geophysics guide

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Notice

ThisdocumenthasbeenreviewedinaccordancewiththeU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyspeerandadministrativereviewpoliciesandapprovedforpublication.Mentionoftradenamesorcommercialproductsdoesnotconsituteendorsementorrecommendationforuse.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ivList of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viAcknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiGlossary of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .viiiPreface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .ix

CHAPTER1 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1-1

1.1 GeneralTerminology.... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... .... ..... .1-11.2 UsesofGeophysicalMethods..................................1-31.3 GeneralCharacteristicsofGeophysicalMethods......................1-4

1.4 IntroductiontotheGeophysicalLiterature... ... ... .... ... .... ... ..1-14

1.3.1Airborne,Surface,andDownholeMethods.................1-4

1.3.2NaturalversusArtificialFieldSources......................1-91.3.3MeasurementofGeophysicalProperties......................1-9

1.4.1GeneralGeophysics..................................1-141.4.2GroundWaterandContaminatedSites.....................1-141.4.3EvaluationofLiteratureReferences.......................1-231.4.4UseofReferenceIndexTablesinThisGuide................1-241 4 5 Obtaining References 1 25


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TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

PAGE

7.1.2ApplicationsofBoreholeMethods........................7-57.1.3GeophysicalWellLogSuites .... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ....7-8

7.1.4GuidetoMajorReferences ... ... ... ... .. ... .. ... ... ... .7-87.2 SpecialConsiderations.......................................7-137.2.1BoreholeversusInSituMethods.........................7-137.2.2Surface-Borehole/Source-Receiver Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-137.2.3TomographicImaging... ... ... .... ... ... .... ... ... ...7-16

7.3 MajorTypesofLoggingMethods..............................7-167.3.1Electrical andElectromagneticLoggingMethods . . .. . .. . .. . . .7-177.3.2NuclearLoggingMethods...............................7-20

7.3.3AcousticandSeismicLoggingMethods.....................7-207.4 MiscellaneousLoggingMethods.. ........ ......... ........ ...7-23

7.4.1LithologicandHydrogeologicCharacterization Logs . . . . . . . . . . 7-237.4.2WellConstructionLogs...............................7-25

7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-35


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LISTOFTABLES

1-1 SummaryInformationonRemoteSensingandSurfaceGeophysicalMethods1-2 MajorSurfaceGeophysicalMethodsforStudyofSubsurfaceContamination1-3 ClassificationofSurfaceGeophysicalMethods1-4 GeneralTextonGeophysics1-5 Bibliographies,Reports,andSymposiaFocusingonApplicationofSurfaceGeophysical

Methods toGroundWaterandContaminatedSites1-6 ConferencesandSymposiaProceedingswithPapersRelevanttoSubsurface

CharacterizationandMonitoring

1-7 IndextoTextsandPapersonGeneralApplicationsofGeophysicstotheStudyofGroundWaterandContaminatedSites

2-1 UseofAirborneSensingTechniquesinHydrogeologicandContaminatedSiteStudies2-2 IndexforReferencesonAirborneRemoteSensingandGeophysicalMethods

3-1 IndextoGeneralReferencesonDCElectricalResistivityMethods3-2 IndextoReferencesonApplicationsofDCResistivityMethods3-3 IndextoReferencesonSpecializedDCElectricalResistivityandSelf-PotentialMethods3-4 IndextoReferencesonInducedPolarizationElectricalMethods

4-1 IndextoGeneralReferencesonElectromagneticInductionMethods4-2 IndextoReferencesonApplicationsofElectromagneticInductionMethods4-3 IndextoReferencesonTDEM,VLFResistivity,MetalDetection,andMagnetotelluric

Methods

5-1 Index to General References on Seismic Refraction


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7-12IndexforReferencesonAcousticandSeismicLoggingMethods

7-13 Index forReferences onMiscellaneousLoggingMethods7-14IndexforReferencesonApplicationsofBoreholeGeophysicsinHydrogeologicandContaminatedSiteInvestigations

A-1 Ground-WaterContaminationCaseStudiesUsingSurfaceGeophysicalMethodsA-2 Ground-WaterContaminationCaseStudiesUsingBoreholeGeophysicalMethods


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GLOSSARY OF ABBREVIATIONS

Method Abbreviations

AEM-airborneelectromagneticAFMAG - audiofrequency magneticAMT - audiomagnetotelluricATV - acoustic televiewerBH-boreholeCSAMT - controlled source audiomagnetotelluricCSP - continuous seismic proflingEh - Oxidation reduction

EM-electromagnetic(usedwhennotenoughinformationavailabletoclassifyfurther)EMI - electromagnetic inductionER - electrical resistivityGDT - geophysical diffraction tomographyGPR-groundpenetratingradarGR-gravityIP/CP - induced polarization/complex resistivityIR-infraredMAG - magneticMD-metaldetectionMT - MagnetotelluricS-seismic(usedwhennotenoughinformationavailabletoclassifyfurther)SASW-spectralanalysisofsurfacewavesSLAR-side-lookingairborneradarSP-Self-potential(surfaceandborehole)SRR - seismicrefractionSRL-seismicreflectionTC-telluriccurrent


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PREFACE

The Purpose of This Guide

The use of geophysical methods in the study of contaminated sites has gained wideacceptance in the last decade as a cost-effective means of performing preliminary sitecharacterizationandongoingmonitoring.Atthesametime,themultiplicityofavailablemethods,the use ofdiffering termstodescribe the samemethod,and the highdegree of technical proficiencyrequired for the application and interpretationof data from specificmethods often causes confusion

andmisunderstandinginthemindofthenongeophysicist.Thereis amoderately largebodyofscientificliteratureontheuse ofgeophysical techniques

forground-waterinvestigationsthatdatesbacktothelate1930s.However,withtheexceptionofperhapsadozenorsopaperspublishedinthe1970sontheuseofelectricalresistivitymethodsforidentifying contaminant plumes, the rapidly growing amount of literature on the use of geophysicalmethodsforcharacterizingandmonitoringcontaminatedsiteshasbeenpublishedsince1980.

Thepurposeofthisreferenceguideisfourfold:

1. Todescribebothcommonlyusedandlesscommongeophysicalmethodsinrelativelynontechnical terms for nongeophysicists involved in investigating and monitoringcontaminatedsites.Tothisend,importanttermsarehighlightedthefirsttimetheyareintroducedinthetext.


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used and less commonly used geophysical methods for nongeophysicists. This reference guide hasbeendesignedtoserveasacompaniontosections1and3ofEPAs Subsurface Field Characterizationand Monitoring Techniques: A Desk Reference Guide (U.S. EPA,1993),*whichcoverremote

sensing/surface geophysical and borehole geophysical methods, respectively. A number of thesummarytablesfromthatdocumentalsoareusedinthisreferenceguidetoreducetheneedtogobackandforthbetweenthedocuments.However,usersofthisguidewhoareinterestedinfurtherinformationaboutthelesscommonlyusedgeophysicalmethodsmaywanttorefertothesummarysheetsintheDeskReferenceGuidebeforeseekingoutparticularreferences.Table1-1(remotesensingandsurfacegeophysicalmethods)andTable7-1(boreholegeophysicalmethods)in thisguidecanbeusedtolocatediscussionsofspecificmethodsintheDeskReferenceGuide.

Thisreferenceguideisnot intended to provideguidanceonhow to use specific geophysicalmethods.EPAsGeophysics Advisor Expert System (Olhoeft,1992)*isrecommendedforpreliminaryassistancein identifyingthepotentialofcommonlyusedsurfacegeophysicalmethodsforsite-specificconditions.ThefollowingEPAdocumentsarerecommendedformoredetailedinformationontheuseof themorecommonlyusedgeophysicalmethodsat contaminatedsites:Geophysical Techniques

for Sensing Buried Wastes and Waste Migration (Bensonetal.,1984),*andA Compendium ofSuperfund Field Operations Methods, Part 2 (U.S.EPA,1987).*TheSocietyofExplorationGeophysiciststhree-volumeset,Geotechnical and Environmental Geophysics (Ward,1990a-c)*isa

goodcomprehensivesourceontheoryandapplicationsofgeophysicalmethodsinenvironmentalinvestigations.Othermajor general references aredescribed inTable 1-4forsurfacegeophysics andinTable7-1forboreholemethods.Nongeophysicistswhousethisreferenceguideshouldconsultseveralexpertswheneverindoubtaboutthecapabilitiesorappropriatenessofaspecificmethod(seeAppendix B).


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Figure l-la Theelectromagnetic spectrum: customarydivisions andportions usedforgeophysicalmeasurements(adaptedfromErd1yiandG1fi,1988).


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portionsoftheEMspectrum. Whilenondestructive testing (NDT)hasbeenusedtodescribe

geophysicalmethodsusedinthecontextofdetectingcontained,subsurfacehazardouswaste

(LordandKoerner1987),thetermusuallyisrestrictedtomethodsfortestingtheintegrityofmanufacturedmaterials.

Terminologyinthepublishedliterature,particularlyforelectricalandelectromagnetic

methods,canvaryconsiderably.Thiscanbedealtwithintwoways:(1)bybecomingfamiliar

withthevarietyoftermsthatareappliedtoasinglemethodand(2)byunderstandingthebasicprinciplesofdifferentmethodssothatamethodcanbeidentifiedbyreadingadescriptionofthe

equipmentandfieldtechniquesused(Nabighian,1988,1991).

1.2 Uses of Geophysical Methods

Thegreatestbenefitsofgeophysicalmethodscomefromusingthemearlyinthesite

characterizationprocesssincetheyaretypicallynondestructive,lessrisky,covermorearea

spatiallyandvolumetrically,andrequirelesstimeandcostthanusingmonitoringwells.Onthe

th h d t kill i i d i i t ti th d t t d b th th d d th i


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Locating buried wastes and other anthropogenic features through identification ofburiedmetaldrums,subsurfacetrenches,andotherfeatures(e.g.,cables,pipelines).

Theuseofsurfacegeophysicalmethodsforprospectingforgroundwaterusingelectrical

resistivitymethodsdatesfromthelate1920s.Areviewofgeophysicalmethodsforwater

exploration byBreusse (1963) focuses almost exclusively on electrical resistivitymethods.

Electricalresistivitycontinuedtobethemostcommonlyusedsurfacemethodforthestudyof

groundwateruntiltheearly1980swhenelectromagneticinductiongainedincreasingpopularity

for near-surface investigations. Thenextmostfrequentlyusedsurfacemethodforthestudyofgroundwaterhasbeenseismicrefraction,datingprimarilyfromthe1960salthoughthereare

scatteredreferencesintheliteraturebackto1949(seeTable5-2).

