geo1-2e-ch04

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

1/10GEOactive 1

76

The interaction of the four spheres the

atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere

and the biosphere results in many different

global environments. The four spheres are

constantly undergoing changes, some natural

and some caused by the actions of people.

This chapter briefly describes the main types

of global environments. Geographers study

environments and how people adapt to and

interact with specific environments. Many

global environments have already been

significantly changed by humans.

A student:

4.1 identifies and gathers geographical information

4.2 organises and interprets geographical

information4.3 uses a range of written, oral and graphic forms

to communicate geographical information

4.4 uses a range of geographical tools

4.6 describes the geographical processes that form

and transform environments

4.8 describes the interrelationships between people

and environments

4.10 explains how geographical knowledge,

understanding and skills combine with

knowledge of civics to contribute to informed

citizenship.

Using oblique aerial photographs (page 81)

Analysing a newspaper article (page 85)

Chapter 4

GLOBAL

ENVIRONMENTS

The worlds largest inland delta, the Okavango deltain Botswana, is a unique ecosystem. This large wetland

is rich in wildlife, supporting large populations ofmammals, birds and other animals.

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

2/10

CHAPTER 4: GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTS

77

biodiversity: the rich variety of all life forms onEarth, including plants and animals

blue-green algae: micro-organisms that grow inwater high in nutrients, such as nitrates andphosphates

community: an identifiable group formed by peoplewith something in common; usually based onshared space and social organisation

culture: the body of beliefs, attitudes, skills andtools with which members of a communitystructure their lives and interact with theirenvironment

deforestation: the process of clearing forest,usually to make way for housing or agriculture

developed countries: countries that have higheconomic productivity, relatively high standards ofliving and relatively democratic systems ofgovernment

developing countries: term used to describe andgroup the worlds poorest countries in which most

people have a low economic standard of livingecosystem: a system formed by the interactions of

the living organisms (plants, animals andhumans) and physical elements of an environment

estuary: the tidal mouth of a river where the saltwater of the tide meets the fresh water of the rivercurrent

fossil fuels: fuels that come from the breakdown oforganic matter, for example, coal, oil and naturalgas. They have formed in the ground over millionsof years.

global warming: the warming of the atmosphereand the Earth which some scientists believe iscaused by the burning of fossil fuels

habitat: the natural environment of an animal orplant, the place where it is normally foundhinterland: the area influenced by any settlementindigenous: the descendants of the original

inhabitants of an areaisotherm: a line joining places of equal temperaturenomadic: a way of life in which people move from

one area to another to hunt or find foodpermafrost: an area where the subsoil remains

frozen throughout the yearpollution: the build-up of impurities likely to be

harmful to plants, animals and humans at certainconcentrations

precipitation: the condensation in the atmospherethat falls as rain, hail, snow or dew

sedentary: staying in one place to grow cropsslash-and-burn: a method of clearing land for

agriculture. Trees and shrubs are cut down, andthe remaining vegetation burned before crops areplanted.

tundra: barren lands located between isotherms0 and 10 Celsius. The subsoil is permanentlyfrozen, allowing only small vegetation growth.

wetland: an area which is covered permanently,occasionally or periodically by fresh or salt waterup to a depth of six metres

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

3/10

GEOactive 1

78

Polar environmentsare broadly located inside the Arctic

and Antarctic circles. They are very cold lands with little orno vegetation. The harsh environment makes polar lands verydifficult for settlement and they are sparsely populated. Polarenvironments are covered in chapter 8.

Tundra environments are located between isotherms 0and 10 Celsius. They are cool to cold throughout the year.Vegetation is small and ground-hugging. Tree growth isimpossible because of the permafrost. Some settlements intundra environments are discussed in chapter 8.

Icefield in the St Elias National Park, Alaska

Tundra near Mount McKinley, Alaska

Mountain environmentsare the highest areas on Earth

and are found in all continents and latitudes. They aregenerally mild to cold, with steep to rugged land.Precipitation can vary greatly. Some are subject to naturalhazards such as volcanoes, earthquakes and avalanches. Theenvironment can be harsh and generally does not supportlarge settlements and population. Mountain environments arecovered in chapter 5.

