genre-based text analysis: undergraduates' writing

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GENRE-BASED TEXT ANALYSIS: UNDERGRADUATES' WRITING OF INFORMATION REPORTS IRENE NGU TIEN TIEN This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Education with Honours (Teaching English as a Second Language) Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK (2009)

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Page 1: GENRE-BASED TEXT ANALYSIS: UNDERGRADUATES' WRITING

GENRE-BASED TEXT ANALYSIS: UNDERGRADUATES' WRITING OF INFORMATION REPORTS

IRENE NGU TIEN TIEN

This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Education with Honours

(Teaching English as a Second Language)

Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

(2009)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Firstly, I would like to glorify and praise my Lord for hearing my prayers and needs. Thanks Lord for giving me strength, wisdom, determination and passion to conduct this research. Thanks Lord for accompanying me throughout the times of difficulties.

Secondly, I would like to give my highest gratitude and acknowledgement to my research supervisor, Madam Yvonne Michelle Campbell, who has given me a lot of guidance, information and ideas during the period of this study. Thank you for providing me with valuable information and encouragement as well as time to help and suggest useful ideas for my research.

Besides, I would like to thank my family members for helping through the year. Thank you for giving me your full support in terms of the financial and technical supports.

Not only that, I would like to give my sincere thanks to my friends for their motivation and spiritual support. Thank you for praying for my worries and difficulties throughout this research. Thank you for giving me information regarding the topic of my study.

Last but not least, I would like to thank the various authors or publishers as listed in the reference section, which have been referred to or quoted from extensively in this thesis, for the publications.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Charts List of Abbreviations Abstract Abstrak

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION

1.0 Chapter Preview 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Background of the Study 1.3 Research Problem 1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study 1.5 Significance of the study 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms

1.6.1 Genre 1.6.1.1 Information report

1.6.2 Undergraduate 1.6.3 Schematic structure 1.6.4 Language feature

1.7 Scope of the study 1.8 Chapter Review

CHAPTER 2- REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 Chapter Preview 2.1 Writing 2.2 Academic Writing

2.2.1 What is academic writing? 2.2.1.1 Audience 2.2.1.2 Purpose 2.2.1.3 Organisation

2.2.2 Genres of academic writing 2.2.2.1 Instruction 2.2.2.2 Explanation

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2.2.2.3 Argument 17 2.2.2.4 Information report 18

2.2.2.6.1 Purpose 18 2.2.2.6.2 Schematic structure 19 2.2.2.6.3 Language features 20

2.2.2.6.3.1 Generalised subjects 20 2.2.2.6.3.2 Action verbs 20 2.2.2.6.3.3 Linking verbs 21 2.2.2.6.3.4 Timeless present tense 21 2.2.2.6.3.5 Formal and precise descriptive 21

language 2.2.2.6.3.6 Language for defining, classifying,

comparing and contrasting 22 2.2.2.6.3.7 Technical terms 22 2.2.2.6.3.8 Writing styles 23

2.3 Genre-Based Approach to Writing 23 2.3.1 Development of genre-based approach to literacy 23 2.3.2 Concept of scaffolding 25 2.3.3 The teaching-learning cycle 25 2.3.4 Empirical study 26

2.4 Summary 30

CHATER 3- METHODOLOGY

3.0 Chapter Preview 31 3.1 Research Design 31 3.2 Text Selected for Analysis 32 3.3 Instruments for Data Collection 34

3.3.1 Text analysis 34 3.4 Data Collection Procedures 36 3.5 Data Analysis 37 3.6 Limitations of the Study 38 3.7 Chapter Review 39

CHAPTER 4- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.0 Chapter Preview 40 4.1 Identification of Information Report Genre 41 4.2 Identification of Schematic Structure 51

4.2.1 Title 53 4.2.2 Main category 56 4.2.3 Definition, classification and generalisation 57 4.2.4 Subcategory 61 4.2.5 Subdivision 63

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4.2.6 Explanation, description, comparison, characteristic and example 65 4.2.7 Ending 69 4.2.8 Paragraphing 70 4.2.9 Subheading 72 4.2.10 Diagram 73

4.3 Identification of Language Features 75 4.3.1 Generalised subjects and technical vocabulary 76 4.3.2 Formal and objective writing styles 77 4.3.3 Language for defining, classifying, contrasting and comparing 78 4.3.4 Present tense, action verbs and linking verbs 79

