geomagnetism (i)
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Geomagnetism (I). The Earth’s magnetic field. Magnetic field of the Earth measured at the surface comes from three sources: - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Geomagnetism (I)
The Earth’s magnetic field Magnetic field of the Earth measured at the
surface comes from three sources: 97-99% represents main field generated by
dynamo action in the outer core. Main field varies significantly with time (secular variation means variations along geological time)
1-2% represents external field generated in space in the magnetosphere. External field also varies on time scales of seconds to days.
1-2% represents crustal field from remnant magnetization above the Curie depth.
The Earth’s magnetic field
The Earth’s magnetic field would be: vertical at the poles horizontal at the equator
Today, the best-fit dipole is currently oriented 11.5° from the rotation axis of the geographic north pole, but this has varied with time.
Describing the Earth’s magnetic field Declination (D) Inclination (I) Horizontal Intensity (H) Vertical Intensity (Z) North-South Intensity (X) East-West Intensity (Y) Total Intensity (B)
X
Y
Describing the Earth’s magnetic field This first order simple model of the field
allows to use the paleomagnetic observations to determine past plate motions Magnetic potential is given by
The Earth’s best fit dipole moment (m) equals to 7.94x1022 Am2
in magnitude Magnetic field is determined by the
differentiating the magnetic potential
given the magnetic permeability of free space, μ0 = 4x10-7 kg m A-2 s-2
Spherical polar coordinates Conversion from/spherical into
Cartesian coordinates:
Gradient operator
)sin
1,
1,(
f
R
f
RR
ff
Describing the Earth’s field If the Earth’s magnetic dipole moment is
aligned along the z-axis:
At a latitude of θ and longitude , Magnetic field in spherical polar coordinates can show three components: Radial Component Br, Southerly Component B, and Easterly Components B
Describing the Earth’s field For the best fit dipole, Three
components are given by
Total field is given by
Describing the Earth’s field Then, the magmatic inclination (I) can be
computed from the following equation
At the North Pole, θ = 90° which gives I = 90°
At the Equator, θ = 0° which gives I = 0°
Describing the Earth’s field
Describing the Earth’s field
Describing the Earth’s field The equation of the magnetic inclination is
important because it allows use to use a measurement of inclination (I) to determine latitude (θ). This was once used by mariners, but is most important in paleomagnetism.
A rock can record the magnetic field present when it crystallized (temperature fell below the Curie temperature).
Thus we can find the latitude of a continent at some time in the past.
This was the idea of Apparent Polar Wandering.
Diamagnetism and paramagnetism
The magnetic behaviour of minerals is due to atoms behaving as small magnetic dipoles.
If a uniform magnetic field (H) is applied to a mineral, there are two possible responses.
Diamagnetic behaviour Paramagnetic behaviour
Diamagnetic behaviour
This effect arises from the orbital motion of electrons in atoms.
The atom develops a magnetic field that is opposite direction to the applied magnetic field
Magnetic susceptibility is negative All minerals diamagnetic but will be
masked by paramagnetism
Paramagnetic behaviour
This phenomena arises when the atoms have a net magnetic dipole moment due to unpaired electrons.
The atoms align parallel to the applied magnetic field H and increase the local magnetic field.
For paramagnetic materials Magnetic susceptibility is positive.
Paramagnetic elements include iron, nickel and cobalt.
Geomagnetism (II)Rock magnetization and
translation
Magnetizing Igneous Rocks
Curie Temperature Temperature above which a mineral cannot be permanently magnetized spontaneous magnetization when temperature drops below Curie temperature
Curie Depth Is the depth at which magnetic behaviour ceases since temperature exceeds curie
temprature. Thermal vibrations of atoms prevents domain formation. Blocking Temperature
Tens degrees less than the Curie point for most minerals Temperature below which the orientation of the rock’s magnetization cannot
change magnetization cannot change once below blocking temperature
Both temperatures are much lower than that at which lavas crystallize. The magnetization becomes permanent some time after lavas solidify. This type of permanent residual magnetization is called thermoremanent
magnetization (TRM); atoms align when molten and freeze The magnetism of TRM is larger in magnitude than that induced in the basalt by the
earth’s present field.
Magnetizing sedimentary rocks Sedimentary rocks can acquire magnetization
in through: Depositional or detrital remanent
magnetization (DRM); acquiring during the deposition of sedimentary rocks.
Chemical remanent magnetization (CRM); acquiring after deposition during the chemical growth of iron oxide grains as the case in sandstones.
Strength of DRM and CRM fields typically 1-2 orders of magnitude smaller than TRM
Detrital remnant magnetization
Detrital magnetization can produce a weak remnant magnetization in sedimentary grains
Grains being deposited contain some magnetite or other magnetic minerals
Preferred orientation as they are deposited
Chemical remnant magnetization Can occur during alteration Example from oil field in Gibson and
Millegan (1988)
Induced magnetic field
Calculating palaeomagnetic latitude (use of TMR)
Example
A rock sample was found at latitude of 34°N. Remnant
magnetization in the sample was found to have an inclination
I = 40 ° from the horizontal. Was the rock magnetized at the
location where it was sampled?
Locating the palaeomagnetic pole (use of TMR)
Locating the palaeomagnetic pole (use of TMR)
Polar wander paths
Magnetic stripes (Dating the oceans) Using magnetometer with overseas
vessel Measure the total field intensity Subtract regional value Produce magnetic anomaly map
Magnetic stripes (Dating the oceans) Raff and Mason, 1961
First magnetic field map Off the western coast of North America
Magnetic anomaly map Take total magnetic field intensity and subtract regional average
Black Stripes: positive intensity White Stripes: negative intensity Which is normal/reversed polarity? Coupled stripes with sea-floor spreading and magnetic
pole reversals
Origin of Seafloor magnetic anomalies formed at mid-ocean ridges
Important evidence to support the hypothesis of continental drift came from observations of magnetic fields measured by survey ships on profiles that crossed the world’s oceans.
Basalt erupted and when cools it is permanently magnetized in direction of Earth’s magnetic field at that time.
Sea floor spreading moves rocks away from ridge.
Magnetic field reverses direction
Magnetic stripes anomalies Magnetic stripes anomalies are considered for two cases of
magnetic stripes anomalies: High magnetic latitude Low magnetic latitude
Magnetic stripes at High magnetic latitudes
Magnetic stripes anomalies of high magnetic latitude are characterized by:
Earth’s magnetic field is close to vertical.
Remnant magnetization at the ridge is in the same direction as the Earth’s field.
Positive magnetic anomaly at the ridge crest
Magnetic stripes anomalies