Earlysuccessesinthe1970susingelectricalmethods(i.e.,measurementofvariationsin

conductivityoritsreciprocal,resistivity)tolocatecontaminantplumesandmeasurethe

hydrogeologicpropertiesofaquifersledtotheadaptationofalargenumberofgeophysical

methodsinground-watercontaminationinvestigations.Then,inthelate1970stheavailabilityof

microcomputersrevolutionizedtheuseoffieldgeophysicsbyallowingonsiteprocessingofthe

vastamountofdatageneratedbymostof thesetechniques.Useofgeophysicalmethodsin

hydrogeologicstudiesbecamesowidespreadinthe1980sthattechniquessuchaselectromagnetic


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geophysicalmethodsarediscussedinChapter2. Surfacemethodsusuallyinvolvewave

generatorsandsensorsatornearthegroundsurface. Inthisreferenceguidesurfacemethods

arecoveredinfourchapters:electrical(Chapter3),electromagnetic(Chapter4),seismicandacoustic(Chapter5),andothersurfacemethods,includinggroundpenetratingradar,magnetic,

gravimetric,andthermalmethods(Chapter6).(Table1-1providesanoverviewof themajor

usesanddepthofpenetrationofairborneandsurfacegeophysicalmethods;sectionnumbersarc

providedindicatingwhereadditionaldiscussioncanbe foundinSubsurface Field

Characterization and Monitoring Techniques [U.S.EPA 1993]). Downhole methods, including

singleborehole,hole-to-hole,andsurface-to-boreholemethods,alsoarecovered(Chapter7),and

anumberofsummarytablesareprovidedonthecharacteristicsandusesofboreholegeophysical

methods.

Eachofthesethreemajorcategoriescomprisesnumerousspecifictechniques,anda

specifictechniquemayhaveanumberofvariants. Table1-2describessevenmajorsurfacegeophysical methods and their hydrogeologic applications. Electromagnetic induction (see

Section4.1)alsoiscommonlyusedinbothairborneanddownholestudies. Electrical resistivity

(seeSection3.2)alsoiscommonlyusedasadownholemethod,butcannotbeusedasan

airbornemethodbecauseit requiresgroundcontact. Ground penetrating radar (see Section

6 1) can be used from the air but is most commonly used on the ground surface and less


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Table1-1SummaryInformationonRemoteSensingandSurfaceGeophysicalMethods (allratingsareapproximateandforgeneralguidanceonly)

Technique Soils/ Leachate Buried NAPLs Penetration Costb SectioninGeology Wastes Depth(m)a U.SEPA(1993)

AirborneRemoteSensingandGeophysics

Visible Photograpby+ yes yesc possibyd yesc Surf.only L 1.1.1

InfraredPhotography+ yes yesc possiblyd yesc Surf.only L-M 1.1.1MultispectralImaging yes yesc no yesc Surf.only L 1.1.1UltravioletPhotography yes yes

cno yes

cSurf. only L 1.1.2

Thermal InfraredScanning yes yes(T) possiblyd possibly Surf. only M 1.1.3ActiveMicrowave(Radar)+ yes possibly no possibly 0.1-2 M 1.1.4Airborne Electromagnetics yes yes(C) yes possibly 0-100 M 1.1.5Aeromagnetics yes no yes no 10s-100s M 1.1.6

SurfaceElectricalandElectromagneticMethods

Self-Potential yes yes(C) yes no S ? L 1.2.1ElectricalResistivity+ yes yes(C) yes(M) possibly S60(km) L-M 1.2.2,9.1.1InducedPolarization yes yes(C) yes possibly Skm L-M 1.2.3ComplexResistivity yes yes(C) yes yes Skm M-H 1.2.3DielectricSensors yes yes(C) no possibly S2e L-M 6.2.3TimeDomainReflectometry yes yes (C) no yes S 2e M-H 6.2.4CapacitanceSensors yes yes(C) no possibly S 2e L-M 6.2.4Electromagnetic Induction+ yes yes(C) yes possibly S 60(200)/

c15(50) L-M 1.3.1TransientE1ectromagnetics yes yes(C) yes no S150 (2000+) M-H 1.3.2

MetalDetectors no yes no C/S0-3 L 1.3.3VLFResistivity yes yes(C) yes no C/S20-60 M-H 1.3.4Magnetotellurics yes yes(C) no no S1000+ M-H 1.3.5

SurfaceSeismicandAcousticMethods

SeismicRefraction+ yes yes no no Sl-30(200+) L-M 1.4.1ShallowseismicReflection+ yes no no no S10-30(2000+) M-H 1.4.2ContinuousSeismicProfiling yes no no no C1-100 L-M 1.4.3Seismic Shear/Surface Waves yes no no no S 2 10s 100s M H 1 4 4


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Table 1-2 Major Surface Geophysical Methods for Study of Subsurface Contamination

Method Description HydrogeologicApplications

Electromagneticinduction(EMI)(Section 4.1)

DC electricalResistivity(Section 3.2)

Seismic refraction

Usesatransmittercoiltogeneratecurrentsthatinduceasecondarymagneticfieldintheearththatismeasuredbyareceivercoil.Wellsuitedforarealsearches.

Measurestheresistivityofsubsurfacematerialsbyinjectinganelectricalcurrentintothegroundbyapairofsurfaceelectrodesandmeasuringtheresultingpotentialfield(voltage)betweenasecondpairofelectrodes.

Uses a seismic source (commonly

Canbeusedtomapawidevarietyofsubsurfacefeaturesincludingnaturalhydrogeologic conditions, delineationofcontaminantplumes,rateofplumemovement,buriedwastes,andotherartificialfeatures(e.g.,buried

drums, pipelines). Depth ofpenetrationistypicallyupto60metersbutdepthsto200+metersarepossible.a

Similartoelectricalconductivity(seeabove),exceptnotwidelyusedtodetectmetallicobjects,forwhichmagneticandEMImethodsaremore effective. Better for depthsoundingthanfrequencydomainEMI.

Can be used to define the thickness


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Table 1-2 (cont.)

Method Description HydrogeologicApplications

Ground Uses a transmitter coil to emit Canmapsoillayers,depthofpenetrating radar(GPR) (Section6.1)

high-frequencyradiowavesthatarereflectedoffsubsurfacechangesinelectricalproperties(typically density andwater-contentvariations)anddetected

bedrockburiedstreamchannels,rockfractures,cavitiesinnaturalsettings,buriedwastematerials.Maximumdepthofpenetrationunderfavorableconditionsisaround

byareceivingantenna. 25meters.100sofmeters

penetrationmaybepossibleinhighlyresistivematerials(saltorice).

Gravimetry(Section 6.3)

Usesoneormoreofseveraltypesofinstrumentsthatmeasuretheintensityoftheearths

Canbeusedtoestimatedepthofunconsolidatedmaterialoverbedrockandboundariesoflandfills,

gravitational field. whichhaveadifferentdensitythannaturalsoilmaterial.Microgravitysurveysmaybeabletodetectsubsurfacecavitiesandsubsidencevoids.

Thermal(Section6.4)

Uses temperature sensorsanomaliesinthesoilorsurface

Canbeusedtodelineateshallowground-waterflowsystems,buried

water. valleyaquifers,rechargeanddischargezones,zonesofhigh

bili l k b h


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advantage,butcanbeadisadvantageifafeatureoranomalyissosmallthatitescapesdetection

inalargersampledvolume. Datafromthesemethodscanbeacquiredintheformof(1)

profiles,whichrecordchangesinmeasuredpropertiesin a lineartransectalongthegroundsurface,or(2)soundings,whichmeasurevertical changesin themeasuredproperties.

Multipleparallelprofiles,usingmethodssuchaselectromagneticinductionandmagnetic

andgravitysurveys,createanarealviewofthepropertiesbeingmeasuredthatcanbedisplayed

two-dimensionallyascontoursofequalvalues (isopleths)orgraphicallytorepresentthedatathreedimensionally.Figurel-2a,bshowstwo-andthree-dimensionalportrayalsofthesame

data.Thethree-dimensionalperspectiveshowninFigure l-2b shouldnotbemistakenfora

physicalrepresentationofthesubsurface,suchasisprovidedbyseismicmethods(Chapter5)and

groundpenetratingradar (seeSection6.1).A three-dimensionalviewcanbeobtainedeitherby

(1)takingmultipleverticalsoundingsinatwo-dimensionalgridatthesurfaceor(2)multipleprofileswithdifferentdepthsofmeasurementalongthesametransect.Theterm resolution is

usedtodescribehowwellamethodcanmeasurechangesinfeatureshorizontally(lateral

resolution)andinsounding (verticalresolution).


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Figure1-2aWaysofpresentingarealgeophysicalmeasurements:anisoplethmapofelectricalconductivity measurement (from Benson et al. , 1984a).


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StationMeasurements

Continuous Measurements

Figure1-3 Discretesamplingversuscontinuousgeophysicalmeasurements(fromBensonetal.,1984a).


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measurementsissufficienttoportraytheslowlyvaryingcomponent,butfailedtodetectthe

highlylocalizedanomaliesthatareapparentinthecontinuousmeasurement.

1.4 Introduction to the Geophysical Literature

1.4.1 General Geophysics

Historically,geophysicalfieldmethodshavebeenprimarilythedomainofpetroleumand

mineralexplorationgeologists,andtextbookswrittenfromthisperspectiveremainimportant

sourceofinformationonbasictheoryandapplicationofgeophysicalmethodsinthestudyof

contaminatedsites.Table1-4lists21basicgeophysicstextsalongwiththemajormethods

coveredineach.Thereferencesectionofthischapterprovidesdetailedannotationsofmethods

coveredbyindividualtexts(abbreviationsintheseannotationsaredefinedintheGlossarytothisguide).Oldertextscanprovideusefulinformationonbasicprinciples,andevennewertextscan

becomerapidlyoutdatedwithrespecttospecificmethods.Informationonthelatest

developmentsingeophysicalmethodsismostlikelytoappearintheexploration-oriented

geophysical journals: Geophysics, Geophysical Prospecting, andGeoexploration (renamed

J l f A li d G h i 1992) 1Th d d b t t f th l ti f th


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Table 1-4 General Texts on Geophysics

Reference Topics

Beck (1981)

dAmaudGerkins(1989)

DobrinandSavit(1988)

EveandKeys(1954)

GrantandWest(1965)

GriffithsandKing(1981)

Exploration:electrical,selfpotential,inducedpolarization,gravity,magnetic, electromagnetic, seismic, radioactive, well logging.

ExplorationGeophysics:seismicrefractionandreflection,gravity,magnetic,selfpotential,telluriccurrent,magnetotelluriccurrents,electricalresistivity,inducedpolarization,electromagneticinduction(includingairborne),timedomainEM,radiometric.