Rainforest environments need constantly wetconditions. There are three main types of rainforest: tropical,mangrove and temperate. Rainforests are valuable sources oftimber. In many areas the forest has been cleared forsettlement and large populations. Rainforest environments arecovered in chapter 7.

Village in the Himalayas

Tropical rainforest on Camiguin Island, Philippines

4.1

LOCATING GLOBAL

ENVIRONMENTSprecipitation: the condensation in theatmosphere that falls as rain, hail, snow or

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

4/10


79

Temperate grasslandsare dominated by grasses with fewtrees and shrubs. They are found in the mid-latitudes in partsof South Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, North and SouthAmerica. Temperate grasslands have a greater range ofseasonal temperature than savannas and less variation inprecipitation. Temperate grasslands are usually fertile and arevaluable farming environments.

Desert environments are areas where there is a shortageof moisture because of low precipitation. There are two maintypes of deserts: hot and cold. Hot deserts are located in ornear the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn,generally on the western side of continents. Cold deserts arelocated in the mid-latitudes in the interior of Asia, NorthAmerica, South America and all of Antarctica. The desert

environment is harsh and generally does not support largesettlements and population. Desert environments are coveredin chapter 6.

The Russian steppes are part of the vast

temperate grasslands of Eurasia and extendfrom central Europe eastwards to Siberia.These level plains are generally treeless.

Sand dunes engulfingPalm Gardens, an oasisin the Sahara Desert

Wetland environments are covered permanently,occasionally or periodically by fresh or salt water up to adepth of six metres. They are ecosystems whose formation isdominated by water. They are mostly found in coastal riverestuaries but can also be located inland. Wetlands includeareas such as swamps and marshes; they occupy around sixper cent of the worlds land surface and are areas of greatbiodiversity. They are often important agricultural areas andvaluable sources of timber. Many wetlands have been drainedfor agricultural or urban use. In river deltas they are oftencentres for settlements that support large populations.

Grassland environments are dominated by grassesrather than large shrubs or trees. There are two main types:

Savanna is grassland with scattered trees. Savannas are

located in and around the tropics in Africa, Australia, SouthAmerica and India. The climate is warm to hot, with a wetseason followed by a dry season. These can be harsh landsfor settlement and savannas, except for India, generally donot have large numbers of people.

Agricultural land encroaching on theEverglades National Park, Florida

Zebras crossing savanna grasslands in Kenya

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

5/10

GEOactive 1

80

RiversRivers often flow through differentenvironments on their journey to the sea. Rivers arepart of a system that begins with rain falling or ice melting

in mountains or hills. The force of the water rushing down thesteep slope erodes the mountain vertically into steep-sidedV-shaped valleys. As the river reaches flatter land, the erodedstones, sand and soil begin to wear away both the floor andsides of the valley. On the flood plain the river slows andbegins to meander. Silt deposited during flooding enriches thesoil and provides fertile farmland. Deposits of silt near themouth of the river can cause the river to split into manysmaller branches and form a delta. Settlements occur alongrivers because rivers provide fresh water and transport routes,and the surrounding land is often suitable for farming.

The Amazon River in South America flowsthrough the worlds largest remaining rainforest.

CoastsThe coastal environment includes the coastal hinterland,nearby islands, beaches and estuaries. This environment islocated around the world, on the edges of continents andislands. Although it is generally flat land, its climate and otherphysical features vary greatly. This environment has a widerange ofcommunities and includes many of the great cities ofthe world.

The tropical Pacific coast of southern Mexico is noted for itshilly peninsulas, bays and beaches.

4.2

FROM THE MOUNTAINS

TO THE SEA

Rivers often flow through differentenvironments, such as mountains, rainforests,

grasslands and wetlands before they reach the coast.

The force of rushing

water on a steep slopecuts a V-shaped valley.

When the river meetsresistant rock awaterfall can occur.

The line of mountains thatmark the start of rivers isknown as a watershed.

On flatterland the rivermeanders.

Erosion occurson the outsideof a meander.

Sediment is deposited onthe inside of a meander.

