile Wood Storks (Harris Neck NWR).

Sub-adult Wood Stork (Everglades NP).

IntroductionIntroduction

Population StatusPopulation Status

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Distribution of Wood Storks in the United States and Mexico. Thegreen region denotes the likely breeding range. Following breeding,storks may disperse into areas denoted by dashed red lines.

Wood Storks feeding with other wading birds, including White Ibis (with red bills) and Snowy Egrets (MerrittIsland NWR).

breeding farther north. Regular nesting bystorks in Georgia was first reported in themid-1970s and in South Carolina in 1981.By the 1990s, 40-50% of Wood Stork nestingin the United States occurred in Georgia andSouth Carolina. An extensive, multi-agencyeffort is currently underway to restore thenatural (historic) hydrology of theEverglades ecosystem in south Florida andre-establish consistent stork nesting there.

When and why was this specieslisted as Endangered?

The Wood Stork was listed as a federally“endangered species” in 1984 due to thesevere drop in stork population sizethroughout the 1900s. The “endangered”classification means that there is a concernthat this species could become extinct if thenegative impacts continue. The populationdecline was thought to result from loss andalteration of the wetland feeding habitatsstorks need to survive. As an endangeredspecies, the breeding population of WoodStorks is now protected under theEndangered Species Act of 1973, which statesthat it is unlawful to harass, harm, pursue,capture, or collect any such listed speciesanywhere within the United States. All WoodStorks breeding in Florida, Georgia, and

South Carolina and their young are protectedthroughout the year by this act of Congress.Habitats that these birds require for nesting,feeding, and roosting are also protectedthroughout the year. State laws withinAlabama, Florida, Georgia, and SouthCarolina also protect Wood Storks. If youhave any questions concerning what youshould or should not do with storks and/orstork habitat on your land, please contactthe appropriate agency (within your state)listed at the end of this brochure.

BreedingHabitat—Wood Storks typically nest ingroups termed colonies or rookeries. Otherwading bird species such as egrets, herons,and ibis often nest at the same sites. Storksnest in trees or shrubs surrounded by water,as well as on islands. From 2-20 nests can befound in a single tree. Water around the nesttrees provides an effective protective barrieragainst most terrestrial predators. In droughtyears when nest sites are dry, or in othersituations when water is drained from undernest trees, the primary nest predator ofstorks–the raccoon–can literally wipe outmost of the nestling birds produced in acolony. Raccoons usually do not invadecolonies when wetlands have plenty of waterbecause alligators inhabit most of thesoutheastern wetlands where storks nest. Thepresence of alligators, which are largeenough to eat raccoons, usually keepsraccoons from swimming to nest trees. Thealligators in colony sites get the benefit ofconsuming any food or unfortunate nestlingsthat fall from wading bird nests.

Breeding Cycle—Wood Storks needapproximately 100-120 days for adults toproceed from courtship and nest buildingto the departure of their young frombreeding sites. The timing of stork nestingand the production of young are generally

Natural HistoryNatural History

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dependent upon feeding conditions in aregion. Storks nesting from central Floridato South Carolina usually start in late winter(February-March) and finish in July-August.This period includes the time of spring-summer wetland “drawdown” in this region.Fall and winter rains typically fill southeasternwetlands and result in the movement of fishinto new areas. As the region warms in thespring-summer period, increasedevapotranspiration (water loss from land andplant surfaces) results in dropping waterlevels in these wetlands, creating goodforaging conditions for storks (see morebelow). The breeding season of Wood Storksis generally timed so that these good foragingconditions will occur when storks need tofeed their rapidly growing young. WoodStorks nesting in southern portions of therange historically nest earlier than northernstorks, with nesting completed before theonset of summer rains.

Courtship—All storks have courtshipbehaviors or rituals that they use to get amate for the breeding season (they do notmate for life, as some other birds do). MaleWood Storks generally arrive at the colonysites first and establish territories (or sites)

Wading bird rookery (Birdsville–GA DNR).

where they hope to nest; these territories aredefended from other males. Individual femalestorks then begin to approach males. Malestypically chase the females from their nestsite over a period that can last from hours todays, until the male finally accepts the femaleas his mate or the female decides to tryelsewhere.