Geophysicalprospecting:seismicrefractionandreflection, gravity, magnetic, electrical, electromagnetic.

Mineralexploration:magnetic,electrical,electromagnetic,gravity,

seismic, radioactive, geothermal.

Interpretationtheoryinappliedgeophysics:seismicrefractionandreflection, gravity, magnetic, electrical resistivity, electromagneticinduction.

Appliedgeophysicsforengineersandgeologists:l i l i i i l i i i f i d


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Table 1-5 Bibliographies, Reports, and Symposia Focusing on Application of Surface Geophysical

Methods to Ground Water and Contaminated Sites

Reference Description

Bibliographies

Handman (1983) Bibliographyofmore than 550USGSpublicationsonhydrologicandgeologic aspects ofwastemanagement. Index identifies15ongeophysicalmethods.

JohnsonandGnaedinger(1964)

Bibliographyprepared forASTMsymposium onsoil explorationcontainingover300referencesonairphotointerpretation,surfaceelectricalresistivityandseismicmethods,andboreholegeophysics.

LewisandHaeni(1987) Bibliographyonuse ofsurface geophysicalmethods for detectionoffractures in bedrockwith annotations to 31English-language referencesand12 foreign-language references.

Rehmetal.(1985) Section5covershydrogeologicapplicationsofsurfacegeophysics;BibliographyinSection 6containsover300 referenceson surfacemethods.

vanderLeeden(1991) Over100referencesongeophysicalmethodsrelevanttogroundwater.

Glossary


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Table 1-5 (cont.)


Texts/RePorts on Contaminated Site Applications

Aller(1984) EPAreportonmethodsfordeterminingthelocationofabandonedwells.Covers:airphotos,color/thermalIR,ER,EMI,GPR,MD,MAG,combustible gas detectors.

Bensonetal.(1984a,b) EPAreportfocusingofGPR,EMI,resistivity,seismicrefraction,andmetaldetectionforsensingburiedwastesandcontaminationmigration.

Costello(1980) U.S.ArmyToxicandHazardousMaterialsAgencyreportonsurfaceandborehole geophysical techniques.

EC&T(1990) U.S.ArmyToxicandHazardousMaterialsAgencymanual onconstruction environmental site survey and clearance procedures coveringGPR,EMI,magnetometry,metaldetection,andsoilgassurveys.

Frischknechtetal.(1983) Evaluationof geophysical methods for locating abandonedwells preparedbyU.S.GeologicalSurvey.

HRB-Singer (1971) Reportonuseofgeophysicalmethodsfordetectionofabandonedunderground mines. Methods evaluated: included induced polarization,selfpotential,andVLF.

Lord and Koerner (1987) EPA report evaluating metal detectors, electromagnetic induction, ground

Table 1-5 (cont.)


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TextsonGeologicandEntineeringApplications

Taylor(1984)

U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers (1979)

Ward(1990c)

Conferences/Symposia

Garland (1989)

Morley (1970)

NWWA(1984,1985,1986)*

ReportpreparedforU.S.BureauofMineevaluatingsurfacegeophysicalmethodsforcharacterizinghydrologicpropertiesoffracturedrock.

Manual ongeophysical techniquesfocusingon engineeringapplications.SurfacemethodsincludeSeismicrefractionandreflection,surfacewaves,sonar,ER,GR;boreholemethodsincludeseismic,electrical, nuclear.

Volume3 contains23papers ongeotechnical applicationsofgeophysicalmethods.

ProceedingsofsymposiumonexplorationgeophysicspublishedbytheOntarioGeologicalSurveywith77paperscoveringelectromagnetic,induced polarization, seismic, radiometric and remote sensing.

ProceedingsoftheCanadianCentennialConferenceonMiningandGroundwaterGeophysics(NiagaraFalls,1967).Containsstate-of-the-artreview papers on gravity, ground andairborne electromagneticmethods,inducedpolarization,andseismicmethods,and11papersongroundwater applications.

Proceedingsof conferenceson surface and borehole geophysicalmethodsi d t i ti ti Th 1984 1985 d 1986 di


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Informationonthelatestdevelopmentsinapplicationofgeophysicalmethodsinthe

investigationofgroundwaterandcontaminatedsitesismostlikelytoappearinthe

hydrogeologic journals GroundWater andGround Water Monitoring Review (renamed Ground

Water Monitoring and Remediation in 1993). Other important journals includeWater Resources

Research andJournal of Hydrology.2

The Symposium on the Application of Geophysics to Engineering and Environmental

Problems (SAGEEP), sponsoredbytheSocietyof EngineeringandMineralExploration

Geophysicists(SEMEG),hasbeenheldannuallysince1988andisanexceptionalsourceofinformationonhydrogeologicandcontaminatedsiteapplications.Eachvolumeofproceeding

includesseveralapplications-orientedreviewpapersandnumerouscasestudies.In1992,

SEMEG became the Environmental and Engineering Geophysical Society (EEGS), which

continuestosponsortheSAGEEP.

Another importantsourceofinformationonrecentdevelopmentsare anumberof

symposiumseriessponsoredbytheNationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA)ortheaffiliated

AssociationofGroundWaterScientistsandEngineers(AGWSE),andtheHazardousMaterials

ControlResearchInstitute(HMCRI).NWWAchangeditsnametotheNationalGroundWater


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Table1-6ConferencesandSymposiaPrceedirrgswithPapersRelevanttoSubsurfaceCharacterizationandMonitoring

Sponsor Year Title

SEMEG 1988

1989199019911992

NWWA 19811982198319841985

19861987

19881989199019911992

NWWA/API 1984

19851986198719881989199019911992

[lst]SymposiumontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems(SAGEEP)

[2nd](SAGEEP89)[3rd](SAGEEP90)[4th](SAGEEP91)[5th](SAGEEP92)

1stNationalGroundWaterQualityMonitoringSymposiumandExposition2ndNationalSymposiumonAquiferRestorationandGroundWaterMonitoring3rd4th5th

6th1stNationalOutdoorActionConferenceonAquiferRestoration,GroundWaterMonitoring,andGeophysical,Methods2nd3rd4thGWM25thGWM56thGWM11

[lst]ConferenceonPetroleumHydrocarbonsandOrganicChemicalsinGroundWaterPrevention,DetectionandRestoration[2nd][3rd][4th][5th][6th][7th]GWM4[8th]GWM8[9th]GWM14


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Materials Control Conference (titled Superfund from1987to1990andtheNational Conference

on Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites priorto1987)andNational Conference

on Hazardous Waste and Hazardous Materials usually include a few papers related togeophysicalmethods.MostofthepapersintheconferencesidentifiedinTable1-6areindexed

inthisreferenceguide.

TheAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)hassponsoredconferencesthat

presentseveralpapersonuseofgeophysicalmethodsatcontaminatedsites(CollinsandJohnson,1988)andforgeotechnicalinvestigations(PailletandSaunders,1990).SubcommitteeD-18.21

(GroundWaterandVadoseZoneInvestigations)ofASTMispreparinganumberofstandard

guidesonthemorecommonlyusedgeophysicalmethods(theseareidentifiedintheappropriate

subsectionsinU.S.EPA,1993).PapersfromCollinsandJohnson(1988)andanumberof

relevantpapersfromotherASTMpublicationsareindexedinthisguide.

Table1-5providesadditionalinformationonthreeconferencessponsoredbyNWWA

from1984to1986onsurfaceandboreholegeophysicalmethodsinground-waterinvestigations.

Theproceedingsdocumentofthe1967CanadianCentennialConferenceonMiningand


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consequentlythereismorelikelytobediversityofopinionconcerningconclusionsor

recommendationsinindividualpapers.Whennon-peer-reviewedpapersareconsidered,greater

weightcanbegiventothoseauthoredbyindividualsfromacademicinstitutionsorresearch-

orientedgovernmentagencies(e.g.,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,personnelfromEPAresearch

laboratories)thantopapersauthoredbyconsultantswhomayhaveaninterestinpromotinga

particularmethod.Finally,morerecentlypublishedpaperscangenerallybegivengreaterweight

thatearlierpublicationsbecausetheyaremorelikelytoaddressrecentdevelopmentsand

advancesingeophysicaltechniques.Asageneralrule,reviewofmultiplereferencesfromavarietyofsourcesthatdealwithaspecificmethodshouldhelpdeterminethemethods

appropriatenessforaspecificapplicationorforsite-specificconditions.Whenindoubt,oneor

moreexpertsshouldbeconsulted(seeSection1.5).

1.4.4 Use of Reference Index Tables in This Guide

Thisguidecontainsmanymorereferencesthanarementionedinthetext.Theywere

initiallycompiledusing:(1)theground-waterorientedbibliographieslistedinTable1-5;(2)

conferenceproceedingslistedinTable1-6;(3)referencesectionsinpapersgatheredinthefirst-

round review of references related specifically to geophysical applications to ground water and


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topicscovered;theseprecedethereferencesectionineachchapter(see,e.g.,Table1-7).

Althoughtheorganizationofinformationvariessomewhatfromchaptertochapter,general

referencesonthemethodalwaysappearfirst,followedbyreferencesdescribingapplicationsofthemethod.

Specificapplicationsareindexedseparatelysothatthesamereferencemayappearmore

thanonceintheindex.Forexample,inTable1-7theNWWAgeophysicsproceedingsarelisted

underthesubheadingsforbothcontaminatedsitesandgroundwaterunderthegeneralheadingoftexts/reports. Thissametablelists25papersongeneraluseofgeophysicalmethods

infivesubcategories(onlyacoupleofthesereferenceswereactuallycitedinthetext).

