gethin on buddhism

8/13/2019 Gethin on Buddhism

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On the Practice of Buddhist MeditationAccording to the Pali Nikayas and Exegetical Sources

Dr. Rupert GethinUniversity of Bristol

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O n the Practice of Buddhist M editationAccording to the Pali Nikayas and Exegetical Sources

R u p e r t G e t h i nUniversi ty of Bristol

P A R T I : T H E N I K A Y A SThe problem of the term 'meditation'Few, I sup po se , wo u ld w ish t o d i spu t e t h e sugges t i on t ha t o ne o f t he p r im aryco nc e rn s o f ea r l y Bu ddh i s t t ex t s 1 i s 'm ed i ta t io n ' . I t is pe rh ap s a l i tt l e surpr i s ingth en th a t it i s by n o m ea ns c lear wh at Pal i (or Sanskr i t ) t e rm E ngl i sh , or for th a tm a t t e r G e r m a n , w o r d s su c h a s ' m e d i t a t e / m e d i t i e r e n ' a n d ' m e d i t a t i o n ' t ra n s l a t e . S o m e t i m e s i t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t bhaveti/ bhavana a r e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n gt e rms , bu t t hese words , r ep resen t i ng causa t i ve fo rms f rom the roo t bh, m o r es t r i cdy mean 'b r i ng ing i n to be ing ' , ' cu l t i va t i on ' , o r ' deve lopment ' , and ce r t a in lyth e r e a r e many con t ex t s i n t he ea r ly t ex ts wh ere t h e t r ans l a t i on 'm ed i t a t i o n ' o r' m e d i t a t e s ' w o u l d n o t w o r k . 2 A l t e rna t i ve ly one migh t sugges tjhana/jhayati d e r iv ing f ro m th e Sa nsk r i t ro ot dhya, a n d i n d i c a t i n g ' d e e p t h o u g h t ' , b u t i n B u d d h i s t l i t e r a t u r ejhana com es t o have a specif ic t echn ica l mean ing : som eo ne w hop r a c t i c e sjhana i s no t simply me d i t a t i ng , bu t r a t he r som eo ne wh o has accompl i s he d a cer t a in level of prof ic iency in med i ta t io n an d a t ta in ed a re la tive ly s tab l e s t a t e o f dee p co nc en t r a t i o n o r absorp t i o n , d e f i ned i n p rec i se psycho log i cala n d e m o t i o n a l t e r m s . A n o t h e r c a n d i d a t e is yoga, which i s a t e rm tha t is usedgen e ra l l y i n In d i an r e l i g ious wr i t i ngs t o m ea n sp i r i tua l p r ac t i ce an d t hus embrac es va r i ous k ind s o f me d i t a t i o n t ech n iqu e . Ce r ta in ly t e rms such a s yogin a n dyogavacara a r e use d i n Bu dd h i s t t ex ts i n t he s ense o f p r a c t i t i o ne r o f yoga o r'med i t a to r ' . However , i n t he ea r l i e s t Buddh i s t t ex t s t hese t e rms a r e no t found ,a n d yoga i s used not in th i s sense but in the sense of an emot ional and psycholog i ca l ' bond ' t ha t t i e s one t o t he round o f r eb i r t h . 8

1 Wh at follows is drawn from Pali sources. This is no t to be taken as indicating that I assum e they are necessarily a m ore authentic* witness of early Budd hist thoughtapartfrom the obvious fact that they are preserved in an an cient Indian language which mustbe relatively close to the kind of dialect or dialects used by the B uddh a and his first disciplesthan the Chinese Agamas. In any case, it would seem that any account of earlyBuddhist meditation based on the Chinese Agamas would be essentially similar to an accou nt based on the Pali Nikyas. As Etienne Lamotte has observed , the doctrinal basiscom m on to the Ch ines e Agamas and Pali Nikayas is remarkably uniform; such variationsas exist affect on ly the m od e of expression or the arrangem ent of topics; see Lamotte( 1 9 8 8 ,1 5 6 ) .2 Th e verb bhavet i is frequently used with a direct object; expressions such as saddhindriyarj ibhavet i or sat i'Samboj jhangam bhavedo not appear to mean he meditates o nthe faculty offaith or on the cons tituen t of awakening that is mind fulness .