Billabongs or oxbowlakes occur when ameander is cut off.

Deltas can occur whensediment deposited nearthe mouth splits the riverinto smaller distributaries.

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

6/10


81

Coral reefsCoral reefs are wave-resistant underwater mounds, made up of a variety ofspecies including corals, algae and sponges. Coral sands and limestone alsoplay an important role in the build-up of a coral reef. As one the worlds mostdiverse environments they support a wonderful variety of corals, fish and otherorganisms. Coral reefs are located in tropical waters along the western coastsof ocean basins (or the eastern side of continents) and around oceanic islands.They are located within 30 north and south of the Equator. Many islands andtheir coral reefs are popular tourist destinations.

1. List three natural hazards found in mountain areas.2. What is the main feature of a wetland?3. Why do you think wetlands are often centres for

settlement and large populations?

4. Describe the location of:(a) hot deserts (c) polar lands(b) cold deserts (d) tundra.

5. What are the main differences between savannaand temperate grasslands?

6. Why are temperate grasslands more favourable forsettlement than savanna grasslands?

7. List the three main types of rainforests.8. Identify two global environments, apart from

rivers, that are not located in a particularlatitudinal area.

9. List five important cities that are located in acoastal environment.

10. Describe the main features of coral reefs.

Worksheets4.1 World crossword4.2 Locating global environments

Using oblique aerial photographsOblique aerial photographs are taken at an angle tothe ground. Oblique aerial photographs give us agood idea of the height and shape of the featuresbelow. Unlike vertical aerial photographs, whichare taken directly above the centre of an area, thescale in an oblique aerial photograph varies fromone part of the photograph to another.

Observe the aerial photograph of Moorea and itsfringing coral reef.1. Explain why this is an oblique aerial photograph.2. Describe the main landform feature in the

photograph.

3. Locate the main areas of coral. How can youidentify where the coral ends and the ocean begins?

4. Describe the pattern of vegetation. What is themain type of vegetation?

5. In what areas are the main cultural featureslocated?

6. List the features that could make this location anattractive tourist destination.

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages ofusing oblique aerial photographs?

TOOLBOX

These colourful coral and fish are part ofthe extensive coral reef found off thecoast of Belize in the Caribbean Sea.

Moorea in French Polynesia isa volcanic island with afringing coral reef.
http://../technology/learning-objects/LO-0066.exehttp://../technology/geo1-2e-toolbox/chap04/geo-tool-04-01.dochttp://../technology/geo1-2e-activities/chap04/act-04-02.doc

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

7/10

GEOactive 1

82

People with something in common live in groupscalled communities. Members of a communityoften share the same space and have similarbeliefs or interests.

Geographers study how people adapt tospecific environments. Physical environmentshave had a strong influence on the activities oftraditional, indigenous communities.

Lake Titicaca, the worlds highest navigable lake,is located in South America on the border of Peruand Bolivia in a mountain environment. On thislake there are floating islands composed of layersof totora reeds, which rot from the bottom and arereplaced by new growth at the top. About 600 UroIndians inhabit these mats of reeds,living a traditional lifestyle. They dependon the reeds for shelter and transport,using them to build cone-shaped hutsand boats. A well-constructed boat lastsfor six months.

The Uro have a sedentary way of life.

They eat potatoes and fish from the lakeand rarely leave their islands except forreligious or medical purposes.

These traditional communities areundergoing change. Tourists regularlyvisit the floating islands and the moneythey spend there is an important source ofincome for the Uro Indians. Unfortunately, LakeTiticaca suffers environmental problems, such asblue-green algae. This algae has been causedby sewage and fertilisers washed down from theexpanding tourist and agricultural developmentsin the area surrounding the lake. Blue-green

algae is toxic to a wide range of aquatic and ter-restrial animals and provides a real threat to thefresh water supply of the Uro Indians.

SOUTH AMERICA: LAKETITICACA

4.3

ENVIRONMENTS AND

COMMUNITIES

Above: A Uro Indian girl cooking

beside her hut of reeds

Left: Boats made from reeds are theUro Indians means of transport.