1.4.5 Obtaining References

Whenout-of-printEPAdocumentsandothergovernment-sponsoredpublicationsare

availablefromtheNationalTechnicalInformationService(NTIS,U.S.Departmentof

Commerce,Springfield,VA22161;800-336-4700),theNTISordernumberisprovidedwiththe

citation.WhenanNTISnumbercouldnotbefound(usuallyformorerecentpublications),the

sponsoring EPA office or EPA laboratory is identified and availability can be determined by


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Table 1-7 Index to Texts and Papers on General Applications of Geophysics to the Study of Ground

Water and Contaminated Sites

Topic References

Texts/Reports

General Geophysics Beck(1981),dArnaudGerkins(1989),DobrinandSavit(1988),EveandKeys(1954),Garland(1989),GrantandWest(1965),GriffithandKing(1981),Hansenetal.(1967),Heiland(1940,1968),Howell(1959),Jakosky (1950), Kearey andBrooks (1991),Milsom (1989),Nettleton(1940),Parasnis (1975,1979),RobinsonandCoruh(1988), Sharma

(1986),Sheriff(1968,1989,1991),Telfordetal.(1990),Valley(1965),VanBlaricom(1980),Ward(1990a)

GroundWater ErdlyiandGlfi(1988),KarousandMare(1988),Merely(1970),NWWA(1984,1985,1986),Redwineetal.(1985),Rehmetal.(1985),Taylor(1984),U.S.EPA(1987a),USGS(1980),Ward(1990b),Zohdyetal. (1974); Bibliographies:Handman (1983), Johnson andGnaedinger(1964),LewisandHaeni(1987),Rehmetal.(1985),vanderLeeden(1991)

Contaminated Sites Aller(1984),Bensonetal.(1984a,b),Cleff(1991hydrocarbondetection),Costello(1980),EC&Tetal.(1990),Frischknechtetal.(1983),HRBSinger(1971),LordandKoerner(1987),NWWA(1984,1985,1986),OBrienandGere(1988),Olhoeft(1992a),Pitchfordetal.(1988),SEGEM(1988-present),Technos(1992),ThomasandDixon(1989),U.S.DOE(1990),U.S.EPA(1987b,1992),VanEeckhoutandCalef(1992),WailerandDavis(1984),Ward(1990b)


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Table 1-7 (cont.)

Topic References

PapersonGeneralUseofGeophysicalMethods(cont.)

Monitoring Reganetal.(1987),TuttleandChapman(1989),Wrubleetal.(1986)

Site Assessment Benson(1991),BensonandYuhr (1992),Cichowiczetal.(1981),Evansetal. (1982),EvansandSchweitzer(1984),EmilssonandSimonson(1989),Flatmanetal.(1986),Frenchetal.(1988),Hatheway(1982),HoekstraandHoekstra(1990),JohnsonandJohnson(1986),MacLeodandDobush(1990),McGinnisetal.(1988),McKownandSandness(1981),Nelson (1988),Nichol andCain(1992),Olhoeft(1992b),Olssonetal.(1984),TuttleandChapman(1989),Wrubleetal.(1987)


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fromtheoriginatingorganization(seeAppendixB.2foraddresses):ASTM,NGWA/NWWA,

EEGS/SEMEG,SEG,SPWLA.

TheNGWAsNationalGround-WaterInformationCenter(6375RiversideDrive,Dublin,

OH;614-761-1711)isprobablytheonlylibraryinthecountrywithacompletesetofthe

NWWA/NGWAconferenceseries.Similarly,theHazardousMaterialsResearchInstitute(9300

ColumbiaBoulevard, Silver Spring,MD 20910-1702; 301-587-9390) maintains a complete

collectionofitsconferenceseries.Copiesofspecificconferenceproceedingscanoftenbefound

inthelibrariesmaintainedbyEPAregionalofficeandEPAlaboratoriesorinuniversitylibraries

(seeAppendixB.3).

Beginningin1990,NWWA(nowNGWA)beganpublishingtheproceedingsofitsvarious

conferences under the title Ground Water Management: A Journal for Rapid Dissemination of

GroundWater Research.Asubscription($140formembersand$192.50fornonmembers)consistsof6couponsthatcanberedeemedforpublishedproceedings(largerproceedingsmay

require2coupons).


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Collins,A.G.andA.I.Johnson(eds.).1988.Ground-WaterContamination:FieldMethods.ASTMSTP963,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PA,485pp.[Includes5papersongeophysicalmethods]

Costello,R.L.1980.IdentificationandDescriptionofGeophysicalTechniques.USATHAMAReportDRXTH-TE-CR-80084. U.S.ArmyToxicandHazardousMaterialsAgency, AberdeenProvingGround,MD,215pp.[ER,GPR,SRR,BH][SupersededbyEC&Tetal.,1990]

dArnaudGerkins,J.C.1989.FoundationsofExplorationGeophysics.Elsevier,NY,667pp.[SRR,SRL,GR,MAG,SP,TC,MT,IP,ER,EMI,TDEM,radiation]

Dobecki,T.L.andP.R.Romig.1985.GeotechnicalandGroundWaterGeophysics.Geophysics

50(12):2621-2636.

Dobrin,M.B.andC.H.Savit.1988.IntroductiontoGeophysicalProspecting,4thed.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,867pp.[EarliereditionsbyDobrin:1960,1965,1976].[SRR,SRL,CSP,GR,MAG,ER,SP,IP,EMI]

Ellyett,C.D.andD.A.Pratt.1975.AReviewofthePotentialApplicationsofRemoteSensingTechniquestoHydrogeologicalStudiesinAustralia.AustralianWaterResourcesCouncilTechnicalPaperNo.13,Canberra.

Emilsson,G.R.andJ.C.B.Simonson.1989.IntegratedGeophysicalandGeologicTechniques:ImportantFirstStepsintheInvestigationofaSuperfundSiteinSoutheasternPennsylvania.In:Proc.(2nd)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.354-367.

EnvironmentalConsulting&Technology(EC&T),Inc.,Technos,Inc.,andUXBInternational,Inc.1990.Construction Site Environmental Survey and Clearance Procedures Manual. U.S. Army Toxic and


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French,R.B.,T.R.Williams,andA.R.Foster.1988.GeophysicalSurveysataSuperfundSite,WasteProcessing,Washington. In:Proc.(lst)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.747-753.

Frischknecht,F.C.,L.Muth,R.Grette,T.Buckley,andB.Kornegay.1983.GeophysicalMethodsforLocatingAbandonedWells.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpen-FileReport83-702,211pp.

Garland,G.D.(ed.).1989.ProceedingsofExploration87.SpecialVolume3,OntarioGeologicalSurvey,Toronto,Canada,914pp.[77paperscoveringsurface,borehole,andairborneEM,IP,remotesensing, radiometric,and seismicmethods]

Grant,F.S.andG.F.West.1965.InterpretationTheoryinAppliedGeophysics.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,583pp.[ER,EM,SRL,SRR,GR,MAG,EMI]

Griffiths,D.H.andR.F.King.1981.AppliedGeophysicsforEngineersandGeologists:TheElementsofGeophysicalProspecting,2nded.PergamonPress,NewYork,230pp.[Firstedition1965][ER,EM,SRR,SRL,GR,MAG]

Hancock,J.C.andP.A.Wintz.1966.SignalDetectionTheory.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,247pp.

Handman,E.H.1983.HydrologicandGeologicAspectsofWasteManagementandDisposal:ABibliographyofPublicationsbyU.S.GeologicalSurveyAuthors.U.S. Geological SurveyCircular907,40pp.[15referencesongeophysics]

H D A W E H i i h J R C H l R E M D ll G R R J S S d S H


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HRB-Singer,Inc.1971.DetectionofAbandonedUndergroundCoalMinesbyGeophysicalMethods.Project14010,ReportEHN.PreparedforU.S.EPAandPADept.ofEnv.Res.[VLF,IP,SP].

Jakosky,J.J.1950.ExplorationGeophysics. TrijaPublishingCo.,LosAngeles,1195pp.[S,ER,MAG,

GR]

Johnson,A.I.andJ.P.Gnaedinger. 1964.Bibliography.In:SymposiumonSoilExploration,ASTMSTP351,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PApp.137-155.[airphotointerpretation(90refs);ERandseismic(60refs);electricalboreholelogging(48refs);nuclearboreholelogging(40refs),boreholecamera(13refs);neutronmoisturemeasurement(50refs)]

Johnson,W.J.andD.W.Johnson.1986.PitfallsofGeophysicsinCharacterizingUndergroundHazardousWaste.In:Proc.7thNat.Conf.onManagementofUncontrolledHazardousWasteSites,HazardousMaterialsControlResearchInstitute,SilverSpring,MD,pp.227-232.[EMI,ER,GPR,MAG,SRR]

Karous,M.andS.Mare.1988.GeophysicalMethodsinStudyingFractureAquifers.CharlesUniversity,Prague,93pp.[ER,EMI,SP,SRR,borehole]

Kearey,P.andM.Brooks.1991.AnIntroductiontoGeophysicalExploration,2nded.BlackwellScientificPublications,Boston,MA296pp.[Firstedition1984][SRR,SRL,GR,MAG,ER,SP,IP,EMI,VLF,AFMAG,TC,MT,AEM]

Lewis,M.R.andF.P.Haeni.1987.TheUseofSurfaceGeophysicalTechniquestoDetectFracturesinBedrockAnAnnotatedBibliography.U.S. Geological SurveyCircular 987. [31Englishlanguageand12 foreign language references]

LordJr.,A.E.andR.M.Koerner.1987.NondestructiveTesting(NDT)TechniquestoDetectContainedSubsurfaceHazardousWaste.EPA/600/2-87/078(NTISPB88-102405),99pp.[17methods;EMI,


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Milsom,J.1989.FieIdGeophysics.HalstedPress,NewYork,182pp.

Morely,L.W.(ed.)1970.MiningandGroundwaterGeophysics/1967.EconomicGeologyReport26.GeologicalSurveyofCanada,Ottawa,Canada.[ER,EM,SRR,BH]

Nabighian,M.N.(ed.).1988.ElectromagneticMethodsinAppliedGeophysics,Vol.1,Theory.SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists,Tulsa,OK528pp.

Nabighian,M.N.(ed.).1991.ElectromagneticMethodsinAppliedGeophysics,Vol.2,PartsAandB,

Applications.SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists,Tulsa,OK,PartA,pp.1-520,PartB,pp.521992.

NationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA).1971.GeophysicsandGroundWater:APrimer:Part1,AnIntroductiontoGroundWaterGeophysics;Part2,AppliedUseofGeophysics.WaterWellJournalPart1:25(7):43-60;Part2:25(8):35-50.

NationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA).1984.NWWA/EPAConferenceonSurfaceandBorehole

GeophysicalMethodsinGroundWaterInvestigations(SanAntonio,TX).NationalWaterWellAssociation, Dublin, OH.

NationalWaterWellAssociation(NWWA).1985.NWWAConferenceonSurfaceandBoreholeGeophysicalMethodsinGroundWaterInvestigations(FortWorth,TX).NationalWaterWellAssociation, Dublin, OH.


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Olhoeft,G.R.1992a.GeophysicsAdvisorExpertSystem,Version2.0.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpenFileReport92-526,21pp.plusfloppydisk.AlsoavailablefromU.S.EPAEnvironmentalMonitoringSystemsLaboratory,POBox93478,LasVegas,NV,89193-3478;replacesVersionLO(EPA/600/489/023),releasedin1989.[ER,EMI,complexresistivity,SRR,SRL,GPR,GR,radiometric,soilgas]

Olhoeft,G.R.1992b.SiteCharacterizationTools.In:SubsurfaceRestorationConference,ThirdInt.Conf.onGroundWaterQualityResearch(June21-24,1992,Dallas,TX),NationalCenterforGroundWaterResearch,RiceUniversity,Houston,TX,pp.29-31.