3 e.g. D III 230 , 276; cf. the use of the cognate saij iyojana.201


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R u p e r t G e t h i nA l a t er t e r m f o u n d i n t h e P al i c o m m e n t a r i e s t h a t c o m e s t o c o r r e s p o n d q u i t e

c lose ly t o t he modern no t i on o f med i t a t i on p rac t i ce i s kammaffhana. Th is te r m isfound i n t he canon i ca l Pa l i t ex t s i n t he s ense o f occupa t i on , bus ines s , o r work( the Sanskr i t karmasthana i s fo un d in a s imi lar sen se , q .v . M W ). B u t in t he Pal ic o m m e n t a r i e s i t c o m e s t o h a v e t h e s p e ci fi c s e n s e o f t h e w o r k o f m e d i t a t i o nprac t i ce an d is un de r s t oo d bo th a s a spec if ic ob j ec t o f m ed i t a t i on p rac t i ce a n das a way o r m e th o d o f m ed i t a t i o n p rac t i ce , such a s t ha t o f c a lm (samatha) o r i n s i gh t (vipassana).4

The Samannaphala schemaA no th e r cu r iou s f ac t, g iven t he cen t r a l i t y o f m ed i t a t i o n p ra c t i ce t o ea r l y B ud dh i sm , i s t ha t so l i tt l e is s a id abo u t ho w to ac tua l l y s e t ab ou t me d i t a t i o n p rac t i ce .A typi ca l desc r i p t i on o f t he p r ac t i ce o f m ed i t a t i o n i n ea rl y Bud dh i s t t ex t s is t heo n e f o u n d i n a n e x t e n d e d a c c o u n t o f t h e w h o l e B u d d h i s t p a t h t h a t o c c u r ssom e 25 t im es i n a n u m b e r o f s l igh t l y d i f f e r i ng ve r s ions i n t h e fo ur p r im aryN i k a y a s . 5 1 shal l re fer t o th i s as th e samann phala sch em a af ter th e f ir st sut ta oft he ca no n i n wh ich it occ ur s . I t s t a t e s t ha t t he me d i t a to r alwa ys de s ig na t ed a'monk* o r bhikkhushould f ind a sec lud ed sp ot the fores t , th e ro o t of a t ree ,a mo un ta in , a rocky r av ine , a cave , cem e te ry , f o r e s t g rove , t he o p e n a i r , a p i l e o fs t r aw or a dese r t ed house ; he shou ld s i t down c ros s - l egged , s t r a igh t en h i s body ,a n d e s t a b l i s h m i n d f u l n e s s ' i n f r o n t o f h i m ' (parimukham). T h e a c c o u n t t h e nimm edia t e ly mo ves t o g ive b r i e f desc r i p t i ons o f t he k inds o f a t t a i n m en t t o b ee x p e c t e d fro m t h i s p r a c t i c e : t h e m e d i t a t o r a b a n d o n s t h e h i n d r a n c e s a n d a t t a i n sth e four jhanas sta tes o f h e i g h t e n e d j o y , h a p p i n e s s , m i n d f u l n e s s a n d e q u a n i m i ty , he develops var ious powers (iddhi), suc h as th e abi li ty to walk o n w ate r or flyt h r o u g h t h e a i r , a n d v a r i o u s k n o w l e d g e s (abhinna), i nc lud ing t ha t o f pas t li vesan d , a l t h ou gh l e s s exc i t i n g i n i ts desc r i p t i on n o n e t he l es s m o re r e l ig ious ly si gni f icant, un de rs ta nd in g of suf fer ing, i ts a r i s ing, i ts cessa t ion a n d th e way le ad ingto i ts ce s sa t i on , o the rw i se un de r s t oo d a s kno wle dge o f t he fou r t r u ths o r ' en l i g h t e n m e n t ' (bodhi). J u s t w h a t t h e w o u l d - b e m e d i t a t o r h a s t o d o t o g e t f r o msi t t ing dow n cross- legged to th e jhanas an d be yon d i s no t a t a l l c l ea r . T o p u t i tanother way, i f one se t of f in to the fores t wi th only a copy of the SamannaphalaSutta a s on e ' s gu ide , i t is dou b t fu l t ha t on e wo uld m ake ve ry m uc h p ro gres s i no n e ' s m e d i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e . L a t e r sy s te m a t ic a c c o u n t s o f B u d d h i s t m e d i t a t i o ntha t da t e from pe rh ap s s ix , s even o r e i gh t hu n dr ed yea r s l a t e r d o f ill i n som e o fth e gaps , b u t th e re la t ive ab sen ce of specif ic ins t ruc t ion in th e ear l ie r t exts p er h a p s s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l i g h t o f s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s c l e a r i n t h e l a t e rtexts : nam ely a v iew tha t t he e ff ect ive p r ac t i ce o f med i t a t i o n r eq u i r e s t he pe r -