Parental behavior—Both parents build andmaintain the nest, which ranges from 20-35inches in diameter, and share in incubationduties. Storks can lay up to five eggs, but athree-egg clutch is normal. Eggs areincubated for 25-27 days prior to hatching.Hatchling storks weigh about two ounces(60 grams), and are attended by at least oneparent until they are approximately fourweeks old. Until they reach that age, they areprotected against avian predators such asvultures, crows, and grackles and are shadedfrom the hot sun. During very warm periods,

parent storks also collect water in their gulletand bring it to the nest to drool on and intothe nestlings. At four weeks of age, the chicks’down and feathers have developed to thestage where they can thermoregulate (adjustto external temperature changes) better andthey are large enough (chicken-sized: 3.3pounds/1,600 grams) that avian predatorsare no longer a major threat.

When nestlings are small, one parent protectsthe young while the other collects food for

Courtship (Chew Mill Pond–private land).

them. Nestlings grow at an incredible rate. Atage 14 days, they weigh 10 times more thanthey did at hatching and they are 25 timesheavier at 28 days of age. When the chicksare four weeks old, both parents leave thenest at the same time to forage for their youngand continue to do so until the nestlings“fledge” (leave the nest) at age 60-70 days.The young may continue to return to thecolony for another 10-15 days to roost or totry to get food from their parents. A colony isconsidered successful if its parents averageat least 1.5 fledged young per nest.

Female Wood Stork on the nest (Chew Mill Pond–private land).

Mating (Chew Mill Pond–private land).

water and literally push it through thewetland. When the bill bumps into a preyitem, the stork snaps it up with a lightening-quick reflex. Wood Storks feed mostefficiently in wetland habitats that have denseor crowded prey items, such as might occurin a drying wetland during the late summermonths. Storks use two behaviors toenhance their chances of capturing prey.They pump their feet under the water (foot-stirring), since that might startle a fish intomoving and make it more “catchable.”Storks also “flash” or suddenly extend a wingout away from their body to either startle afish into movement or provide a shaded areathat a fish may want to move into. Wood Storksfrequently feed in large groups, because thepresence of a few storks may attract othersto a potentially good feeding site or becausemore birds moving through the water willcause the fish to be more active and more

easily captured. By using tactilocation, WoodStorks can feed in muddy waters and at nightas easily as they can during the day.

Visual feeders such as herons and egretsmust be able to see the prey before they spearit or grab it with their sharp bills. Although

most herons andegrets are restrictedto feeding during theday, these birds areable to forage on theedges of deepwetlands, a habitatthat storks cannotuse effectively.

ForagingPrey—Wood Storks primarily eat small tomedium-sized fish (1-5 inches), but will alsotake crayfish, amphibians (usually tadpoles)and, rarely, small reptiles (snakes) and largeaquatic insects. They tend to consumevarious species of sunfish the most, but theseare the types of fish most typically found infreshwater wetlands where storks forage. Incoastal settings, they primarily consumecommon marsh fish such as Mummichogsand Killifish, and will take some shrimp inaddition to fish available in local freshwaterwetlands.

Behavior—Wood Storks, unlike most otherwading birds, feed by tactilocation (“touch”).Storks put their partially open bills in the

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Adult Wood Storks with young in the nest (Birdsville–GA DNR).

Larger prey items, like this gar, are occasionallytaken (Everglades NP).

Unlike most other wading birds, Wood Storks feed by tactilocation (Merritt IslandNWR).

Flashing behavior during feeding (J.N. “Ding” DarlingNWR).

Habitat—Wood Storks generally forage inopen, shallow wetlands, including ditches,temporary “wet weather” ponds or swamps,and tidal creeks, as well as forested wetlands.Wetlands that are ideal for storks must haveareas that are shallow (less than 18-20 inchesin depth) since storks must wade throughthem to capture prey. With their tactile methodof feeding, storks prefer to feed in wetlandsrelatively free of aquatic plants since theirpresence could inhibit the storks’ ability to“touch” and capture their prey. Typicalstocked fish ponds, with steep edges andwater at least 1.5 feet deep, are not goodfeeding habitats for storks unless the pondsare being drained.

