Forest Resources Forest Resources Forest can be defined as “vegetation Forest can be defined as “vegetation

dominated by trees, without a grassy or dominated by trees, without a grassy or weedy under-storey, and which has not weedy under-storey, and which has not recently been farmed” (Hall, 1987:33). recently been farmed” (Hall, 1987:33).

Forests differ in structure and Forests differ in structure and composition ( e.g. Tropical rain forest, composition ( e.g. Tropical rain forest, moist deciduous forest, coniferous forest). moist deciduous forest, coniferous forest).

Types of Forest Resources : Timber and Types of Forest Resources : Timber and non-timber resources. Non-timber non-timber resources. Non-timber resources are all biological materials resources are all biological materials other than timber which are extracted for other than timber which are extracted for human use (Woodcock, 2002). human use (Woodcock, 2002).

Socio-Economic Importance Socio-Economic Importance of Forests of Forests

Food (Fruits and bush meat). About 80% of the Food (Fruits and bush meat). About 80% of the rural population in Ghana consumes bush meat. rural population in Ghana consumes bush meat.

ShelterShelter Export of wood (Foreign Exchange) Export of wood (Foreign Exchange) EmploymentEmployment Fuel woodFuel wood Raw materials (e.g. cardboard, plywood, Raw materials (e.g. cardboard, plywood,

furniture, matchboxfurniture, matchbox). ). Medicines Medicines Recreational services Recreational services Socio-cultural significance: Sacred sites and Socio-cultural significance: Sacred sites and

cultural symbols cultural symbols

Environmental and Environmental and Ecological Benefits Ecological Benefits

One of the most important One of the most important ecosystems (Potter et al, 2008)ecosystems (Potter et al, 2008)

Reservoir and source of Reservoir and source of biodiversitybiodiversity

Forests as carbon sink, regulating Forests as carbon sink, regulating

temperature ( Betts et al, 2008)temperature ( Betts et al, 2008)

Controlling soil erosion by holding Controlling soil erosion by holding

soil firmlysoil firmly

Forest Resources of Forest Resources of GhanaGhana

The forest area of Ghana is estimated The forest area of Ghana is estimated at 9.17 million ha, of which Closed at 9.17 million ha, of which Closed Forest Zone (high forests) constitutes Forest Zone (high forests) constitutes 8.1342 million ha. 8.1342 million ha.

Some parts of the high forest zone in Some parts of the high forest zone in Ghana are under reservation. This Ghana are under reservation. This area is about 1.77 million hectares, of area is about 1.77 million hectares, of which 1.634 million ha is managed by which 1.634 million ha is managed by the Forestry Department (MLF, 2001).the Forestry Department (MLF, 2001).

Factors that Influence the Factors that Influence the development of the Lumbering development of the Lumbering

industry (Temperate vrs tropics)industry (Temperate vrs tropics) Nature of the forestNature of the forest Preference for tree speciesPreference for tree species Climate Climate InfrastructureInfrastructure CapitalCapital Demand for wood Demand for wood Note that variations in these factors Note that variations in these factors

explains the differences between explains the differences between lumbering in temperate and tropical lumbering in temperate and tropical regionsregions

Problems Facing the Problems Facing the Lumbering Industry in Lumbering Industry in

Ghana Ghana Heterogeneous nature of the forests:Heterogeneous nature of the forests:.. Climate: High temperatures, heavy Climate: High temperatures, heavy

rainfall (which makes the ground swampy rainfall (which makes the ground swampy and muddy) and the presence of pests and and muddy) and the presence of pests and insects.insects.

Poor infrastructurePoor infrastructure Unreliable supply of powerUnreliable supply of power Inadequate capitalInadequate capital High level of illegal loggingHigh level of illegal logging

Deforestation Deforestation A major form of environmental degradationA major form of environmental degradation Annual rate of global forest loss in the 1990s Annual rate of global forest loss in the 1990s

was 2.4% (Potter et al, 2008) was 2.4% (Potter et al, 2008) In absolute terms, South America suffered the In absolute terms, South America suffered the

largest largest net lossnet loss of forests between 2000 and of forests between 2000 and 2005. 2005.

In terms of percentage forest loss per year, In terms of percentage forest loss per year, Africa has the highest deforestation rate of Africa has the highest deforestation rate of 0.6%, while South America has the second 0.6%, while South America has the second highest rate of deforestation of 0.5%. highest rate of deforestation of 0.5%.