Olsson,O.,0.Duran,A.Jamtlid,andL.Stenburg.1984.GeophysicalInvestigationsinSwedenfortheCharacterizationof a Site forRadioactiveWasteDisposalAnOverview. Geoexploration 22:187201.

Paillet,F.L.andW.R.Saunders(eds.).1990.GeophysicalApplicationsforGeotechnicalInvestigations.ASTMSTP1101,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PA118pp.[2peer-reviewedpapersonsurfaceand5onboreholegeophysics]

Pamsnis,D.S.1975.MiningGeophysics,2nded,revisedandupdated.Elsevier,NewYork,395pp.[secondeditiondated1973];[MAG,SP,EMI,TDEM,TC,ER,IP,GR,SRR,SRL,radiometric,BH]

Parasnis,D.S.1979.PrinciplesofAppliedGeophysics,3rded.ChapmanandHall,NewYork,269+pp.[earliereditionsdated1962,1972];[MAG,GR,ER,IP,EM,S]

Peterson,R.,J.Hild,andP.Hoekstra.1989.GeophysicalStudiesfortheExplorationofGroundwaterintheBasinandRangeofNorthernNevada.In:Proc.(2nd)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.425-435.


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Robinson,E.S.andC.Coruh.1988.BasicExplorationGeophysics. JohnWiley&Sons,NewYork,562pp.[SRR,SRL,GR,MAG,ER,IP,SP,TC,EMI,BH]

Schwarz,S.D.1988.ApplicationofGeophysicalMethodstoGroundwaterExplorationintheToltRiverBasin,WashingtonState.In:Proc.(lst)Symp.ontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems,Soc.Eng.andMineralExplorationGeophysicists,Golden,CO,pp.652-657.

Sharma,P.V.1986.GeophysicalMethodsinGeology,2ndedElsevier,NewYork,428pp.[Firstedition1976][S,GR,MAG,ER,geothermal]

Sheriff,R.E.1968.GlossaryofTermsUsedinGeophysicalExploration.Geophysics33(l):181-228.

Sheriff,R.E.1989.GeophysicalMethods.PrenticeHall,EnglewoodCliffs,NJ,605pp.[GR,MAG,ER,EM,SRR,geothermal,radiometric,BH]

Sheriff,R.E.1991.EncyclopedicDictionaryofExplorationGeophysics,3rded.SocietyofExplorationGeophysicists,Tulsa,OK,376pp.[lsted.1973,2nd1984]

Society ofExploration Geophysicists (SEG). Various dates. Annual Meeting Technical Program:Expanded Abstracts and Biographies. SEG,Tulsa,OK.[Publicationforthe61stannualmeeting

in1991isa2-volumesettotaling1707pages]*

Society of Engineering andMineral ExplorationGeophysicists/Environmental and EngineeringGeophysicalSociety(SEMEG/EEGS).1988-present. SymposiumontheApplicationofGeophysicstoEngineeringandEnvironmentalProblems[lst,1988;2nd1989;3rd,1990;4th,1991;5th,1992].EEGS,EnglewoodCO.*

Taylor, R.W. 1984. Evaluation of Geophysical Surface Methods for Measuring Hydrological Variables in


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U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.1979.GeophysicalExploration. EngineerManualEM1110-1-1802,DepartmentoftheArmy,Washington,DC,313pp.[SRR,SRL,SASW,sonar,ER,GR,BH]

U.S.DepartmentofEnergy(DOE).1990.BasicResearchforEnvironmentalRestoration.DOE/ER

0482T,WashingtonDC,156pp.[Discussesneedforgeophysics]

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1987a.SurfaceGeophysicalTechniquesforAquiferandWellhead Protection AreaDelineation. EPA/440/6-87/016 (NTIS PB88-229505).

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1987b.ACompendiumofSuperfundFieldOperationsMethods,Part2.EPA/540/P-87/001 (OSWERDirective9355.0-14) (NTISPB88-181557), 644pp.[Remotesensing,EMI,ER,SRR,SRL,MAG,GPR,BH]

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1992.DenseNonaqueousPhaseLiquids-AWorkshopSummary,Dallas,Texas,April16-18,1991.EPA/600/R-92/030, 81pp. [Section4.2providesbriefdescriptionofgeophysicaltechniques]

U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).1993.SubsurfaceFieldCharacterizationandMonitoringTechniquesADeskReferenceGuide,VolumeI:SolidsandGroundWater.EPA/625/R-93/O03a.AvailablefromEPACenterforEnvironmentalResearchInformation,Cincinnati,OH.[Section1covers remote sensingandsurfacegeophysicalmethods,Section3 covers boreholegeophysicalmethods]

U.S.GeologicalSurvey(USGS).1980.GeophysicalMeasurements.In:NationalHandbookofRecommendedMethodsforWaterDataAcquisition,Chapter2(GroundWater),OfficeofWaterDataCoordination,Reston,VApp.2-24to2-76.[TC,MT,AMT,EMI,ER,IP,SRR,GR,BH]

Valley,S.C.(ed.).1965.HandbookofGeophysicsandSpaceEnvironments.McGraw-Hill,NewYork.

VanBlaricom,R.1980.PracticalGeophysicsfor theExplorationGeologist.NorthwestMining


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Wruble,D.T.,J.J.VanEe,andL.G.McMillion.1986.RemoteSensingMethodsforWasteSiteSubsurfaceInvestigationsandMonitoring.In:HazardousandIndustrialSolidWasteTestingandDisposal:SixthVolume,R.A.Conway,etal.(eds.),ASTMSTP933,AmericanSocietyforTesting

andMaterials,Philadelphia,PApp.243-256.[Airphotos,multispectral,thermalIR,surfacegeophysics]

Zohdy,A.A.,G.P.Eaton,andD.R.Mabey.1974.ApplicationofSurfaceGeophysicstoGround-WaterInvestigations.U.S.Geological Survey Techniques ofWater-Resource Investigations TWRI 2-D1,116pp.[ER,GR,MAG,SRR]

*AddressesinAppendixB.2.


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CHAPTER 2

AIRBORNE REMOTE SENSING AND GEOPHYSICS

Hydrogeologistshaveusedthetermremotesensing looselytoapplytoallairborne

sensingmethods(EllyettandPratt,1975).Explorationgeophysicistsusuallyusetheterm

airbornegeophysics to refertomagnetic,gravimetric,andelectromagneticmeasurementstaken

fromecmventionalaircraftandtheyrestrictthetermremotesensingtoobservationsof

electromagneticradiationfromsatellitesandhigh-altitudeaircraft(Regan,1980). 1Figure2-1

showstheportionoftheelectromagneticspectrumthatismostcommonlyusedforremote

sensing.

Airborne sensing andmethodsaremorecommonlyusedinregionalinvestigationswhere

largeareasmustbeevaluated, rather than for site-specificstudies.Table2-1 summarizes

informationonhydrogeologicapplicationsforfiveairbornesensingtechniquesthatwere

evaluatedbyEllyettandPratt(1975)fortheirpotentialvalueinhydrogeologicalinvestigations.


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Table 2-1 Use of Airborne Sensing Techniques in Hydrogeologic and Contaminated Site Studies

Method Description Applications

Visibleandnearinfrared

Photographicultraviolet

Thermalinfrared

Side-lookingairborneradar(SLAR)

Low frequencyairborne

Aerialphotographs(blackandwhite,color,falsecolor,infraredmultispectral).Imaginglimitedtosurfacefeatures.

Aerial photographs using specialfilmand filters for sensing reflectedultraviolet radiation.

Scannersusedtodetectinfraredradiationbeyondtherangeofinfrared photography.

Createsacontinuousradarimage(reflectedradiofrequencypulses)ofthegroundsurface.

Usesalowfrequencyelectromagnetic wave transmitter

Airphotointerpretationofgeologicandsurfacehydrologicfeatures,fracturetraceanalysis,soilmoisturepatterns,andvegetation(infrared).

Mappingofoilspillsonsurfacewaterbodiessometimesusedforgeologicmappingofcarbonateformations.

Routinelyusedtodetectground-waterdischargeintorivers,lakes,andthesea;detects variations in soil moisturecontent(seepagefromleachfieldsandundergroundstoragetanks),evaporation,andthermalproperties.

Similarapplicationstoairphotos;candistinguishgrainsizeinalluviumifthereisnointerferencefromvegetation.Canalsobeusedforfixturetraceanalysis.

Detectsvariationsinsoilandreektypes;variations in ground water salinity;


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2.1 Visible and Near-Infrared Aerial Photography

Aerialphotographs,whichrecordthevisibleportionoftheelectromagneticspectrum,are

byfarthemostcommonformofremotesensingandarebasictoanygeologicorhydrogeologic

investigation.Muchinformationcanbeobtainedfromstereopairsofblack-and-white(alsocalled

panchromatic)airphotos,whichprovideathree-dimensionalimageofthesurfacewhenviewed

withastereoscope. Patternsofvegetation,variationsingreytonesinsoilandrockdrainage

patterns,andlinearfeaturesallowpreliminaryinterpretationsofgeology,soils,andhydrogeology.

Variousstandardtextsareavailableforguidanceinairphotointerpretationmethods(Avery,1968;Dennyetal.,1968;Lueder,1959Ray,1960).Allairphotointerpretationsshouldbefield

checkedandrevisedwheregroundtruthingindicatesfeaturesthatweremissedorincorrectly

delineated.

Usingphotogrammetrictechniquestodeveloptopographiccontoursfromstereoscopic

(overlapping)aerialphotographsisoftenthecheapestwaytoproducereasonablyaccurate

topographicmaps(1or2footcontourintervals)forsite-specificinvestigations.However,such

mapsmaynotbesufficientlyaccurateforlocatingtheelevationsofboreholesandmonitoring

wellsforwaterlevelmeasurementandsubsurfacemapping.


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scatteredintheatmosphereandresultinalowcontrastimage,especiallywhendustorhazeispresent.

Multiband (alsocalledmultispectral) images,usemultiplelensesandfilterstorecordsimultaneousexposuresofdifferentportionsofthevisibleandnear-infraredspectrumofthesameareaontheground.Imagescanalsoberecordedelectronically using a multispectral scanning system.

Airphotosoftenreveallinearfeaturescalled fracture tracesthat indicatezonesof

relativelyhigherpermeabilityinthesubsurface. Fracture-traceanalysisusingairphotoscanprovidepreliminaryinformationonpossible preferentialmovement ofcontaminants.Fetter

(1980,pp.406-411)providesausefulintroductiontofracture-traceanalysis.Sonderegger(1970)

describesuseofpanchromatic,color,andinfraredphotographytolocatefracturetracesasanaid

tothe interpretationof theoccurrenceandmovementof groundwaterin limestoneterraine.