Abhidh-av-nt (B e) II 215:yoga kammassapava t -f fha na t aya ,uparpari bhavana kammassa k r u n a -b h a v a t o c a k a m m a - U h n a r j i . Abhidh-s-mh{ 196 k a m m a - t} h a n a r f i d u v i d h a - b h a v a n a - ka m m a s s apavatt i- ffhnatya kamma fthna Shtam a r a m m a n a i jiuttaruttarayoga kammassap a d a r f fh a n a t a y akamma ttharuirbhtaip b h a v a n a v l t h i n c a .It occurs in 10 of the 13 suttas that comprise the s i la k kh a n d h a - v a g g aof D , 8 times in M (I 178-84 ,344 -8,4 12 -3,5 21- 2; II38 -9 ,16 2,2 26 -7; III 33-6), and twice in A (II 208-11 ; V 204-9 ); shorter and/orvariant versions are also found at D I 181-8 4,249-5 2; M 12 67 -71 ,27 1-8 0,3 53 -59 ; M III 134-37; A I163-4, III 92- 3, 10 0. T he reason that there is none in S (cf. Schmithausen 19 81 .2 04 , L 15) is perhapsrelated to the treatment of the path in the fifth part, the m a b a - va g g a .

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O n th e Prac ti ce o f Bud dh i s t M edi t a t i onsona l i ns t ruc t i on o f a t eache r . T hus t he r eason why t he ea r l i e r t ex t s f a i l t o r e vea l ve ry m uc h a bo u t j u s t how to p r ac t i ce me d i t a t i o n i s no t beca use t hey a r eu n i n t e r e s t e d i n s u c h m a t t e r s , o r t h i n k t h e y a r e u n i m p o r t a n t , b u t r a t h e r p r e c is e ly t he o pp os i t e : they a r e t oo imp or t a n t t o wr i te down, t o be im par t e d i n t h i sway, i .e . textu al ly. T hi s is , af ter al l , a typical an ci en t In di an at t i tu de to lear nin g: i tsh ou ld be im pa r t e d o ra ll y , d i r ec tl y f rom t e ach e r to pup i l . T h us we shou ld u nde r s t an d t he ea r l i e s t t ex t s a s i nd i c a t i ng t he gen e ra l f ramew ork an d o u t l i n in gbas ic guidel ines for the prac t ice of medi ta t ion prac t ice , but the speci f ic de ta i l so f t e c h n i q u e a n d t h e a c t u a l p r o c e d u r e s a r e m a t t e r s f o r t h e t e a c h e r a n d h i s p u pi ls . I t i s only la te r tha t som e of these g e t com m it ted to wr i t ing, and even the n,s t i l l in somewhat genera l t e rms. So s t r ic t ly as h i s tor ians of re l ig ion we must conc lude t ha t t he ea r l i e s t t echn iques o f Buddh i s t med i t a t i on a r e l os t t o us .The method of establishing mindfulnessHaving sa id t h i s , t he r e a r e su t t a s t ha t do g ive some fu r t he r i nd i ca t i ons o f t het ec hn iqu es o f ea r l y Bu dd h i s t me d i t a t i o n , an d if we cau t i ous ly a l low our se lves t obe g u id ed i n s om e m eas ure by t he l a t e r wr i t ings we can say a li tt l e mo re . 6