4.4 Summary of Findings and Discussions 80 4.5 Chapter Review 81

CHAPTER 5- SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.0 Chapter Preview 82 5.1 Summary 82 5.1 Implications of the Study 86 5.2 Recommendations for Future Research 86 5.3 Conclusions 87

REFERENCES 88 APPENDICES 91

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LIST OF TABLES

1. Table 4.1 Construction of correct genre of text

Page 41

2. Table 4.2 52 Use of schematic structure of information report genre in 59 qualified sample texts

3. Table 4.3 75 Numbers of texts utilising the language features stated in 59 qualified sample texts

4. Table 4.4 76 Rate of appearance of the language features stated in 59 qualified sample texts

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LIST OF FIGURES

1. Figure 4.1(a) Script 011

2. Figure 4.1 (b) Script 011

3. Figure 4.1 (c) Script 011

4. Figure 4.2 (a) Script 001

5. Figure 4.2 (b) Script 001

6. Figure 4.2 (c) Script 001

7. Figure 4.3 Excerpt taken from Script 093

8. Figure 4.4 Excerpt taken from Script 01 1

9. Figure 4.5 Excerpt taken from Script 049

10. Figure 4.6 Excerpt taken from Script 065

11. Figure 4.7 Excerpt taken from Script 032

12. Figure 4.8 (a) Excerpt taken from Script 049

13. Figure 4.8 (b) Excerpt taken from Script 049

Page 43

44

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43

4q

50

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59

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14. Figure 4.9 Excerpt taken from Script 024

15. Figure 4.10 Excerpt taken from Script 036

16. Figure 4.11 Excerpt taken from Script 066

17. Figure 4.12 Excerpt taken from Script 049

18. Figure 4.13 Excerpt taken from Script 011

19. Figure 4.14 Excerpt taken from Script 072

20. Figure 4.15 Excerpt taken from Script 022

21. Figure 4.16 Excerpt taken from Script 01 1

22. Figure 4.17 Excerpt taken from Script 039

23. Figure 4.18 Excerpt taken from Script 005

24. Figure 4.19 Excerpt taken from Script 055

25. Figure 4.20 Excerpt taken from Script 022

26. Figure 4.21 Excerpt taken from Script 066

27. Figure 4.22 Excerpt taken from Script 042

28. Figure 4.23 Excerpt taken from Script 055

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74

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LIST OF CHARTS

1. Pie Chart 4.1 Rates of correct genre use

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LIST OF ABBREAVIATIONS

ARW Academic Reading and Writing

L2 Second language

MUET Malaysian University English Test

UNIMAS University Malaysia Sarawak

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ABSTRACT

GENRE-BASED TEXT ANALYSIS: UNDERGRADUATES' WRITING OF INFORMATION REPORTS

Irene Ngu Tien Tien

This study aims to analyse the undergraduates' writing of information reports. The

ability of tertiary undergraduates to acquire academic writing skills in fulfilment of assignment requirement is a great concern among lecturers and undergraduates. Production of quality academic writings requires understanding of the communicative functions of those writings. A case study was conducted to find out whether UNIMAS undergraduates, majoring in different disciplines over the university, were able to produce quality academic writings - information report, which comprise of appropriate use of schematic structures and language features as required by the

assignment questions after undergoing an intensive writing training in an English

generic course, English for Academic Reading and Writing (ARW). Selection of the sample texts was done where 100 written assignments of information report genre were collected from all undergraduates who attended ARW in the I` semester of Year 2008/2009. Genre analysis based on the theoretical framework of an information report developed by Derewianka (1992) was used for analysis and evaluation of the undergraduates' written works. The findings showed that some undergraduates were not competent in writing a good and correct information report. They were weak in differentiating information report genre from the other genres. Even though the writings produced were discovered to have the basic structures that seemed to look like an information report, they mixed the formal features of information report with the formal features of explanation, discussion and descriptive

genres. However, it was discovered that the targeted undergraduates who were able to

write in correct generic structure were competent in utilising the language features of information report genre although there were some minor grammatical errors in terms of choice of tenses used such as past and present tenses as well as the singular and plural forms of present tense. The research findings contribute to the syllabus design

and development of academic writing courses to tackle the undergraduates' specific needs and emphasise on the importance of genre analysis in revealing aspects of efficient academic writing skills.