Among the many fascinating goods sold at the Witchs marketin La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, are llama foetuses. The

Indians of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile and Argentina keepherds of llamas, which they use as pack animals and for meat,wool, hides and tallow for candles. Dried llama dung is used

as fuel. Some of these Indian communities have uniquecustoms, such as the belief that owning a llama foetus will

ensure good fortune throughout life.

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

8/10


83

Traditional social organisations usually havestrong family ties or clan links. For example, thefour Somali clans that live in north-east Africa cantrace their family back to a common ancestor. Hus-bands may have four wives. Each clan has their

own place or homeland, but during dry periods,every three or four years, they move into otherhomelands in search of water and pasture. Somalisregard pasture and rain as gifts of God to be shared.

These nomadic pastoralists keep camels,galla goats and black head Persian sheep. Menlook after the camels and women look after thesheep and goats. The animals provide them withmilk, meat and skins, transport, income, mar-riage gifts and compensation if someone is killed.Women do most of the slaughtering of animals.

The Somali nomads carry all of their house-hold possessions on camels. A Somali dwellingis called an aqal. It is perfectly suited to life onthe move as it is light to transport and easilyassembled.

Unfortunately, these communities suffer froma poorer quality of life than most Australianshave. Life expectancy is only 47 years and theinfant mortality rate (deaths in the first year oflife) is high at 150 per 1000 (Australias IMR isfive per 1000).

Traditional indigenous communities are cur-rently undergoing social and economic changes.In many countries, these people have been forced

to move from their original source of livelihood.

NORTH-EAST AFRICA:SOMALIA

Governments want to make them conform tomodern, sedentary ways of living and to use theirland for other purposes. Many indigenous com-munities are trying to seek self-rule and feel thatthey are the legitimate owners of the land.

1. How has the Uro community adapted to amountain-lake environment?

2. What are the uses of the totora reed?3. What are the causes of blue-green algae?4. How have the Somalis adapted to their physical

environment?5. Describe the different gender roles in a Somali

community.6. Outline the differences between the nomadic Somali

herders and the sedentary Uro Indians.

The Somali dwelling called an aqal can be carried from place to place on a camel. Aqals are made from a framework ofsaplings bound with bark and twine and covered with animal skins.

Somalis loading an aqal onto a camel before moving south toseek grazing for their livestock
http://../technology/geo1-2e-activities/chap04/act-04-03.doc

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

9/10

GEOactive 1

84

Many global environments have already beensignificantly changed by humans. Throughouthistory, human environments have taken overmore and more of the natural environment. Suchchanges affect environments and communitiesand can often lead to conflict within or betweencommunities.

Many of the worlds rainforests have been cutdown for timber and paper production or havebeen cleared to make room for farms and mines,towns and cities, dams and transport systems.Today, timbers such as teak, mahogany andebony are still being exported from rainforests indeveloping countries to rich developedcountries. Indigenous communities living inthese environments are under threat. Communi-ties that were once isolated and had developedtheir own unique culture may not survive iftheir traditional lands are taken from them or iftheir environment will no longer support theirway of life.

The Kayapo Indians in the Amazon rainforestadapted to the hot, wet rainforest environment byusingslash-and-burn agriculture. They had littlecontact with the rest of the world until the 1950s.During the last 50 years, the Kayapos territoryhas been invaded by loggers and miners in searchof valuable rainforest timbers and gold. The activi-ties of the loggers and miners caused defores-tation and pollution of the natural environment.

The Brazilian Government set aside landreserves for the Kayapo. However, their tra-ditional way of life remained under threat due toillegal mining and logging, and conflict betweencommunity members about these issues. Conflictoccurred within the Kayapo community becausesome members wanted to enter into contractswith mining and logging companies for short-term profits while others saw this as a threat totheir culture, their traditional way of life andtheir rainforest home.

CHANGING RAINFORESTCOMMUNITIES

THE KAYAPO INDIANS

In 1989 the Kayapo Indians faced anotherthreat. The Brazilian Government wanted tobuild a series of dams that would have floodedthousands of square kilometres of Kayapo rain-forest. A huge protest organised by the localIndians gained international support and thedams were stopped.