Many southeastern freshwater wetlandsundergo a long-term or seasonal draw-downthat drops water levels and concentrates fishin smaller and smaller volumes of water.These wetlands usually are still water or veryslow-flowing systems. However, in the coastalregion, Wood Storks will often feed in tidalcreeks within marshes. Fish, having soughtfood and shelter within the grassy marshes,typically must exit via these tidal creeks when

Wood Storks typically feed on small prey.

Stork–Human InteractionsWood Storks are influenced by humanactivities at many levels. On a regional scale,the spread of the stork population fromsouthern Florida into Georgia and SouthCarolina is likely due to human impacts on

search of better habitats. Storks from Floridaoften travel north and feed in freshwaterwetlands and coastal salt marshes of Georgiaand South Carolina. Storks from northerninland colonies in Georgia and SouthCarolina also tend to move to coastal sites,before slowly moving to the south (Florida)for the coldest periods of the winter. Lownumbers of storks successfully stay the“winter” on the Georgia and South Carolinacoast, but some, typically juveniles, get caughtduring colder periods and die of exposure.

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the tide drops and drains the marsh. Storksusually feed in these creeks during the 1-2hours surrounding low tides, when waterlevels are lowest and the density of fish is thehighest.

RoostingWood Storks, like many species of birds, willroost or rest together in flocks (usually intrees) when they are not involved in an activitysuch as feeding or nesting. Potential reasonsfor this behavior include ease of locatingfeeding sites, increased vigilance and defenseagainst predators, and thermoregulation.Storks may roost in flocks so that lesssuccessful foragers can follow moresuccessful foragers to feeding sites, ratherthan try to find a site on their own. This wouldobviously benefit younger, less experiencedstorks. Free-ranging storks (those having theability to fly) have few predators and typicallyreside in warm climates that should notrequire group thermoregulation.

Storks often roost in habitats similar to thosewhere they nest, such as in trees surroundedby water or on islands. However, it is alsocommon to find flocks of storks “resting”on mud flats and on the ground near feedingsites. These sites are probably “day roosts”where the storks are waiting for changingwater levels (for example low tide) orincreased activity of prey (many species offish are more active and therefore more“catchable” at different times of the day)before they start to feed.

A Wood Stork “day roost” on the edge of a feedingpond (Silver Bluff Sanctuary–Audubon Society).

Adult and juvenile Wood Storks roosting in a tree (Chew Mill Pond–private land).As wetlands draw down, they become attractivefeeding sites for Wood Storks (Merritt Island NWR).

FlightWood Storks typically fly more like soaringhawks and vultures than like other wadingbirds that flap their wings constantly. Althoughstorks can and do use standard flapping flightfor short trips, they prefer to soar inconvective currents or thermals, circling inthese rising pockets of warm air to reachaltitudes of one to three thousand feet beforegliding to their destination or the nextthermal. By soaring, storks expend littleenergy while traveling as far as 30-40 milesto reach a feeding site.

Seasonal MovementsMovement patterns of storks are linked toabundance and availability of food. Asmentioned previously, storks breed duringa time of year when foraging conditions aremost likely to provide adequate food for theirrapidly growing young. After the breedingseason is over, both adults and juvenilescontinue the search for good feeding areas.If the local area around the colony contains

feeding habitat,Wood Storks willprobably stay in thearea. Typically,nearby feedinghabitats have beenfished out by theend of the seasonor are no longersuitable (too low ordry) for the birds,so they mustdisperse from theircolony sites in

ConservationConservation

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Human activity can disturb wading birds on feeding grounds (Merritt Island NWR).

the Everglades ecosystem. The endangeredstatus of this species results primarily fromhuman impacts on the south Floridaecosystem as well as the effects of wetlandloss and alteration on the regional landscapewhere storks try to live. On the local level,landowners and managers can impact storknesting, feeding, and roosting sites in bothpositive and negative ways.