Regarding deforestation rates in individual Regarding deforestation rates in individual countries, Brazil loses the largest area of forest countries, Brazil loses the largest area of forest annually. However, in terms of percentages, annually. However, in terms of percentages, Nigeria and Sudan were the two largest losers of Nigeria and Sudan were the two largest losers of natural forest during the 2000-2005 period natural forest during the 2000-2005 period (FAO, 2006)(FAO, 2006)

Rates of deforestation Rates of deforestation

Region % Forest Cover Change Region % Forest Cover Change (2000-2005)(2000-2005)

Africa - 0.6Africa - 0.6 South America - 0.5 South America - 0.5 Asia 0.18 Asia 0.18 Europe 0.07Europe 0.07 North and central America - 0.05 North and central America - 0.05 World -0.18 World -0.18

Magnitude of Ghana’s Magnitude of Ghana’s Forest LossForest Loss

Conventional estimates suggests that forest cover Conventional estimates suggests that forest cover fell from about 8 million ha in the late 1890s to fell from about 8 million ha in the late 1890s to about 2 million ha contemporary (Frimpong-about 2 million ha contemporary (Frimpong-Mensah, 1989; Ebregt, 1995).Mensah, 1989; Ebregt, 1995).

Fairhead and Leach (1998) challenged this. Fairhead and Leach (1998) challenged this. They asserted that the forests before the 1890s may They asserted that the forests before the 1890s may

have just covered 5.5 million ha, of which 2 million have just covered 5.5 million ha, of which 2 million ha still remain. ha still remain.

FAO (2003) estimates that deforestation in Ghana FAO (2003) estimates that deforestation in Ghana was about 1.7% per annum between 1990 and 2000.was about 1.7% per annum between 1990 and 2000.

Only 2% of the total area of forest reserves is in a Only 2% of the total area of forest reserves is in a “very excellent” condition. 121 of 214 forest “very excellent” condition. 121 of 214 forest reserves assessed in 1993 were seriously degradedreserves assessed in 1993 were seriously degraded..

Deforestation Deforestation At the empirical level, the causes of At the empirical level, the causes of

deforestation are complex and quite poorly deforestation are complex and quite poorly understood (Grainger, 1993).understood (Grainger, 1993).

The causes of deforestation can be put into The causes of deforestation can be put into two categories, namely direct or proximate two categories, namely direct or proximate and indirect or underlying or fundamental and indirect or underlying or fundamental factors. factors.

The direct/proximate factors are the direct The direct/proximate factors are the direct human activities that cause forest loss. human activities that cause forest loss.

Causes of deforestation Causes of deforestation Agricultural activities (shifting Agricultural activities (shifting

cultivation in Africa. In the Brazilian cultivation in Africa. In the Brazilian Amazonia forest region, forest loss is Amazonia forest region, forest loss is significantly caused by cattle ranching.significantly caused by cattle ranching.

Logging ( high illegal logging)Logging ( high illegal logging) Mining, Mining, Fuel wood production, Fuel wood production, Bush fires Bush fires Expansion of human settlementsExpansion of human settlements Dams and other development projectsDams and other development projects

Indirect Causes of Indirect Causes of Deforestation Deforestation

Rapid population growth leads to deforestation. Rapid population growth leads to deforestation. However, link is contested (Tiffen et al. 1994).However, link is contested (Tiffen et al. 1994).

Poverty is a factor (Durning 1989 ). Again, it has Poverty is a factor (Durning 1989 ). Again, it has been argued the poor lack the ability to pay for the been argued the poor lack the ability to pay for the materials and labour needed to clear forest (Movik et materials and labour needed to clear forest (Movik et al. 2003).al. 2003).

Corruption (Winbourne, 2005; Teye, 2013 )Corruption (Winbourne, 2005; Teye, 2013 )

GreedGreed

IgnoranceIgnorance

Inappropriate Forest Inappropriate Forest Policies and Property Policies and Property

Rights Systems Rights Systems Policy weaknesses (Grainger and Konteh, Policy weaknesses (Grainger and Konteh,

2007; Teye, 2008).2007; Teye, 2008). In Ghana local communities were not In Ghana local communities were not

actively involved in forest management. actively involved in forest management. They then connived with chainsaw operators.They then connived with chainsaw operators.

Again, fines for illegal logging were too low Again, fines for illegal logging were too low to scare illegal loggers. Figures fixed in 1974 to scare illegal loggers. Figures fixed in 1974 revised only in 1994. revised only in 1994.

Royalty levels were often very low, because Royalty levels were often very low, because of the desire to help local timber firms. The of the desire to help local timber firms. The World Bank Mission, in 1986, noted that World Bank Mission, in 1986, noted that forest resources in Ghana could be forest resources in Ghana could be considered a “free good” because of the considered a “free good” because of the exceptionally low royalty and fees levels exceptionally low royalty and fees levels (IBRD, 1986).(IBRD, 1986).