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ABSTRAK

GENRE TEKS ANALISIS: HASIL KARYA TULISAN LAPORAN INFORMASI OL EH MAHASISWA-MAHASISWI

Irene Ngu Tien Tien

Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis hasil karya tulisan laporan informa. si para mahasiswa. Keupayaan pelajar-pelajar institusi tinggi untuk menguasai kemahiran

menulis secara akademik demi penyelesaian lugasan-tugasan yang diheri oleh pensyarah mendapat perhatian hangat daripada para pensyarah dan mahasiswa. Penghasilan karya tnulisan akademik yang berkualiti memerlukan pemahaman terhadap tujuan komunikasi karya tulisan tersebut.. Oleh ilu, satu kajian kes dijalankan untuk memerhati dan memeriksa sama ada para mahasiswa UNIMAS

yang mengambil mata pelajaran dalam disiplin-disiplin yang herluinan berkeupayaan untuk menghasilkan karya tulisan ilmiah - laporan iqlbrmasi yang berkualiti dan menonjolkan ciri-ciri struktur teks dan latahahasa yang sesuai sepertimana dikehendaki oleh tugasan yang diberi selepas mereka menjalani satu latihan menulis yang intensif' da/am salah satu kursus generic Inggeris, Engl. sih fi)r Academic Reading dan Writing (ARW). Pemilihan hagi teks sampel dihuat dengun

mengumpul 100 laporan iqlbrmasi yang dihasilkan oleh para mahaszswa yang menghadiri ARW da/am Semester 1, Tahun 2008/2009. Genre analisis ini udulah herdasarkan kerangka leori laporan informusi Derewianka (1992). Kerangka teori Derewianka digunakan zmluk manganalisis dan menilai tugasan-lugusun hertulis

paru mahasiswa tersehut. Pendapatan daripada analisasi yang dzjalankan

menunjukkan hahuwu seselengah mahasiswa adalah kurang cekap dulcun menghasilkan laporan iqlbrmasi yang haik dan hetul. Mereka adalah lemah du/um

memhezakun laporan iqlbrmasi dengan genre-genre yang lain. Walaupun kurve tulisan yang dihasilkan menunjukkan . struktur-struktur teks asas yang menverupai struktur-struktur teks hagi laporun informasi, telapi ciri-ciri

. 1brmal laporan

iqlbrmasi dicumpurudukkan dengan tetapi ciri-ciri forma/ genre penjelusan, perhincungun dun deskripsi. Walau hagaimanupun, pendapatan duripadu analisasi juga menunjukkan huhawu muhasiswa-mahusiswi ang herjava nzenghasislkan struktzn- teks laporun iqlbrmasi rang hetul udulah mahir dalam menggunakan tatabuhusa dulam menulis laporan informasi wczlaupun terdupat heherupu kesilupan

gramati.. Penemucn penvelidikan ini menvumhang kepada pemhangzznun sukutan pelajaran kursus-kursus tulisan ilmiuh hagi mengatasi keperluun

. spe. sijik paru nuzhasiswu dun menekankan kepentingan genre ana/isis dulum mendedahka» aspek kemahiran-kemahiran menulis dengan cekap.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Chapter Preview

In this chapter, the subtopics included are the introduction towards language,

background of the study, research problem, aim and objectives of the study,

significance of the study, operational definition of terms and scope of the study as

well as the chapter review.

1.1 Introduction

Spoken and written languages are both important means of communication.

People use language to get things done, control other's behaviour, express

personal feelings and meanings, create interaction, learn and discover, create a

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imaginary, and communicate information (Halliday, 1985). However, there are times

when some communicative needs cannot be readily met by spoken language. In fact,

only written words are acceptable for communication; for instance, a formal letter of

complaint to a company or a person, a written letter of introduction to a corporation before a job interview and a written research report in the field of study.

One of the unique characteristics of a written work is the distance in terms of

time and place between the writer and readers. It means that readers who read a

written text most probably will not have the chances to get in touch with the writer of

that piece of text. Hence, they will not be able to ask the writer in person to clarify

any queries they have encountered while reading the text. As a result, communication breakdown will take place because of the contextual differences between the readers

and the writer.