Nesting sites are particularly vulnerable tochange, especially when the storks areactively nesting. Leaving the birds, and thewetlands they inhabit, alone is usually thebest policy. As mentioned, maintenance ofwater levels under the nest trees is vital tokeeping predators such as raccoons awayfrom nests. Removal of water and trees fromthe nest site should be avoided. Nesting sitesare protected under the Endangered SpeciesAct, even during the times of yearwhen storks are not nesting there.There are specific zones in which certainactivities are limited (see the USFWS HabitatManagement Guidelines for Wood Storks).If you are considering land management inor around a nesting site, please contact thestate or federal agency you have dealt withpreviously to find out what you can andcannot do, and to examine alternatives. Ifyou are interested in managing to enhanceWood Stork populations, see the section on“Management” below.

Wood Storks are susceptible to disturbancesthroughout the breeding cycle. Therefore,disturbances (loud noises, people in boats,etc.) in the nesting colony, especially at night,should be avoided whenever possible.Disturbing nesting birds can be catastrophicbecause parent storks will likely be flushedfrom eggs or young they might be attending,and eggs and young can be knocked out ofthe nest. Unattended eggs and youngbecome easy prey for other birds such asgrackles, crows, and vultures. The mostvulnerable stages for storks are duringcourtship, egg incubation, and when theyoung are learning to fly.

Wood Storks living in urban areas have grownaccustomed to the presence of humans.

Wetland foraging sites are also importanthabitats that need to be conserved. Ditchingor draining a foraging site has an obviousnegative impact by eliminating the aquaticlife used as food by storks. Flooding ofhabitats can also be detrimental by makingthe site too deep for stork foraging. Disturbingor harassing storks while they feed shouldbe limited. Although storks may acclimateover time to the presence of humans,particularly those in vehicles, and may notflush from a site as motorists drive past, it isbest to refrain from attempting to observethem too closely as they forage. It is also bestnot to try to “tame” wild birds such as storksby leaving fish or fish parts near wetlands.

ContaminantsWildlife can be negatively affected by variouschemicals used in industrial production andagricultural processes. These substancesmake their way into wetlands and can“magnify” in concentration as they move upthe food chain (for example, contaminatedalgae may be eaten by an aquatic insect thatis then eaten by a crayfish that is then eatenby a fish, resulting in fish with high levels ofcontaminants that may be fed on by storks).The best policy is to try to limit any chemicalspraying or releases near wetlands. Mercuryis an example of a pollutant that is enteringwetlands through a form of air pollution.Mercury is now found at varying levels inmost wetlands in the southeastern UnitedStates and studies indicate that Wood Storksthroughout their range have it in their tissues.It is not known at this time whether theobserved levels of mercury, which has nobiological function in stork physiology, areaffecting their ability to survive.

ResearchSeveral avenues of research have greatlyenhanced our knowledge about WoodStorks. Long-term studies of breeding biology,foraging ecology, and seasonal movementshave been conducted on several storkpopulations. Attaching color-coded legbands to nestling storks identifies known-aged birds from known locations.

Landowners and managers interested inmanaging wetlands to benefit Wood Storkscan receive technical, and occasionallyfinancial, assistance (see programs below)through various federal and state naturalresource agencies. If you are interested, youare strongly advised to seek this technicalassistance before attempting any techniquesto manage for storks.

Nesting HabitatOne of the most important managementstrategies for nesting habitat is making surethat water is maintained under the nestingtrees throughout the breeding season to limitpredation by raccoons and othermammalian predators. The ability to maintainwater levels will obviously depend on thenature of the site (natural or man-made)and the presence of some type of watercontrol device (for example, “riser boards”).The type of wetland, its natural water cycle,and the tree species present will influencesite management decisions. Many types oftrees cannot tolerate being flooded year-round and will die if the wetland is keptflooded year after year. Periodic drawdownof nesting sites for short periods when thebirds are not nesting can benefit the nestingtrees and shrubs.