Parizek(1976)providesathoroughreviewoftheNorthAmericanliteratureonfracture-traceandlineamentanalysis.DiNitto(1983)recommends thatairphotofracture-traceanalysisbe

supplemented,ifpossible,bysurfaceanalysisofbedrockfractureorientations.

A i l h t h l b I bl t l i d ti i ti h i l


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remotesensingtoolinthestudyofdirecthydrogeologicalindicators.Huntley(1978)evaluated

thermalinfraredimageryasameansofdetectingshallowaquifersandconcludedthatitisnotpracticaltoestimateground-waterdepthdirectly.Theuseofthermalinfraredimageryto

estimatesoilmoisture(JacksonandSchmugge1986;Jacksonetal.1982Price,1980;U.S.

GeologicalSurvey1982)andevaporation(Price,1980;Ottleetal.,1989U.S.GeologicalSurvey

1982)isreasonablywellestablished.MeierhoffandWeil(1991)reporteduseofthermalinfrared

asoneofseveralmethodstolocateundergroundstoragetanksata50-acresite.ThethermalIR

imagerysuccessfullylocatedtheonlyconfirmedleakingUSTatthesiteandalsoidentified

severalareasofburiedpipeandmetallicdebris.Table2-2listsapproximately30referenceson

hydrogeologicandcontaminatedsiteapplicationsofthermalIR.

Airbornegeophysicalmethodssuchasside-lookingairborneradar(SLAR),airborne

electromagnetic (AEM)methods,and aeromagnetics havenotbeenusedwidelyinground-water

contaminationstudies,althoughthepotentialexistsfortheiruseinregionalwaterqualitystudies.

AspecialfeatureofSLARisitsabilitytodistinguishgrainsizeinalluvium.Thistechnique

requiresunvegetatedsurfaces,aconditionthatismostlikelytooccurinaridareas(Ellyettand

P tt 1975)

Table 2-2 Index for References on Airborne Remote Sensing and Geophysical Methods


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Table 2 2 Index for References on Airborne Remote Sensing and Geophysical Methods

Topic References

Remote Sensing Texts Colwell(1983),Dury(1990),Holz(1973),Kondratyev(1969),Rees(1990),Reeves(1968,1975),Regan(1980),Sabins(1978),Ulabyetal.(1982-microwave),Verstappen(1977),WatsonandRegan(1983);Hvdrologic/ContaminationApplications:BurgyandAlgaz(1974), Deutschetal.(1979),EllyettandPratt(1975),Goodison(1985),Lund(1978),Reeves(1968),Scherz(1971),ScherzandStevens(1970),Sers(1971),Thomsonetal.(1973)

Aerial Photography

Photo-Interpretation Avery(1968),Ciciarelli(1991),Dennyetal.(1968),Dury(1957),JohnsonandGnaedigner(1964-bibliography),LattmanandRay(1965),LillesandandKiefer (1979),Lueder (1959),Miller andMiller (1961),Ray(1960),SCS(1973),Strandberg(1967),Wolfe(1974-photogrammetry)

Fracture-Trace Analysis DiNitto(1983),Fetter(1980),Henry(1992),JansenandTaylor(1988),Lattman(1958),LattmanandMatzke(1961),LattmanandNicholsen(1958),LattmanandParizek(1964),Mabeeetal.(1990),Parizck(1976),Setzer (1966), Sonderegger (1970), Trainer (1967), Trainer andEllison(1967),WiseandMcCrory,(1982),Wobber(1967),Zeiletal.(1991)

Ultraviolet PhillipsonandSangrey(1977),Redwineetal.(1985)

Color Infrared Aller (1984-abandoned wells), Estes et al. (1978), Farrell (1985), Lee


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Davis,E.M.andW.J.Fosbury.1973.ApplicationofSelectedMethodsofRemoteSensingforDetectingCarbonaceousWaterPollution.In:RemoteSensingandWaterResourcesManagement,AWRAProc.No.17,AmericanWaterResources Association, pp. 419-432. [Multispectral, IR]

Denny,C.S.,C.R.Warren,D.H.Dow,andW.J.Dale.1968.ADescriptiveCatalogofSelectedAerialPhotographsofGeologicFeaturesoftheUnitedStates.U.S.GeologicalSurveyProfessionalPaper590,135pp.

Deutsch,M.,D.R.Wiosnet,andA.Ranjo(eds.).1979.SatelliteHydrology(FifthAnnualWilliamT.PecoraMemorialSymp.ofRemoteSensing).AmericanWaterResourcesAssociation,Minneapolis,MN,730pp.

DiNitto,R.G.1983.EvaluationofVariousGeotechnicalandGeophysicalTechniquesforSite

CharacterizationStudiesRelativetoPlannedRemedialActionMeasures.In:Proc.(4th)Nat.Conf.onManagementofUncontrolledHazardousWasteSites,HazardousMaterialsControlResearchInstitute,SilverSpring,MD,pp.130-134.

Dury, G.H. 1957.Map Interpretation. Pitman, London.

Dury,S.A.1990.AGuidetoRemoteSensing:InterpretingImagesoftheEarth.OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork,208pp.

Ellyett,C.D.andD.A.Pratt.1975.AReviewofthePotentialApplicationsofRemoteSensingTechniquestoHydrogeologicalStudiesinAustralia.AustralianWaterResourcesCouncilTechnicalPaperNo.13,Canberra.

EnglandA.W.andG.R.Johnson. 1977.MicrowaveBrightnessSpectraofLayeredMedia.Geophysics42(3):514-521.


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Fitterman,D.F.(ed.).1990.DevelopmentsandApplicationsofModernAirborneElectromagneticSurveys.U.S.GeologicalSurveyBulletin1925,216pp.

Frischknecht,F.C.1990.ApplicationofGeophysicalMethodstotheStudyofPollutionAssociatedwithAbandonedandInjectionWells.In:Proc.ofaU.S.GeologicalSurveyWorkshoponEnvironmentalGeochemistry,B.R.Doe (ed.),U.S.Geological SurveyCircular1033,pp. 73-77.[Aeromagnetic,TDEM]

Frischknecht,F.C.andP.V.Raab.1984.LocationofAbandonedWellsbyMagneticSurveys.In:Proc.1stNat.Conf.onAbandonedWells-ProblemsandSolution,EnvironmentalandGroundwaterInstitute,UniversityofOklahoma,Norman,OK, pp.186-215.[Aeromagnetic]

Frischknecht,F.C.,R.Gette,P.V.Raab,andJ.Meredith.1985.LocationofAbandonedWellsbyMagneticSurveys-AcquisitionandInterpretationofAeromagneticDataforFiveTestAreas.U.S.GeologicalSurveyOpen-FileReport85-614-A,64pp.

Goodison,B.E.(ed.).1985.HydrologicalApplicationsofRemoteSensingandRemoteDataTransmission. Int.Ass.HydrologicalSciencesPub.No.145.

Hanna,W.F.(ed.).1990.GeologicalApplicationsofModernAeromagneticSurveys.U.S.GeologicalSurveyBulletin1924,106pp.

Henry,E.C.1992.Topography,FractureTraces,GeologyandWellCharacteristicsoftheUnionvilleandWestChester7.5MinuteQuadrangles,ChesterCountyPennsylvania.In:GroundWaterManagement13:621-645(Proc.ofFocusConf.onEasternRegionalGroundWaterIssues).

Hill,J.M.andE.J.Dantin.1984.AerialMonitoringofHazardousWasteSitesinLouisiana.In:Proc.(lst)Nat.Conf.onHazardousWastesandEnvironmentalEmergencies,HazardousMaterialsControl Research Institute Silver Spring MD pp 108-112


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Jackson,T.J.,T.J.Schmugge,andJ.R.Wang.1982.PassiveMicrowaveSensingofSoilMoistureUnderVegetative Canopies. WaterResourcesResearch18(4):1137-1142.

Jackson,T.J.,T.J.Schmugge,andP.ONeil.1985.RemoteSensingofSoilMoisturefromanAircraftPlatformUsingPassiveMicrowaveSensors.In:HydrologicalApplicationsofRemoteSensingandRemoteSensingDataTransmission,B.E.Goodison(ed),Int.Ass.HydrologicalSciencesPub.No.145,pp.529-540.

Jansen,J.andR.Taylor.1988.SurfaceGeophysicalTechniquesforFractureDetection.In:Proc.SecondConf.onEnvironmentalProblemsinKarstTerranesandTheirSolutions(Nashville,TN),NationalWaterWellAssociation,Dublin,OH,pp.419-441.[EMI,VLF,thermal,fracturetrace]

Johnson,A.I.andJ.P.Gnaedinger. 1964.Bibliography.In:SymposiumonSoilExploration,ASTMSTP351,AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials,Philadelphia,PA, pp.137-155. [90referencesonairphotointerpretation]

Kennedy,C.J.andJ.S.Wogec.1991.UseofForwardLookingInfraredThermographyforSiteAssessmentWork.GroundWaterManagement6:745-750(EnvironmentalSiteAssessmentConference).

Kondratyev,K.Y.1969.RadiationintheAtmosphere.AcademicPress,NewYork,912pp.Landers,R.W.andH.V.Johnson.1978.PhotoInterpretationKeysforHazardousSubstancesSpill

Conditions.In:ControlofHazardousMaterialSpills,InformationTransfer,Inc.,Rockville,MD,pp.124-127.

Lattman,L.H.1958.TechniqueofMappingGeologicFractureTracesandLineamentsonAerial5 5


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LordJr.,A.E.,S.Tyagi,andR.M.Koerner. 1980NondestructiveTesting(NDT)MethodsAppliedtoEnvironmentalProblemsInvolvingHazardousMaterialSpills.In:Proc.Nat.Conf.onControlof

HazardousMaterialsSpills(Louisville,KY),VanderbiltUniversity,Nashville,TN,pp.174-179.[Reviewof17methods, including thermal infrared]

LordJr.,A.E.andR.M.Koerner.1987.NondestructiveTesting(NDT)TechniquestoDetectContainedSubsurface HazardousWaste. EPA/600/2-87/078 (NTIS PB88-102405), 99pp. [17 methodsincludingthermalinfrared;EMI,GPR,MAG,MDbest]

Lueder,D.R.1959.AerialPhotographicInterpretation:PrinciplesandApplications.McGraw-Hill,NewYork,462pp.