In order to minimise misunderstanding, both the readers and the writer should

develop "shared knowledge of formal text features" (Johns, 1997, p. 29). They should

be made clear of who the writer and the audience are, what the communicative

purpose is, and which genre will fulfil this purpose (Henry & Roseberry, 1999).

Besides, it is also essential for the writer and the readers to "have a sense of text

form" (Johns, 1997, p. 29) as there are certain formal characteristics of a genre that

members of a community have come to expect, and features that enable them to read

and write confidently.

The ability to write well is not naturally acquired since humans are born. In fact,

writing is "usually learnt or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal

instructional settings or other environments" (Myles, 2002, p. I) through experience.

For instance, second language learners in colleges and workplace are expected to

write different kinds of texts based on their purposes of writing. They have to acquire

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proficiency in the use of language as well as writing strategies, techniques and skills

in order to produce good academic writings.

The responsibility to help the second language learners to write academically

lie on the teachers of those learners. However, it is great challenges to assist those

learners to "acquire good writing strategies, technique and skills" (Grant UC

Linguistics Minority Research Institute, 2004, p. 1). This is because some learners

attain very good language skills and can write perfect texts without grammatical

errors. However, their pieces of work may fail to achieve the purpose of writing as

the generic structure of the text produced is not of the expected one. Their intended

meanings cannot be conveyed effectively through their writings.

1.2 Background of the Study

In the late 1960s, the teaching of writing focused mainly on the techniques for

teaching writing. This focus led to the process writing approach where students work

through several stages of composing process and thus put meaning to the fore rather

than form (Jordan, 2007). The learners learn how to write on their own through steps

of discussion, tasks, drafting, feedback, revisions and editing before they come out

with the final product and students control over the direction of their writing (Jordan,

2007).

However, there was a shift from the process of writing to the nature of writing

in various situations since mid-1980s. People have come to realise that it is more

important to recognise the purpose, the audience and the occasion of writing instead

of the process of writing. Therefore, genre-based teaching approaches were imposed

to make learners aware that "understanding texts is not only as linguistic but also as

social, meaningful constructs" (Kay & Evans, 1998, p. 310). In this approach, samples

of a specific genre are introduced and some distinctive characteristics of the given

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genre such as schematic structures and language features are pointed out. Then, the

learners attempt to produce a similar text through imitation of the given genre.

Several numbers of studies on a wide range of text types have been carried out:

Bhatia on legal proceedings (cited in Mirador, 2000, p. 45); Swales on research

articles (cited in Mirador, 2000, p. 45); Henry and Roseberry (1996) on brief tourist

information and (2001) on a letter of application; Mirador (2000) on written feedback

in higher education; Crossley (2007) on cover letters. These studies were concerned

about the overall organisation or move analysis of a genre, strategies of a genre and

language and linguistics patterns of a genre as well as the implications for language

teaching.

From those studies, it raises awareness of the important of genre-based

approach to literacy. It is found out that genre text writing aim at helping writers to

socialise in context (Jordan, 2007), especially Malaysians who learn English as

second language. Shared communicative purpose and knowledge of formal text

features (Johns, 1997) help in familiarising the readers and writers with the "highly

structured and conventionalised" (Bhatia cited in John, 1997, p. 29) genres of texts.

And hence, they would be able to communicate effectively through genre text writing.

1.3 Research Problem

English learners especially undergraduates are expected to produce vast

amounts of academic writing of different genres; for example, while doing

assignments or writing laboratory reports. However, academic writing "requires

conscious effort and practice in composing, developing and analysing ideas" (Myles,

2002, p. 1). Therefore, it is very important for them to master the techniques,

strategies and skills to produce good academic writing so that they are able to convey

their meanings clearly forward to their intended readers, the instructors in particular.

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In this study, the type of text that was being looked into was the genre of information report. Information report basically is used to "provide information about

a class of things" (Derewianka, 2003, p. 137). The text samples by the undergraduates

were being analysed in terms of the schematic structure and language features of an information report. Those samples were being examined to find out the specific

purpose of writing and significant features of an information report.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study

The aim of carrying out the current study was to analyse the undergraduates'

writing of information report genre among UNIMAS students who have taken up the

English generic course, namely English for Academic Reading and Writing (ARW).