Reduction of thick under- and mid-storyplants can eliminate over-water pathways formammalian predators. However, this shouldnot be done if other wading birds are usingthese trees and shrubs as nesting habitat.The removal of thick mats of aquaticvegetation can also limit the ability ofpredators to reach nest trees. Removal ofherbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees can beaccomplished by various mechanical andchemical (herbicide) methods. At siteswhere herbaceous aquatic plants are aproblem, stocking sterile grass carp may bean effective biological method of reducingthe density of herbaceous plants. There areseveral “Partners for Fish and Wildlife”projects (see below) directed at removal ofwoody and herbaceous vegetation in colonysites.

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Wood Storks can be affected by contaminants that“biomagnify” through food chains.

Subsequent sightings of these “tagged” birdsover the years provide information on storkmovements and longevity. During thebanding process, researchers also collectblood samples, which will be analyzed forcontaminants, parasites, and geneticattributes. Genetic studies conducted to datesuggest that Wood Storks in the Southeastare part of a single large population, despitebeing dispersed geographically into smallerbreeding colonies. In other words, storks insouth Florida are closely related to storks inGeorgia and South Carolina.

Successful Wood Stork breeding sites are isolatedfrom potential mammalian predators.

An SREL researcher banding a Wood Stork nestling(Harris Neck NWR).

Banded stork nestling being returned to the nest(Harris Neck NWR).

In cases where the trees and shrubs used bystorks for nesting sites are dying or areotherwise no longer available, or if you wantto provide nesting habitat where it is currentlylacking, artificial nest structures can beconstructed. Biologists with the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service designed structures made ofwood, re-bar, and fencing that storks havebeen using for nesting since 1992 at theHarris Neck National Wildlife Refuge. Plansfor the construction of artificial nestplatforms are available from the Fish andWildlife Service, Savannah Coastal Refugesoffice (see back cover).

Managing for StorksManaging for Storks

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Foraging HabitatManaging wetlands, ponds, orimpoundments as Wood Stork foraginghabitat can be as simple as letting water levelsbe controlled by southeastern climaticconditions. The Southeast typicallyexperiences a summer “draw-down” due toincreased heat, evaporation, and plantgrowth. If a wetland or pond has a watercontrol structure of some type, the adage “ifyou drain it, they will come” often works for

Artificial nest platforms have been constructed toencourage Wood Stork nesting in suitable wetlandareas on the Georgia coast (Harris Neck NWR).

“Riser boards” are used to control the waterlevel in a Wood Stork foraging pond (left andabove; Harris Neck NWR). A Wood Stork foragingpond created near Jacksonboro, SC (below).

Wood Storks on artificial nest platforms (Harris Neck NWR). Wood Storks foraging near the South Carolina coast.

storks, provided it is the time of the year whenWood Storks are in the area and the wetlandhas appropriate food for storks. Loweringthe water levelin a pondmimics anatural draw-down thatconcentratesprey intosmaller vol-umes of water.Owners ofseveral water-fowl impound-ments incoastal SouthCarolina work with the South CarolinaDepartment of Natural Resources to partiallydrain their impoundments to provideforaging habitat for wading birds.

Creation of new stork foraging habitat isobviously a more involved process, but it canbe highly successful. The U.S. Department ofEnergy cooperated with the NationalAudubon Society Silver Bluff Sanctuary tocreate the Kathwood foraging ponds nearJackson, SC. These stocked ponds, whichtotal 25 acres, have been used by WoodStorks every year since 1986, with as manyas 300 storks being seen on a single day.Kathwood receives its water from a creekand features a gravity flow system thatrequires no pumping. The Harris Neck

National WildlifeRefuge on the Georgiacoast also has stockedforaging impound-ments that are usedregularly by WoodStorks. Water must bepumped into theHarris Neck ponds tomaintain levels prior todraining. Bothimpoundment systemsuse “riser boards” tocontrol water levels.

Lowering the water level...