Perhaps t he mos t impor t an t o f t he ea r l y Buddh i s t t ex t s t ha t p rov ide c lues t othe ac tua l t ech n iq ue s o f m ed i t a t i on i s t he Sa t i pa f t hana Su t t a . 7 L et m e say at th eou t se t t ha t I am sugg es t i ng t ha t we sho u ld r ea d t he Sa t i p au ha na Su t t a i n t hel i gh t o f t he s t ock desc r i p t i on o f t he pa th fou nd i n t he Sa m an na ph a l a Su t t a a nde l sew here , an d no t , a s som e have do ne , a s a k ind o f a l t e rna t ive a cco un t o f Bud d h i s t m e d i t a t i o n ( o r o n e a c c o u n t a m o n g m a n y ) . T h e r e a s o n fo r d o i n g so is inpa r t ve ry s im ple an d has a l ready bee n s t a t ed . T h e desc r i p t i on o f t he s t ages o ft h e p a t h f o u n d i n t h e S a m a n n a p h a l a S u t t a h a s b e e n a c c e p t e d b y o t h e r s a s as t a n d a r d a c c o u n t , 8 but , as I have said, i t leaves many aspects of the actual techn i q u e s o f e a r l y B u d d h i s t m e d i t a t i o n u n s t a t e d . A s I h o p e t o s h o w t h e S a-t ipat tthana Su t ta m ak es ra th er goo d sense wh en rea d a longs id e th i s ac co un t asf i l l ing in certain gaps.

T h e Sa t i pa uh an a Su t t a t akes t he fo rm of an expos i t i on o f a st ock satipauhanafo rm ula t ha t i s f ou nd i n ove r t 40 p l aces in t he four N ikayas . 9 The sut ta i s a l soc lose ly r e l a t ed t o o th e r su t t a s such a s t he Kayaga t a sa ti Su t t a , t h e An apan asa t iSu t t a an d a l l t hese su t t a s a r e r e l a t ed , I t h ink , t o an o th e r fo rmu la ( found i n sixp l aces i n t he N ikayas ) t ha t sums up t he pa th end ing i n awaken ing i n t e rms o f

6 An d after all, bei ng guide d by these later writings is no t to ignore historical m ethod completely, for the works that come down to us associated with the name Buddhaghosa, forexample, are not the creations of a single writer working in the fourth or fifth century, butrather an attempt to sum up and fix a commentarial tradition that flourished over severalprevious centuries.7 I take the Satipatthna Sutta (M I 55- 63 ) and M ah-Satipatthna Sutta (D II 290-314 ) astwo versions of the same sutta. Oth er suttas that give som e specific accou nt of meditation

technique include the Kayagatsati Sutta, the Anapnasati Sutta, and the Vitakka-santhna Sutta.8 See Frauwallner (195 3), I 161 -60, 186-7; Schm ithausen (1981), 204 refers to it as astereotyped detailed description of the Path of l iberation .9 For references see Gethin (1992), 355.

2 0 3


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R u p e r t G e t h i n

D II 83; III 101; S V 108, 160-1; A III 387; V 195; Nett 94; see Gethin 1992 ), 58-9 , 169,172, 258.204

abandon ing t he h indrances , e s t ab l i sh ing t he p r ac t i ce o f t he four e s t ab l i sh ings o fm i n d f u l n e s s , a n d d e v e l o p i n g t h e s e v e n f a c t o r s o f a w a k e n i n g . 1 0

W h a t d o w e l e a r n a b o u t e a rl y B u d d h i s t m e d i t a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s f r o m t h e b a si csatipauhana for m ula ? Fi rs t of a l l th a t i t involves w atc hi ng anupassati) va r i ousk in ds o f ob j ec t body , f ee l i ngs , consc iousn es s , m en t a l qu a l i t i e s an d t ry ing t owa tch t h a t ob j ec t c l ose ly an d see i t c l ea r l y he wa tche s b od y as bod y , sugges t i ngt h a t o u t s i d e t h e c o n t e x t o f m e d i t a t i o n w e s o m e h o w d o n o t s e e b o d y a s b o d y ,we do not see i t c lear ly . But the goal of see ing c lear ly does not necessar i ly comeeasi ly ; i t r e qu i r e s som e e f fo r t an d app l i ca t i o n , t he m ed i t a to r i s de sc r i be d a satapin, a wo rd r e l a t ed t o tapast used f rom ear ly t imes in Indian texts in the senseof r e l i g io us aus t e r i t y o r m or t i f i ca t i on . T h i s e f fo r t an d app l i ca t i on r e su l t s i ns o m e f o r m o f h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s : t h e m e d i t a t o r b e c o m e s m i n d f u l satimant)and ful ly aware sampajana), aga in sugges t i ng t ha t ou t s i de t he co n t e x t o f m ed i ta t io n we ar e forget fu l an d n o t fu lly aw are . Final ly we can a l so say th a t th e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h i s s t a te o f h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s i n vo l ve s o v e r c o m i n g d i s t r a c ti n ga n d d i s t u r b i n g e m o t i o n s : t h e m e d i t a t o r is d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g r e m o v e d o r d is p e l l e d {vineyya) a n y f e el in g s o f l o n g i n g a n d d i s c o n t e n t c o n n e c t e d w i t h o r d i n a r yex i s t ence loka).

