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Chapter 1

How Do We Know?

Hunger

Personality

Depression

Independence

Judgment

Bigotry

Jealousy

Problem Solving

Intelligence

Memory

Ability

Aptitude

…

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P. T. Barnum

The Barnum Effect

(The Forer Effect)

Animism

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Philosophy

A way of acquiring

knowledge through

logic, intuition and

observation.

David Hume 1711-1776 Empiricism. a precursor of contemporary cognitive science, as well as one of the most thoroughgoing exponents of philosophical naturalism

Descartes 1596-1650 Father of Modern Philosophy

hyperbolic doubt

applied mechanistic framework to

plant, animal and human bodies,

sensation and the passions.

(cogito ergo sum)

August Comte 1798-1857

Founder of Positivism

The goal of knowledge is simply

to describe the phenomena

experienced, not to question

whether it exists or not.

Sociology

John Locke 1632 – 1704

Empiricism.

What can one can

legitimately claim to

know and what one

cannot.

David Hartley 1705-1757 Grounded consciousness in

neuro-physiology, mind in

brain.

Synthesis of neurology,

moral psychology, and

spirituality

Physiology & the Physical Sciences

Luigi Galvani

1737 – 1798 galvanic (or voltaic)

electricity

Alessandro

Volta

1745 – 1827 electric cell

Voltaic Pile

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Experimental Psychology

Gustav Fechner 1801–1887

the relationship between the mind and the body

founder of psychophysics

Wilhelm Wundt 1832-1920

father of experimental psychology

Principles of Physiological Psychology (1874)

first Psychology laboratory

Hermann Helmholtz 1821 – 1894

Physiological Psychology

Perception

Mechanics of the eye

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The Four Canons

Determinism

Empiricism

Parsimony

Testability

Determinism

Cause => Effect

The Universe (reality, nature)

is lawful

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There is an objective reality out there, but we view it through the spectacles of our beliefs, attitudes, and values.

~David G. Myers

Reality is merely an illusion,

albeit a very persistent one.

~Albert Einstein

How many legs does a dog have if you call the tail a leg?

Four. Calling a tail a leg doesn't make it a leg.

~Abraham Lincoln

Reality is that which, when you stop believing in it, doesn't go away.

~Philip K. Dick

As I was sitting in my chair,

I knew the bottom wasn't there,

Nor legs nor back, but I just sat,

Ignoring little things like that.

~Hughes Mearns

Determinism

In practice perfect predictions are

not possible, but if we knew all

relevant information about all

relevant variables, predictions

could be accurate.

Theories: An attempt to explain the

relationships between different

variables and their effects. A good

theory allows us to EXPLAIN

(predict)

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Empiricism

Knowledge through direct experience

Logic + Empiricism are critical to the

scientific method

Galileo 1564 – 1642

Parsimony

William of Occam 1288 – 1348

Occam’s razor

C. Lloyd Morgan 1852 – 1936

Animal Behavior

John B. Watson 1878-1958

Behaviorism

B. F. Skinner 1904–1990

Human Behavior

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Testability

Karl Popper 1902 – 1994

Logical positivism (logical empiricism ) Importance of empirical falsification

ODs (operational definitions)

E. C. Tolman 1886 – 1959

Maze learning in rats

Clark Hull 1884 – 1952

Learning, motivation and drive theory

How Do We Know

Intuition (tenacity, common sense)

Logic (reason)

Authority

Observation (experience)

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Intuition

Intuitions may be wishes, rather

than fact.

How do intuitions differ from

opinions?

How do we deal with conflicting

intuitions?

Tenacity

Everybody knows…

Folk Psychology

Most people…

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Reason/Logic

Elementary dear Watson!

Makes sense to me.

Verbal math.

If something is so, then it must be logically

so.

However, if something is logically so, must it

be so?...

Reason/Logic

Making excuses for poor performance is not

psychologically healthy?

During World War II, men from rural

backgrounds were usually in better spirits

during their army life than soldiers from city

backgrounds?

Physically attractive people have higher self-

esteem than less attractive people?

People with mental problems are better off in

a mental hospital?

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Reason/Logic

Experienced therapists are more successful than inexperienced therapists?

The more counseling an alcoholic receives, the better?

Trained observers, such as police officers, are more accurate eyewitnesses than untrained people?

College women who are very serious about their careers are less likely to be interested in marriage?

If you use imagery to remember something, the more bizarre your image, the better you will remember it.

Opposites attract?

Reason/Logic

Logic alone can lead to errors (as you just saw).

Reality may seem illogical (tiny germs killing large animals,

many of the things humans do).

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Authority

Parents

Teachers

Role Models

Clergy

Political Leaders

Authority

Who was the first President of

the US?

Did Washington chop down the

cherry tree?

Did Betsy Ross stitch the first

American flag?

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Experience

Chocolate causes acne.

The sun revolves around the earth.

Women can’t do men’s work.

Switching answers on a multiple-

choice test

Experience

Our experiences may not be typical

“Even a stopped clock is right twice a day.”

Every therapy from phrenology to lizard dung has its

success stories.

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Experience

Because of our biases, we may “See” what we expect to

see

Remember facts consistent with our biases

So, What Is Science?

A verb, not a noun

Science is something you DO.

A process or method of inquiry.

What are the qualities of science…

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Is science something done in a laboratory using

fancy equipment?

Response: No, Science can be done anywhere.

So, What Is Science?

Can only Ph.D.'s and M.D.'s

understand, let alone do, science?

Response: No, even college

sophomores can do solid scientific

research.

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Emily Rosa

Do scientists work in complete isolation? Do they come up with their ideas completely on their own?

Response: No, science is a team sport.

Standing on each others’ shoulders

Correcting each others' mistakes.

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It isn’t Statistics

Darwin, Skinner, & Piaget didn’t use

statistics

Statistics can be a valuable tool--these

giant’s may have made more

contributions if they had used

statistics.

There’s a reason statistics is a

prerequisite for this course.

It isn’t technology

Quacks have gadgets

Technology may be the end result of scientific knowledge

Basic vs. Applied Science

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Quacks have gadgets

Phrenologists had the electronic

phrenometer

Astrologers can use computers

The polygraph (lie detector)?

Statement of a hypothesis

Observation

Development of law or model (theory)

Replicability

Basic Observation

(Descriptive)

Reference to

Larger System

(Inferential)