Near Jacksonboro, SC, a 10-acresupplemental foraging pond was establishedin 1995 one-half mile from a stork colonythrough the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service“Partners for Fish and Wildlife” Program.This site, which receives water throughrainfall and occasional pumping, has beenused regularly by storks since its creation.

Several programs have been established to assist landowners andland managers who have endangered species such as Wood Storksnesting, roosting, or feeding on their property, or who are willingto manage, create, and/or restore wetlands for use by endangeredspecies. These programs include land swaps to trade acreages ofland, tax incentives or relief, annual “rental” of properties, cost-sharing (varying percentages) to maintain and/or enhance naturalor degraded habitats, and cost-sharing to create or improveconditions for endangered species such as the Wood Stork. Theseprograms tend to be site-specific, so you should contact theappropriate agency to get detailed information about whether yourlands qualify for the particular programs (see contact informationon back cover).

U.S. Department of AgricultureFarm Service Agency or

Natural Resources Conservation Service

� Conservation Reserve Program—for restoring wetlandspreviously farmed.

� Environmental Quality Incentive Program—wetlandrestoration or improving wetland quality.

� Wetland Reserve Program—restores and preserves wetlandsthat have been degraded by agricultural practices.

� Wildlife Habitat Incentives Program—creates, enhances, andrestores habitats for upland and wetland wildlife species.

U.S. Department of the InteriorFish and Wildlife Service

� Partners for Fish and Wildlife—provides financial andtechnical assistance to restore and enhance wildlife habitat,especially for threatened and endangered species.

Other GroupsState agencies and/or private conservation groups such as

The Nature Conservancy

� Conservation Easements—protect property and consist ofrestrictions, similar to deed restrictions, that landownersvoluntarily place on their property to legally bind the actionsof present and future property owners.

� Easements with a Wetland Mitigation Bank—protect or restorewetlands, but may limit development.

� General Property Exchanges—some groups/agencies willexchange land that can be farmed or be logged, etc. for yourland that contains stork habitats.

We thank the administrators of the following National Parks andWildlife Refuges for assisting us with photography on their facilities:

Everglades National ParkHarris Neck National Wildlife Refuge (special thanks to John

Robinette)Merritt Island National Wildlife RefugeJ. N. “Ding” Darling National Wildlife Refuge (special thanks

to Jeffries D. Bolden)

This brochure was produced by The University of Georgia SavannahRiver Ecology Laboratory, in cooperation with the U.S. Fish andWildlife Service. Funding was provided by the U.S. Fish and WildlifeService (Cooperative Agreement No. 1448-40181-00-G-090 toThe University of Georgia) and the SREL Environmental OutreachProgram.

Text: A. Lawrence Bryan, Jr.Photos: David E. ScottLayout and design: Laura L. JanecekPrinting: Southeastern Color Lithographers, Inc.Printed on recycled paperAugust 2001

(Chew Mill Pond–private land)

Programs to Assist LandownersPrograms to Assist Landowners

AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments

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This brochure was a joint production of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service andThe University of Georgia Savannah River Ecology Laboratory.

FEDERAL

� U.S. Department of Agriculture–Natural Resource Conservation ServiceAthens, GA 706-546-2039Columbia, SC 803-253-3948Gainesville, FL 352-338-9543

� U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceCharleston, SC 843-727-4707Savannah Coastal Refuges, Savannah, GA 912-652-4415Brunswick, GA 912-265-9336Jacksonville, FL 904-731-3332Panama City, FL 850-769-0552

STATE

� Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission–Gainesville 352-955-2230� Georgia Department of Natural Resources–Brunswick 912-262-3143� South Carolina Department of Natural Resources–Green Pond 843-844-2473� South Florida Water Management District 561-686-8800� Savannah River Ecology Laboratory, Aiken, SC 803-952-7451

PRIVATE

� Audubon’s Silver Bluff Center & Sanctuary (Kathwood) 803-827-0781� The Nature Conservancy

Florida Chapter 407-682-3664Georgia Chapter 404-873-6946South Carolina Chapter 803-254-9049