T he expos i t i on o f t h i s bas i c satipaffhana f o rm ula which fo ll ows an d mak es upmuch o f t he ac tua l Sa t i pa t t hana Su t t a f i l l s ou t some o f t he de t a i l s o f how to pu tthe se very bas ic ins t ru c t io ns in to prac t ic e . In ef fec t the su t ta g ives s ix d i f fere ntways i n wh ich t he med i t a to r m ig h t ca r ry ou t t he p r ac t i ce o f wa t ch ing bo dy a sbody : h e can wa t ch (1 ) h i s b r ea th i ng ( t h e i n -b rea th an d t h e ou t -b rea th ) , ( 2 ) h ispos tu res (whe the r wa lk ing s t and ing , s i t t i ng o r l y ing) , ( 3 ) h i s va r i ous bod i l y ac tions a nd func t i o ns (mov ing fo rward an d t u rn ing back , l oo k in g ah ea d an d l ooki n g a r o u n d , b e n d i n g a n d s t r a i g h t e n i n g h is l i m b s , w e a r i n g h i s i n n e r a n d o u t e rrob es an d ca r ry ing h i s a lms bowl , ea t i n g , d r i n k in g , che win g an d swa l lowing ,de feca t i ng and u r i na t i ng , wa lk ing , s t and ing , s i t t i ng , f a l l i ng a s l eep , wak ing up ,spea k ing an d ke ep ing s i l en t ) , (4 ) t he t h i r ty -one pa r t s t ha t cons t i t u t e h i s bod y(head ha i r s , body ha i r s , na i l s , t ee th , sk in , f l e sh , s i news , bones , k idneys , hea r t ,l ive r , d i a ph rag m , sp l e en , l un gs , l a rge i n t e s t i ne , sma l l i n t e s t i n e , go rg e , f aeces ,b i le , phlegm, pus , b lood, sweat , fa t , t ears , grease , sa l iva , snot , o i l of the jo int s ,an d u r i n e ) , ( 5 ) t he four e l e m en t s t ha t con s t i t u t e h i s bo dy ( ea r t h , wa t e r , f i r e ,w i n d ) , an d (6) f ina lly he ca n con s id er h i s bo dy by way of va r iou s aspe cts of th edecay an d pu t r e f a c t i o n o f a de ad body (b lo a t ed , li vid an d f e s t e r i n g , ea t e n bya n i m a l s , a s k e l e t o n , r o t t e n a n d c r u m b l i n g s c a t t e r e d o r p i le d b o n e s ) . T h e s u t t asubs eque n t l y g ives an i nd i c a t i on o f how on e shou ld wa t ch f ee l i ngs , on e s s t a t eo f m ind , an d qua l i t i e s i n ge ne r a l , bu t I sha l l l eave t hese a s ide i n t he p r e s en t con te x t I wish to focus f ir st of a l l o n th e way th e sut ta descr ib es th e pra c t ic e o f co nt e m p l a t i o n o f b o d y .


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On the Prac t i ce o f Buddh i s t Medi t a t i onWatching the breathT h e in s t r u c t i o n s f o r c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e b o d y t h r o u g h w a t c h i n g t h e b r e a t h b e g i n i n t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s t h e samannaphala acco un t : t he m ed i t a to r shou ld f inda sec luded and qu i e t p l ace , p r e sumably t o r emove h imse l f f rom bas i c d i s t r ac t ions a n d dis tur ba nc es , he sho uld si t dow n cross- legged, s t ra ig hten hi s back an des t ab l ish min dfu lne s s i n f ron t o f h im. T h e su t t a con t i nues :

J u s t m i n d f u l , h e b r e a t h e s in . J us t mindf u l , h e brea t hes o u t As he brea t hes in a l o ngbrea t h , h e k n o w s he i s breathin g in a long breath; as he breathes ou t a lon g breath, hek n o w s he is breathing out a long breath. As he breathes in a short breath, he k n o w s heisbrea t h ing in a short breath; ash e breathes ou t a short breath, he kno ws he is breathing out a short breath. H e practices so that he can breathe in exper ien cin g the wh olebo dy ;h e pract ices so that he can breathe out experiencing the whole body . H e practices so t ha t h e c a n b r e a t h e in tranquill izing the activity of the body; h e practices sothat he can breathe out tranquill izing the activity of the body.