Lund,T.1978.SurveillanceofEnvironmentalPollutionandResourcesbyElectromagneticWaves.NatoAdvancedStudyInstitutesSeriesC,Volume45.ReidelPublishingCo.,Boston,MA,402pp.[9papersonland/watersensingusingmicrowaveandthermal IR]

Mabee,S.B.,K.C.Hardcastle,andD.U.Wise.1990.CorrelationofLineamentsandBedrockFractureFabricImplicationsforRegionalFractured-BedrockAquiferStudies,PreliminaryResultsfromGeorgetown, Maine. In:GroundWaterManagement3:283-297(7thNWWAEasternGWConference).[SLAR,airphotos]

Mattick,R.E.,F.H.Olmsted,andA.A.R.Zohdy.1973.GeophysicalStudiesintheYumaArea,ArizonaandCalifornia.U.S.GeologicalSurveyProfessionalPaper726-D,36pp.[SRR,ER,GR,SRL,Aeromagnetic]

Meierhoff,M.L.andG.J.Weil.1991.UndergroundStorageTankDetectionwithInfraredThermography.GroundWaterManagement6:751-756(EnvironmentalSiteAssessmentConference).


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Plume,R.W.1988.UseofAeromagneticDatatoDefineBoundariesofaCarbonate-RockAquiferinEast-CentralNevada.U.S.GeologicalSurveyWaterSupplyPaper2330,10pp.

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Price,J.C.1980.ThePotentialofRemotelySensedThermalInfraredDatatoInferSurfaceSoilsMoistureandEvaporation.WaterResourcesResearch16(4):787-795.

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Redwine,J.etal.1985.GroundwaterManualfortheElectricUtilityIndustry,Volume3:GroundwaterInvestigationsandMitigationTechniques.EPRICS-3901.ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,PaloAlto,CA.[Remotesensing,SRR,SRL,ER,SP,EMI,GPR,GR]

Rees,W.G.1990.PhysicalPrincipleofRemoteSensing.CambridgeUniversityPress,NewYork,247pp.

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CHAPTER 3

SURFACE GEOPHYSICS: ELECTRICAL METHODS

No other surface geophysical methods have been used more widely than electrical and

electromagnetic methods in the study of ground water and contaminated sites. Only downhole

logging methods are more confusing in their classification and terminology to the uninitiated (see

Chapter7).Termssuchas geoelectrical, geoelectromagnetie, andresistivity survey may beusedin the literature to apply to one or more of a variety of geophysical methods. The same method

may be called by different names.

3.1 Electrical versus Electromagnetic Methods

Usually the term electrical applies to methods in which electrical currents are injected

into the ground by the use of direct contact electrodes. Electrical methods operate using direct

current (DC) or frequencies that are so low (perhaps 10 Hz) that there are no


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3.1.1 Types of Electrical Methods

AsnotedinChapter1,electricalandEMmethodscanbebroadlyclassifiedaccordingtowhetherthefieldsourceforwhichasubsurfaceresponseismeasuredisnaturalorartificial(see

Table1-3).ThethreemajortypesofelectricalmethodsareDC electrical resistivity and induced

polarization(includingcomplexresistivity),whichinvolveartificialfieldsources,and self-

potential,whichinvolvesthemeasurementofnaturalelectricalcurrentsinthesubsurface.

Theprincipalmethodusedinthestudyofgroundwaterandcontaminatedsitesuntil

about10yearsagowasDCelectricalresistivity.Sincethe1980s,electromagneticinduction

methodshavegainedincreasingpopularityandnowaregenerallythepreferredmethodfor

ground-watercontaminationstudies.

3.1.2 Subsurface Properties Measured

Electricalandelectromagneticmethodsalsocanbeclassifiedbythesubsurfaceproperties

they measure These involve three major phenomena and properties associated with rocks and


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1000milliSiemens/meter).ByconventionERandVLF(Section4.4)measurementsaretypically

reportedinunitsofresistivity.Electromagneticinduction(Section4.1)andtimedomain

electromagneticmeasurements(Section4.2)aretypicallyreportedinunitsofconductivity.The

publishedliteratureonERandEMmethods,however,doesnotalwaysfollowtheseconventions;

thusEMmeasurementsmaybe reported intermsof resistivityorERmeasurementsin termsof

conductivity.Themethodused tomeasuresubsurfaceproperties(inductionforEM,andcurrent

injectionbyelectrodesforER)willindicatethetechnique,butnotnecessarilytheunitsinwhich

themeasurementsarereported.EMandERmethodsarebyfarthemostwidelyusedsurfacegeophysicaltechniquesinground-watercontaminationstudies(seeTables3-1and3-2forER,

andTables4-1and4-2forEMI).

3.2 Direct Current Electrical Resistivity

Thedirectcurrent(DC),alsocalled galvanic, electric resistivity method measures the

resistancetoflowofelectricityinsubsurfacematerial.DCmethodsinvolvetheplacementof


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Figure3-1 Diagram showingbasicconcept ofresistivitymeasurement (fromBenson etal., 1984).


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Wenner Electrode Array

Lee-Partitioning Electrode Array


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SoundingcurvesprovideslightlygreaterprobingdepthandresolvingpowerthanWennersoundingsforequalABelectrodespacing.

LessmanpowerandtimeisrequiredformakingsoundingsthanforaWennerarray.

Whenwideelectrodespacingsareused,straycurrentsinindustrialareasandtelluriccurrentsaremorelikelytoaffectmeasurementswiththeWernerarray.

TheSchlumbergerarrayismoresensitiveinmeasuringlateralvariationsin

resistivity.

TheWennerarrayismoresusceptibletodriftingorunstablepotentialdifferencescreatedbydrivingelectrodesintotheground.

Schlumbergersoundingcurvescanbemorereadilysmoothed.

TheWennerarray,however,holdsseveraladvantagesovertheSchlumbergerarray,includingsimplicityoftheapparentresistivityformula,relativelysmallcurrentvaluesrequiredto

producemeasurablepotentialdifferences,andavailabilityofalargealbumoftheoreticalmaster

curvesfortwo-,three-,andfour-layerearthmodels(MooneyandWetzel,1956).


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Perpendicular

Radial

Equatorial

Parallel

Axial or Polar

Figure3-3 Dipole-dipolearrays.Theequatorialarray isbipole-dipolebecauseABis large(fromZohdyetal.,1974).


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Figure3-4a Resistivitysoundingsandprofiles: isoplethsof resistivitysoundingdata showingextent


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Figure3-5aSpecializedDCresistivityelectrodeconfigurations:layoutofazimuthalresistivityarray(Carpenteretal.,1991).


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Figure3-5cSpecializedDCresistivityelectrodeconfigurations:tri-potentialelectrodearray(KirkandRauch,1977b).


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withthemethodthanfromanyinherentproblems,andmorewidespreadusefortheapplications

mentionedaboveisprobablymerited.

Tomographic imagingisarelativelynewDCresistivitymethodinwhichagridof

electrodesis establishedon theground surface.Controlledcurrentsareintroduced into asubset

ofelectrodesinaprescribedsequenceandtheelectricalresponseof theotherelectrodesis

measured.Thesesignalsareprocessedusingtomographictheorytocreateathree-dimensional

imageofthesubsurface(seeSection7.2.3).Highverticalandhorizontalresolutionofcontaminantplumeshavebeenobtainedinthelaboratory,butgridedgeeffectshavecreated

difficultiesinfieldapplications(Tamburietal.,1988).

3.4Self-Potential

Self-potentialinvolvesthemeasurementofnaturalelectricalpotentialsdevelopedlocally

inthesubsurfacebyelectrochemicalorelectrofiltrationprocesses.Severaltypesofnatural

potentialsmaybemeasuredbythismethod. Spontaneous polarization isanaturalvoltage


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Avariantofself-potentialinwhichcurrentisinjectedintothegroundtoenhancethe

streamingpotentialeffecthasbeendevelopedtodetectleaksinlinedponds(Figure3-6b).

Geomembranelinershavehighresistivityandwillproviderelativelyuniformpotentialreadingsbetweentwoelectrodes.Ifthelinerispunctured,fluidflowthroughtheleakcreatesa

conductivepathfortheflowofinjectedcurrentandproducesanomalouspotentialreadingsin

thevicinityoftheleak.

3.5 Induced Polarization and Complex Resistivity

Induced polarization (IP) is anelectrical method thatmeasures electrochemical responses

ofsubsurfacematerial(primarilyclays)toaninjectedcurrent.IntimedomainIPsurveys,the

rateatwhichvoltagedecaysaftercurrentinjectionstopsismeasured,whileinfrequencydomain

IPsurveys,theeffectoffrequencyonelectricalresistivityismeasured.Frequencydomainmeasurementsaremoreprecisewheninducedpolarizationeffectsincreasewithdepth;time

domainarebetterwheninducedpolarizationeffectsdecreasewithdepth(PatellaandSchiavone,

1977)$


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Figure3-6aSelf-potentialmeasurements:apparatusandgraphofmeasurementoverafissuredzoneof limestoneillustratingnegativestreamingpotentialcausedbyground-water seepage(O il d B l k 1979)


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conventionalIP,buttheinstrumentationforsignaldetectionandanalysisismorecomplexand

consequentlycostsareevenhigher.Complexresistivityhasthepotentialadvantageofbeingable

todetectorganiccontaminantplumeswhereDCmethodsarerelativelyunsuccessfulinthisapplication(Pitchfordetal.,1988;Olhoeft,1990,1992).Nonethelesscomplexresistivity

methodsarestillmoreorlessattheresearchstageofdevelopmentandinstrumentationisnot

widelyavailable.Becauseofthe largerfrequencyspectrum,complexresistivityis themethod

mostsusceptibleto interferencefromculturalmaterials(e.g.,buriedmetalliccontainers,cables,

pipelines)oftheelectricalmethods.