Policy weaknesses as a Policy weaknesses as a cause to deforestationcause to deforestation

Awudi and Davies (2001) estimated that the Awudi and Davies (2001) estimated that the state and landowning communities receive state and landowning communities receive only 13% of the actual value of timber (after only 13% of the actual value of timber (after logging costs were deducted). logging costs were deducted).

Total uncollected timber revenue is about Total uncollected timber revenue is about $100 million per annum (Forest Watch, $100 million per annum (Forest Watch, 2006). 2006).

Inappropriate property rights: poor farmers Inappropriate property rights: poor farmers have no incentive to protect trees.have no incentive to protect trees.

Measures of Controlling Measures of Controlling Deforestation Deforestation

Ideally, any strategy of controlling Ideally, any strategy of controlling forest loss must tackle both the direct forest loss must tackle both the direct and indirect causes of the problem.and indirect causes of the problem.

Aforestation,Aforestation, Improved farming methodsImproved farming methods ( e.g. ( e.g.

agro-forestry. Farmers cultivate crops agro-forestry. Farmers cultivate crops and raise commercial trees at the same and raise commercial trees at the same time). time).

Forest Policies : Eco–imperialism Forest Policies : Eco–imperialism (Lal, 1990), Decentralisation, (Lal, 1990), Decentralisation,

Controlling deforestationControlling deforestation

Population –family planningPopulation –family planning Poverty: Alternative income generating Poverty: Alternative income generating

activities, such as dress making, soap activities, such as dress making, soap making etc. making etc.

Controlling of corruption in the forestry Controlling of corruption in the forestry sector will also go a long way to help sector will also go a long way to help reduce deforestation. reduce deforestation.

This is difficult. Even where competitive This is difficult. Even where competitive bidding systems are used, the political bidding systems are used, the political elite can still award contracts to elite can still award contracts to companies they prefer, since the criteria companies they prefer, since the criteria for selecting “best firms” may be adjusted for selecting “best firms” may be adjusted to fit the qualifications of specific firms. to fit the qualifications of specific firms. These are termed “hidden violations of the These are termed “hidden violations of the rules” (Soreide, 2007)rules” (Soreide, 2007)

Principles of Natural Principles of Natural Resource Governance Resource Governance

Natural resource governance entails the formulation Natural resource governance entails the formulation and implementation of natural resource policy.and implementation of natural resource policy.

A good governance system is that it A good governance system is that it must ensure must ensure that the roles of the various stakeholders are that the roles of the various stakeholders are recognised and accepted (Woodcock, 2002recognised and accepted (Woodcock, 2002). ).

Involvement of interest groups.Involvement of interest groups. Rights of local people are protected (Agrawal, 2007). Rights of local people are protected (Agrawal, 2007). Management system must create incentives and Management system must create incentives and

disincentives for sustainable natural resource disincentives for sustainable natural resource management (Larson, 2002).management (Larson, 2002).

Corruption and natural Corruption and natural resource management: resource management:

The case of forestThe case of forest According to Marmon (2009:1), According to Marmon (2009:1),

corruption is the misuse of entrusted corruption is the misuse of entrusted powers for private gain. This definition powers for private gain. This definition suggests that corruption has many suggests that corruption has many faces. faces.

It encompasses misconduct by state It encompasses misconduct by state officials such as embezzlement, bride-officials such as embezzlement, bride-taking, political payoffs, cronyism, taking, political payoffs, cronyism, influence peddling, nepotism, influence peddling, nepotism, patronage, extortion (Mock, 2003:1).patronage, extortion (Mock, 2003:1).

Corruption and resource Corruption and resource managementmanagement

Natural resource riches breed Natural resource riches breed corruption (Sachs and Warner, 2001), corruption (Sachs and Warner, 2001), which negatively affects economic which negatively affects economic performance (Isham et al., 2005; Dietz performance (Isham et al., 2005; Dietz et al. 2007). et al. 2007).

Causes: Law salaries, greed, weak Causes: Law salaries, greed, weak institutions.institutions.

Corruption operates at three levels, Corruption operates at three levels, namely namely grand corruption, mid-level grand corruption, mid-level corruption and petty corruptioncorruption and petty corruption (Winbourne, 2005)(Winbourne, 2005). .

Corruption Corruption

Grand corruptionGrand corruption involves large illegal involves large illegal transactions between high-level public transactions between high-level public officials (usually politicians) and private officials (usually politicians) and private individuals or firms. Top politicians may individuals or firms. Top politicians may allow ‘party men’ to exploit timber allow ‘party men’ to exploit timber without acquiring the necessary permits. without acquiring the necessary permits. In some cases, contracts are awarded In some cases, contracts are awarded without competitive bidding. without competitive bidding.