So we no w hav e an ind ica t ion of an exerc i se , an ac tual prac t ice th a t on e can d owhen one s i t s down cross- legged in the fores t , which the samannaphala a c c o u n tf ai ls t o p ro v ide . I t i s wo r th con s ide r ing fo r a m om en t t he ma nn er o f t he p r ac t ice of the other exerc i ses for watching the body. Clear ly watching one 's var iouspos tu res , and bod i l y ac t i v i t i e s and func t i ons makes l i t t l e s ense a s an exe rc i seprac t i s ed when sea t ed c ros s - l egged , and t hus a more va r i ed and ac t i ve med i t a t iv e p r a c t i c e i s i n d i c a t e d . C o n t e m p l a t i n g t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e b o d y , t h emanner i n which t he four e l ement s cons t i t u t e t he body , and t he va r i ous degreesand s t a t e s o f decay and pu t r e f ac t i on o f t he body do , however , make sense whencon ceiv ed as prac t ices d o n e s i t t ing cross- legged in a sec lu ded sp ot , and i t seemsfa i r to ass um e tha t th i s i s how the su t ta envisages tha t they sh ou ld be prac t i sed.W e s h o u l d a l so n o t e t h a t t h e p ra c t ic e s m e n t i o n e d i n t h e S a t i p a u h a n a S u t t a u n de r wa t ch in g t he bod y a r e r e f e r r ed t o i n va r i ous o th e r co n t ex t s e l sewhere i nthe N ikayas . T h e r e a r e r easons t o t h ink t ha t t he p r ac t i ce o f wa t ch ing t h e b r ea thwas ea r l y on r eg a r de d a s a pa r t i cu la r l y im po r t a n t p r ac t i ce . A who le su t t a is de vo ted to it , th e com m en ta ry to wh ich says ma ny m on ks prac t i sed i t ; the re i s a l sothe l a t e r t r ad i t i on t h a t i t was t he med i t a t i on ex e rc i se t ha t t h e B ud dh a p rac t i s edo n t h e n i g h t h e a t t a i n e d a w a k e n i n g . 1 1

Let us now co ns ide r the p rac t ic e of wa tchin g the br ea th as se t ou t in the Sat ipauhana Su t ta . T h e sut ta indic a tes four s tages :

t h e m e d i t a t o r k n o w s (pajanati) h e b r e a t h e s i n / o u t a l o n g b r e a t h ; he know s (pajanati) h e b r e a t h e s i n / o u t as h o r t b r e a t h ; h e p r a c t i c e s (sikkhati) s o t h a t h e c a n b r e a t h e i n / o u t e x p e r ie n c i n g

(pafisamvedin) t he wh ole body , h e p r ac t i ces so t ha t h e can b r ea the i n /o u t t r anqu i l li z i ng (passambhayant)

the ac t iv i ty of the body.

1 1 M III 78 -8 8 (Anpnasati Sutta); Ps II 291; see also Vajiranana (1962), 227.205


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W hi l e from a ce r t a in p o in t o f v iew th i s beg ins a s a s tr a igh t fo rw ard des c r i p t i o n , i tm u s t b e a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e p r e c i s e f o r c e o f 4 h e k n o w s is u n c l e a r , a n d t h e l as ttwo s t ages a r e i nc reas ing ly ob scu re . How ever , we ca n say t ha t t h ese fou r s t agesseem to i nd i c a t e a p rog res s ion f rom focus ing on t h e b r e a th w i th fu ll a wa ren es sto a s t a t e o f i nc rea sed ca lm an d t r anqu i l l it y . I n o r d e r t o t ak e t h i s f u r t he r wehave t o fo ll ow ce r t a in c lues an d m ak e l i nks w i th wh a t i s s a id e l s ew here i n t heNikayas .Overcoming distracting thoughtsW e have a l r ead y no t e d how th e e ff ect ive p r a c t i ce o f wa t ch in g o f t he bod y a sb o d y , e t c . i n vo l v es o v e r c o m i n g d i s t r a c t i n g t h o u g h t s a n d e m o t i o n s d i s p e l l i n gf e e li n g s o f l o n g i n g a n d d i s c o n t e n t c o n n e c t e d w i th o r d i n a r y e x i s t e n c e . O n e p a r t i cu l a r pas sage expa nd s on t h i s pa r t i cu l a r t he m e :