The study was conducted to achieve the following objectives:

a To find out the correctness of information report genre construction by the

undergraduates; b To identify the schematic structure of the samples of information reports

written by the undergraduates;

c To examine the language features of the samples of information reports

written by the undergraduates.

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research study was carried out to analyse the schematic structure and

language features of the information reports written by the undergraduates. Since that

the undergraduates have already received intensive training on how to write an

information report, these samples actually acted as an assessment to reflect on the

students' performance - what they have learnt in the course regarding information

report writing.

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Therefore, the findings of this study was useful for the instructors to identify

the area of weaknesses among the undergraduates in constructing an information

report, which means to evaluate how much the undergraduates have acquired from

the lectures on information report writing. Then, they could help the undergraduates

by giving appropriate feedbacks that emphasise on their weak points and at the same

time strengthen their strong points.

Besides, this study was useful for the linguists or writing syllabus designers

who are interested in genre - approach to literacy. It provided them with information

on the potential problems that might arise in genre approach to teaching writing. And

hence, they might use the findings to modify the teaching approach and design

another better writing approach that could yield a more effective writing.

1.6 Operational Definition of Terms

1.6.1 Genre

Genre is "a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activities in which speakers

engage as members of the society" (Martin cited in Kay & Evans, 1998, p. 308). On

the other hand, Swales (cited in Kay & Evans, 1998) stated that "a genre comprises a

class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of

communicative purpose" (p. 309). There are various genres of texts; for instance,

information report, narrative, descriptive, process, discussion and argumentative.

In this study, a genre meant written texts which were grouped together under a

category based on their shared communicative purpose and formal textual features

such as schematic structure and language features. The genre of written texts in this

study was information report produced as an assignment by the targeted

undergraduates in a local university setting.

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1.6.1.1 Information report

Information report is one genre of academic text which functions to "provide

information about a class of things" (Derewianka, 2003, p. 137). Information report

has its own distinctive formal text features that differentiate it from the other genres

of texts. Besides, this kind of text usually attempts to "bring order out of disorder"

(Nicholas & Nicholl, 2000, p. 123); for instance, classifying a whole group of

individuals or animals into subcategories such as types of students and types of

animals.

In this research, the information report chosen were sample texts retrieved from

a local academic setting. The undergraduates produced the information reports as an

assessment along the course. Then, their pieces of writing were collected and used as

raw data for analysis.

1.6.2 Undergraduate

Knowledgerush (1999 - 2003) stated that in most educational systems,

especially in institutions for higher education, such as university, undergraduates are

students in the years of post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's

degree. In the United Kingdom, undergraduates refer to the first three or four years of

study towards a Bachelor's degree. However, in some other educational systems,

undergraduate education starts from post-secondary education up to the level of a

master's degree.

In this study, undergraduates were students who pursued their tertiary education

in a local university after completing their secondary study in Form Six, matriculation

or being diploma holders. They took up different disciplines and were in their first

three or four years of study towards a Bachelor's degree upon graduation.

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1.6.3 Schematic structure

Schematic structure is also known as generic structure. It is "a series of optional

and obligatory elements" (Hassan cited in Henry & Roseberry, 1999, p. 190) or moves

adopted by the communicators in a written or spoken discourse. Every stage in a text

has its unifying purpose that contributes to the overall communication purpose in the

context in which it occurs (Mirador, 2000).

In this context, schematic structure was the significant move that has to be

included in the written discourse of information report genre in order for this genre to

function effectively. The schematic structure of information report genre identified

and analysed were the title, main category, opening general statement in terms of

definition, classification or generalisation, facts about various aspects of the subject

(subcategories) with explanation, description, comparison, characteristics or

examples of each category and ending (Derewianka, 1992, pp. 52-53).

1.6.4 Language feature

Language feature refers to the lexical, syntax or grammatical choices in a text

(Derewianka, 2003; Johns, 1997). These choices are often purposeful and community

- driven; for example, historical and disciplinary reasons fbr using noun

compounding in sciences (Halliday & Martin cited in Johns, 1997).