In 1991, the Kayapo began trading with TheBody Shop. The Body Shop uses Brazil nut oil tomake hair conditioner. The Brazil nut tree is atall tree more than 40 metres high. About fivenuts grow within an ourico which is like acoconut shell. Brazil nuts are collected between

January and March and the trees are not cutdown or damaged during harvesting. The oil isextracted by a hand-operated press. Themachines are cheap, easy to use and do not harmthe environment.

However, the future remains uncertain for theKayapo. Many indigenous rainforest commu-nities have had to cope with such changes changes which often threaten their environment,unique cultures and traditional livelihoods.

Kayapo Indians participating in an organised protest in thelate 1980s against the Brazilian Governments plans to builddams that would have flooded thousands of squarekilometres of Amazon rainforest.

4.4

ENVIRONMENTS

AND CHANGE

7/29/2019 geo1-2e-ch04

10/10


85

During the twentieth century, the atmospherewarmed up by 0.5C, a trend that is expected tocontinue. There is growing evidence that humanactivities, such as burning fossil fuels and cut-ting down trees, has contributed to globalwarming.Climate change (see chapter 12) could

cause changes to global environments in thefollowing ways:

melting of the polar icecaps and the retreat ofglaciers in mountain lands

rising sea levels and massive flooding of low-lying areas

higher tides and more violent storms disruption to agriculture and changes to

natural habitats.

The clean-up on Funafuti after king tides in February 2004

CLIMATE CHANGE

Analysing a newspaper articleNewspapers often provide valuable informationabout geographical issues. Daily newspapers areusually up-to-date and accurate (although there canbe some bias at times). Read the newspaper articleKing tides give islanders a sinking feeling andanswer these questions:

1. Outline the future that could lie ahead forTuvalu.

2. Describe the bizarre effect of the kingtides.

3. List the other areas which were affected by theking tides. Explain why these areas were affected.

4. What could lead to flooding in the future?

5. Describe the mixed feelings of the PrimeMinister, Saufatu Sopoaga.

6. Outline the reason the Prime Minister believesTuvalu will always exist as a sovereign nation.

7. What problems could the people of Tuvalu facein another country if their land is covered by seawater?

8. Can you detect any bias in the newspaper article?

TOOLBOX

King tides give islanders

a sinking feelingFunafuti: Freak tides yesterday covered swathes of the tinySouth Pacific nation of Tuvalu, a worrying reminder that thelow-lying atoll country could one day slip beneath the wavesof the rising ocean.

The unusually high king tides began on Thursday, peaking

just before sunset yesterday and producing the bizarre effectof sea water welling up inland, creating lakes.

The tides flooded homes, offices and even sections of theairport. The worst flooding occurred several hundred metresinland as far as it is possible to get from the sea around

homes and in long-established compost pits where gener-ations have been growing root crops.

I am very worried about the sea levels, said Losi Tuaga,18, as she stood outside her home, ankle-deep in sea waterbubbling from the soil.

Residents of the atolls are fearful of the rising sea; at island

meetings for years they have heard about global warming andthe Kyoto Protocol on cutting emissions of gases blamed fordriving climate change.

Tuvalus Prime Minister, Saufatu Sopoaga, this weekurged carbon-gas emitting industrial nations to become part-

ners with Tuvalu in ending global warming, which is pro-ducing dangerous rises in ocean levels.

I feel angry, but at the same time I do understand themotives behind the drive of industrial nation activities, hesaid.

It was not done purposely there were other motives,

and they were looking to better the lives of their own coun-tries.

Tuvalu, he said, will always exist as a sovereign nationeven if most of its land sinks beneath the ocean. The govern-ment is already making provision to move residents to New

Zealand and the nearby island of Niue.

As long as Tuvalu is above sea water there will be peoplestaying here. We will not move.

About 11 000 people live on land spread over nine atolls,none more than five metres above sea level.

Sydney Morning Herald, 2122 February 2004
http://../technology/geo1-2e-toolbox/chap04/geo-tool-04-02.doc

geo1-2e-ch04

Documents