Dubious contracts and payments for no Dubious contracts and payments for no work. work.

corruptiomcorruptiom

Mid-level corruptionMid-level corruption, which is also , which is also widespread in the forestry sector, is widespread in the forestry sector, is manifested in many ways as bribes, manifested in many ways as bribes, gifts, nepotism, kickbacks and gifts, nepotism, kickbacks and embezzlement. Top forestry officials embezzlement. Top forestry officials who receive kickbacks may ignore who receive kickbacks may ignore illegal activities of “big timber men”. illegal activities of “big timber men”.

Petty/Survival corruption : Petty/Survival corruption : guards etcguards etc

Decentralised vrs centralised Decentralised vrs centralised management: the Case of management: the Case of

ForestsForests Two opposing schools of thoughtTwo opposing schools of thought Those in favour believe that Those in favour believe that

community people have the ability.community people have the ability. Hardin’s thesis, Hardin’s thesis, The Tragedy of The Tragedy of

the Commonsthe Commons,, waswas one of the one of the earliest writings on the subject.earliest writings on the subject.

Arguments for Arguments for Decentralised Natural Decentralised Natural

Resources Management Resources Management Systems Systems It will reduce management cost due to It will reduce management cost due to

proximity to local resource managers, proximity to local resource managers, and reliance on local knowledge and and reliance on local knowledge and labourlabour..

Due to proximity, local people Due to proximity, local people can supervise can supervise forest management better than central forest management better than central government officials,government officials, who have legal who have legal authority over vast areas.authority over vast areas.

Equitable distribution of the benefits Equitable distribution of the benefits from forest resourcesfrom forest resources

Promote marginalised local groups Promote marginalised local groups participation in resource management. participation in resource management.

Criticisms Criticisms Technical expertise on the management of Technical expertise on the management of

natural resources is generally uncommon in natural resources is generally uncommon in rural areas and hiring specialists may be rural areas and hiring specialists may be expensive for local governments.expensive for local governments.

Tribalism and nepotismTribalism and nepotism. . Inequalities and related intra - and inter-Inequalities and related intra - and inter-

community resource struggles.community resource struggles. Boundary conflicts: Boundary conflicts: India, forest dependents in India, forest dependents in

some communities raided the forest reserves of some communities raided the forest reserves of nearby weaker communities in order to allow for nearby weaker communities in order to allow for the regeneration of their own forest (Shah and the regeneration of their own forest (Shah and Shah 1995). Shah 1995).

Unequal power relations: Elite capture or Unequal power relations: Elite capture or curse of the elites ( Teye, 2011)curse of the elites ( Teye, 2011)

Assessment of forest decentralisation: Actors, Assessment of forest decentralisation: Actors, Powers and Accountability FramewoPowers and Accountability Framework rk

Many developing countries claim to Many developing countries claim to have adopted decentralisationhave adopted decentralisation

Yet deforestation rates are highYet deforestation rates are high Various theories for assessment:Various theories for assessment: Actors, Powers and Accountability Actors, Powers and Accountability

Framework Framework

--Actors--Actors

---Power---Power

--Accountability --Accountability

Agrawal and Ribot (1999)Agrawal and Ribot (1999)

Applications Applications

Bazaara (2003) for Uganda Bazaara (2003) for Uganda Ribot (2008) in SenegalRibot (2008) in Senegal Teye (2011) in Ghana: Teye (2011) in Ghana: All these assessments showed that there All these assessments showed that there

are very few cases in the developing are very few cases in the developing world where local people have actually world where local people have actually been given the total power to exclusively been given the total power to exclusively manage forests.manage forests.

Policy ambiguities used to confuse Policy ambiguities used to confuse governments of the developing world. governments of the developing world.

Ambiguities of new Ambiguities of new decentralised Forest decentralised Forest

policy in Ghanapolicy in Ghana Policy formulated in 1994Policy formulated in 1994 Actors: Central government, Community forestry Actors: Central government, Community forestry

committees to provide free labourcommittees to provide free labour Powers: No power to local people; no consultations; they Powers: No power to local people; no consultations; they

have no rights over forest resources. 10% revenue to have no rights over forest resources. 10% revenue to chiefs and DAS. chiefs and DAS.

Accountability: No downward accountabilityAccountability: No downward accountability Conclusion: Government is not committed to Conclusion: Government is not committed to

decentralisation; Use of decentralisation to masquerade decentralisation; Use of decentralisation to masquerade patronage networkspatronage networks

Similar situations in Senegal, Zimbabwe ( see Ribot, Similar situations in Senegal, Zimbabwe ( see Ribot, 2008). 2008).

African governments are not committed to African governments are not committed to decentralisation. decentralisation.