In this study, the language meant the choice of language for defining,

classifying, comparing and contrasting such as is divided into, generalised subjects

such as car rather than Proton Saga, technical vocabulary and use of important

grammatical items such as timeless present tense like eat and drinks, action verbs like

grow as well as linking verbs like has and are in the sample texts analysed

(Derewianka, 1992, p. 53). These are among the language features that bring out the

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meanings and tell the purpose as well as distinguish the genre of the text, which is

information report, from the other genres.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This study covered the textual analysis of the information report genre in terms

of the purpose, schematic structure and language features among undergraduates from different disciplines, attending the same training in an English generic course,

Academic Reading and Writing in one semester.

However, it does not study the pieces of writing by students from the other

semesters and writings of the other genres such as argumentative, discussion,

descriptive and narrative.

1.8 Chapter Review

In this chapter, the subtopics discussed were introduction towards writing and

genre-based teaching approach, background of the genre-analysis study, research

problem, aim and objectives of the study, significance of the study, technical and

operational definition of variables and scope of the study.

In Chapter Two, more details are included to look at the genre-based text

analysis. Background of writing, academic writing, genres of texts and approach of

genre-based analysis such as genre-based approach are further discussed to support

the thesis.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0 Chapter Preview

The topics embraced in this chapter are the concept on writing and academic

writing, genres of academic texts, especially information report or classification genre,

previous research done in this field of study and a summary of the whole chapter.

2.1 Writing

The practice of writing was claimed to be originated from ancient

Mesopotamians around 3000 B. C. E. In the early age, Mesopotamians were actively

involved in trading, business and farm affairs. At first, there was no proper system fir

them to record their transactions permanently. They scarcely relied on their limited

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memory for recordings. (Harappa Archeological Research Project, Courtesy Dept. of

Archeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan & Harappa. com, 1997-2008)

Nevertheless, around the 4'h millennium B. C., the complexity of trade and

administration outgrew the power of memory. Hence, a writing system was

developed and became a more dependable method of recording and presenting

transactions in a permanent form. In addition, it is believed that the transactional

affairs between Mesopotamia and other cultures such as ancient Egyptian or Indian

civilisations helped to spread the idea of writing. (Harappa Archeological Research

Project, Courtesy Dept. of Archeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan &

Harappa. com, 1997-2008)

However, recent discoveries denied ancient Mesopotamia's status as the origin

of writing. In 1998, a German archeologist discovered writing, which dated back to

3400 B. C., at the tomb of King Scorpion the First in Abydos, Egypt. Besides, in 1999,

American archeologists, who were digging at the ancient site of Harappa in Pakistan,

discovered writing that they claimed to date back to around 3500 B. C. These

evidences support the saying that claims writing to be existed a few hundred years

before the earliest known Mesopotamian writing. (liarappa Archeological Research

Project, Courtesy Dept. of Archeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan &

Harappa. com, 1997-2008)

Nonetheless, those discoveries were unable to conclusively prove that any one

of the civilisations has invented writing. As a result, it was concluded that writing

developed simultaneously and independently in a number of places. Indeed, these

might well be even earlier forms of writing to be found in the coming decades

(Ilarappa Archeological Research Project, Courtesy Dept. of Archeology and

Museums, Govt. of Pakistan & Ilarappa. com, 1997-2008).

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Writing is a cultural practice in which language is presented in a textual

medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols. People use writing to transmit

messages from one place to another and from one point of time to another. Writing

system came into use as a consequence of lifestyle change in the early societies from

hunting and gathering to agriculture. In academic settings, students are also required

to do lots of writing, such as writings of laboratory reports and essays.

2.2 Academic Writing

2.2.1 What is academic writing'?

Tertiary students engage in varieties of writing tasks such as essays or reports

writing in their tertiary education. Even though those tasks vary from one degree of

program to another, their level of difficulties increases as the undergraduates progress

further in their chosen degree of program.

Academic writing "requires conscious effort and practice in composing,

developing and analyzing ideas" (Myles, 2002, p. 1). Therefore, it is essential far the

undergraduates to master techniques, strategies and skills to write academically to

ensure effective communication through the piece of writing produced. To produce

good pieces of academic writings, writers have to take into account of several

considerations: audience, purpose and organization (Swales & Freak, 2004).

2.2.1.1 Audience

Before starting to write, an author must bear in mind the possible audiences

(Swales & Freak, 2004) of his/her writings. To write effectively, a writer must

consider his/her audiences' familiarity with the subjects or topics he/she is going to

talk about.

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