Table3-1IndextoGeneralReferencesonDCElectricalResistivityMethods


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Topic References

Textbooks/Reports

Electrical Resistivity BhattacharyaandPatra(1968),Goldman(1990-nonconventionalmethods),Keller andFrishcknecht (1970),Kofoed (1979),Kunetz (1966),Mooney(1980),PatraandMallick(1980),Soiltest,Inc.(1968);seealsoTable 1-4 for identificationof general geophysics textscoveringelectricalmethods

Interpretation Texts: Kalenov(1957),MooneyandWetzel (1956),OrellanaandMooney(1966,1972),VanNostrandandCook(1966),Verma(1980);ComputerPrograms:Basokur(1900),Davis (1979),Sheriff(1992),Zohdy(1974a,b),ZohdyandBisdorf(1975);Papers:CookandVanNostrand(1954),Frangos(1990),Kecketal.(1981),Radstakeetal.(1991),Zohdy(1964,1974c,1975,1989)

GeoelectricProperties Parkhomenko(1967),Wait(1982),Wheatcraftetal.(1984)

OtherTexts Bensonetal.(1984),KirkandWarner(1981-cavitydetection),Redwineetal.(1985),Rehmetal.(1985),U.S.EPA(1987),LordandKoerner(1987),Pitchfordetal.(1988),USGS(1980),Zohdyetal.(1974)

GeneralPapers

Table3-2IndextoReferencesonApplicationsofDCResistivityMethods


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Topic References

Ground-WaterApplications

General

U.S.CaseStudies

Bays (1946,1950),BaysandFolks(1944),Benson(1991),BernardandValla (1991),Breusse (1963),Buhle(1953),ButlerandLlopis(1985),Cook et al. (1992-recharge), Harmon andHajicek (1992-streamaquifer connections),Henriet(1976),Kelly(1961),Kellyetal. (1989),Marketal.(1986),Meidav(1964)),Paver(1945),RingstadandBugenig(1984),Shields andSopper(1969watershedhydrology), Stewartetal.

(1983),Stickeletal.(1952),UrishandFrohlich(1990),VanDam(1976),WorkmanandLeighton(1937),Worthington(1975a),WorthingtonandGriffiths(1975)

Ackermann(1976-permafrostareas),Adamsetal.(1971),Bisdorf(1990),Bisdorf andZohdy(1979),BuhleandBrueckmann(1964),CarpenterandBassarab(1964),CherkauerandTaylor(1988),DudleyandMcGinnis(1962), FosterandBuhle(1951),Frohlich(1973,1974),

Gabanksietal.(1984),Hoekstraetal.(1975permafrost),JoinerandScarborough(1969),Joineretal.(1967,1968),KentandSendlein(1972),Lee(1937),Matticketal.(1973),MerkelandKaminski(1972),Page(1968),PoolandHeigold(1981),Priddy(1955),Rijoet al.(1977),Samuelson(1987),StewartandWood(1986),Stewartetal.(1985),Stiermanetal.(1986),Taylor(1992),Tucci(1984),Underwoodetal.(1984) W tl d (1953) W t t l (1990) Wil t l (1970)

Table 3-2 (cont.)


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Topic References

Geologic Characterization Applications

General

Glacial Deposits

Karst

FracturedRock

Permafrost

Benson(1991),CookandNostrand(1954-filledsinks),EmilssonandMorin(1989buriedchannel),GhatgeandPasicznyk(1986-bedrocktopography),Hawley(1943faultlocation),Hubbert(1944-faults),Page(1968), Smith (1974-buried valley), Spicer (1952), Tucci (1986),Wantland(1952depthweatheredrock),Wilcox(1944--sandandgravel)

Denneetal.(1984-glacialburiedvalleys),Hackett(1956),McGinnisandKempton(1961),Reed(1985),Reedetal.(1983),Samuelson(1987),ShoepkeandThomsen(1991),Stiermanetal.(1986),Urish(1981)

FillerandKuo(1989),FretwellandStewart(1981),FrohlichandSmith(1974), Joiner andScarborough (1969),KirkandWerner(1981),RiitziandAndolesk(1992),RodriguezandWellner(1988),SmithandRandazzo(1986,1989),StewartandWood(1986),Watsonetal.(1990)

Adamsetal.(1988),BernardandValla(1991),Burdick(1982),JohnsonandSaylor(1987),Pfeifferetal.(1990),SmithandRandazzo(1989),RitziandAndolesk(1992),Williamsetal.(1990)

Hoeckstraet al. (1975)

Table 3 2 (cont )


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Table3-2(cont.)

Topic References

ContaminatedSiteApplications(cont.)

Contaminant Plumes Brickell(1984),Greenhouseetal.(1985),KeanandRogers(1981),LeBrecqueetal.(1984a,b),SchneiderandGreenhouse(1992-perchloroethylene), Tamburi et al. (1985,1988-tomographicimaging),Urish(1984-radioactiveplume)

Industrial/HazardousWaste Sites

AllenandRogers(1989),Bradley(1986),Cichowiczetal.(1981),EvansandSchweitzer(1984),Gilmer andHelbling (1984),Harman (1986),HitchcockandHarman(1983),Hortonetal.(1981),Kolmer(1981),Peaseetal.(1981),Petersonetal.(1986),RudyandCaolie(1984),SaundersandStanford(1984),ShoepkeandThomsen(1991),StellarandRoux(1975),SlaineandGreenhouse(1982),StearnsandDialmann(1986), Stierman(1981), StiermanandRuedisili (1988),Walther etal.

(1983),WhiteandBrandwein(1982),Williamsetal.(1984)

LandfillLeachate Allen(1984-papermill),Carpenter(1990),Carpenteretal.(1990a-landfillstructure),CartwrightandMcComas(1968),EvansandSchweitzer(1984),GreenhouseandHarris(1983),Kecketal.(1981),Kelly(1976a),Kellyetal.(1988),Klefstadetal.(1975),Laineetal.(1985) R b t t l (1989) R (1978) R d d C li (1984)

Table3-3IndextoReferencesonSpecializedDCElectricalResistivityandSelf-PotentialMethods


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Topic References

Specialized DC Resistivity Methods

Azimuthal Resis tiv ity ContaminatedSites:JansenandTaylor(1989);Carpenteretal.(1990b,1991fractured landfillcover);FracturedRock Jansen (1990),Ritzi andAndolesk (1992), Taylor (1984), Taylor and Jansen (1988), Taylor andFleming (1988), Jansen and Taylor (1989), Leonard-Mayer (1984a,b),Zohdy(1970a); Other: SauckandZabik(1992)

Tri-potential Carpenter (1955), Habberjam (1969-cavity detection), Kirk and Rauch(1977afracture detection; 1977b-karst hydrogeology),Ogden andEddy(1984-fractures/caves), Ogden et al. (1991 -USTs) - -

Tomographic Imaging Tamburi et al. (1985, 1988)

Self-Potential

Genera l Ahmed (1963), Corwin (1990), HRB Singer (1971abandoned mines),Bogoslovky and Ogilvy (1972-fissured media; 1977landslides), LordandKoerner (1980, 1987), Ogilvy andBogoslovsky (1979), Ogilvy andKuzima (1972)

Ground-WaterMonitoring Gilkeson and Cartwright (1983), Lange et al. (1986), Redwine et al.(1985), Rehm et al. (1985)

Table3-4IndextoReferencesonInducedPolarizationElectricalMethods


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Topic References

Texts BaizerandLund(1983),BertinandLoeb(1976),Bottcher(1952),Finketal.(1990),Sumner(1976),Wait(1959,1982)

Papers Bleil(1953),FrischeandvonButtlar (1957),KeevilandWard(1962),MaddenandCantwell(1967),MarshallandMadden(1959),Seigel(1959),Sumner(1979),Taylor(1985),Vogelsang(1974),Ward(1980,1988)

FrequencyDomain Barker(1974),Hallof(1964),PatellaandSchiavone(1977),Zongeetal.(1972)

TimeDomain Bertin (1968), Patella andSchiavone (1977),RoyandShikhar (1973),Zongeetal.(1972)

ComplexResistivity Cleff(1991),Olhoeft(1984,1990,1992),OlhoeftandKing(1991),Wheatcraftetal.(1984)

Subsurface Response Barker (1975),Olhoeft (1985)

GroundWater Adamsetal.(1975),Bodmeretal.(1968),Mohamed(1970),OgilvyandKuzima(1972),RoyandEliot(1980),Vacquieretal.(1957),Worthington(1975b);TextswithBriefDiscussions:Rehmetal.(1985),U.S.GeologicalSurvey(1977)

3.6 References


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See Glossary for meaning of method abbreviations.

Ackermann,H.D.1976.GeophysicalProspectingforGroundWaterinAlaska.U.S.GeologicalSurveyEarthquakeInformationBull.8(2):18-20.[ER,SRRinpermafrostareas]

Adams, J.M.,W.J.Hinze,andL.A.Brown.1975.ImprovedApplicationofGeophysicstoGroundwaterResourceInventoriesinGlaciatedTerrains.WaterResourcesResearchCenterTech.ReportNo.59(NTISPB244-879).PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,IN.[GR,IP]

Adams, M.L.,M.S.Turner,andM.T.Morrow.1988.TheUseofSurfaceandDownholeGeophysicalTechniquestoCharacterizeFlowinaFractureBedrockAquiferSystem.In:Proc.2ndNat.

OutdoorActionConf.onAquiferRestoration,GroundWaterMonitoringandGeophysicalMethods,NationalWaterWellAssociation,Dublin,OH,pp.825-847.[EMI,ER,SRR,BH]

Adams, W.M.,F.L.Peterson,S.P.Mathur,L.KLepley,C.Warren,andR.D.Huber.1971.AHydrogeophysicalSurvey Using Remote-SensingMethods fromKawaihae toKailua-Kona, Hawaii.GroundWater9(1):42-50.[ER,AMT,aerialthermalinfrared,aeromagnetic]

Ahmed, M.U.1964.ALaboratoryStudyofStreamingPotentials.GeophysicalProspecting12(1):49-64.

AhmedS.,G.deMarsily,andA.Talbot.1988.CombinedUseofHydraulicandElectricalPropertiesofanAquiferinaGeostatisticalEstimationofTransmissivity.GroundWater26(1):78-86.

Allen,R.P.1984.ElectricalResistivitySurveysUsedtoTraceLeachateinGroundWaterfromPaperMillLandfill.In:Proc.oftheNWWATech.DivisionEasternRegionalGroundWaterConference(Newton,MA),NationalWaterWellAssociation,Dublin,OH,pp.167-174.[EMI,ER]

Angoran,Y.E.,D.V.Fitterman,andD.J.Marshall.1974.InducedPolarization:AGeophysicalMethodforLocatingCulturalMetallicRefuse.Science1841287-1288.


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g

Baizer,M.M.andH.Lund(eds.).1983.OrganicElectrochemistry,2nded.MarcelDekker,NewYork,

1166pp.[IP]

Bardossy,A.,LBorgardi,andW.E.Kelly.1986.GeostatisticalAnalysisofGeoelectricEstimatesforSpecificCapacity.J.Hydrology84:81-95.

Barker,R.D.1974.TheInterpretationofInducedPolarizationSoundingCurvesintheFrequencyDomain. Geophysical Prospecting 22(4):610-626.

Barker,R.D.1975.ANoteontheInducedPolarizationoftheBunterSandstone.Geoexploration

13:227-234.

Barker,R.D.andP.F.Worthington. 1973.SomeHydrogeophysicalPropertiesoftheBunterSandstoneofNorthwestEngland.Geoexploration11:151-170.[SRR,ER]

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