H e si ts do w n, bend ing h i s l eg s in t o a cro ss - l eg g ed po s i t io n; ho ld ing h i s bo d y s t ra ig hth e establ ishes mind fulness in front of him . Ab an do nin g des ire for the wor ld h e d wel lswi t h a m ind f ro m wh ich des i re ha s be en rem o v ed ; h e pur i f ie s h i s m i nd f ro m des ire .Ab a nd o ning t he s ta in o f av ersio n he dwe l ls w i t h a m in d wi t ho ut a v ers io n , co m pa ss io n ate and friendly towards all creatures and beings; he purif ies his mind from the stain ofa v ers ion a n d ha t red . Aba n do n ing s l eep iness a n d ti redness he dwe l l s w i t h s l eep inessa nd t iredness rem o v ed , o bserv ing br ig ht ness, m indf u l a n d co m p reh end ing c l ea r ly ; hepurifies his m in d from sleepiness and t iredness . Ab an do nin g ag itat ion an d depr essionh e dwel ls un agita ted with his m ind st i l led within ; h e purif ies his m in d from agitat iona nd depress io n . Ab a nd o nin g do u bt he dwe ll s a s o n e w ho h a s cro ssed o v er do ubt , no two n der in g a bo ut wh o le so m e qua l it ie s ; he pur if ie s h i s m in d f ro m d o u b t Ab a nd o nin gt hese five h indra nces which a re de f i l em ent s o f t he m ind a n d wea ken w isdo m , h e dwe l l sw a t c h i n g b o d y a s b o d y , a r d e n t , c o m p r e h e n d i n g c l e a rl y , m i n d f u l , h a v i n g o v e r c o m elon gin g and disc onte nt with the world; he dwel ls watc hing fee l ings as fee l in gs . . . min das mi nd . . . qual i t ies as qual i t ies , ardent , com pr eh en din g c learly , mindful , h avin g dispe l l ed lo ng ing a nd d i sco nt en t wi t h t he wo r ld . M III 1 3 5 -6 )

T h e s e q u e n c e o f fiv e d i s t u r b i n g a n d d i s t r a c t i n g e m o t i o n s t h a t i s g iv enh e r e n a m e l y d e s i r e , a v e r s io n , s l e e p in e s s a n d t i r e d n e s s , a g i t a t i o n a n d d e p r e s s i on , an d dou b t is on e t ha t is s t an da r d i n ea r l y Bu dd h i s t t ex t s : i t is r e f e r r e d t ocol lec t ive ly as th e f ive hi nd ra nc es {panca-nivarana). T h e p a s s a g e c o n t i n u e s w it ha v iv id s imi le i l l u s t r a t ing t he way i n wh ich t he p r ac t i ce o f co n t em pl a t i ng bo dy ,e tc . a s a way of es tabl i shin g m indfu lness satipaUhana) is r e l a t e d t o t h e o v e r c o m i n g o f o r d i n a r y d i s t u r b i n g a n d d i s t r a c ti n g e m o t i o n s :

Just as , Aggive ssana, an e lepha nt tamer plants a great stake in the earth an d tethers awild e lep han t to i t by the ne ck in ord er to subdu e [ in h im ] th e ways an d th oug hts o fthe wi ld, the distress , stra in and discom forts o f the wi ld; in orde r to mak e him pleas ingt o v i lla g ers ; in o rder t ha t he sh o uld a d o pt wa y s t ha t a re a g re ea ble t o m en j ust so ,Ag g iv essa na , t hese f o ur wa ys o f e s t a b l i sh ing m in df u lness a re t e t her s f o r t he m in d f ort he a ba n do n ing o f t he wa ys a nd t ho ug h t s o f t he wo r ld , f o r t he a ba nd o ni ng o f t he d i s tress, strain and discom forts of the wor ld, for the obta ini ng of the right way, for th e realizationo fnibbana

S u c h a p a s s a g e , t a k e n t o g e t h e r w i th t h e a c c o u n t o f h o w c o n t e m p l a t i n g t h ebrea th leads to a s ta te of t ranqui l l i ty and ca lm, a l lows us to make a d i rec t l ink tot h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e a t t a i n m e n t ofjhana is i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e samannaphala


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On the Prac t i ce o f Buddh i s t Medi t a t i onseq ue nc e . H er e , a s we have a lr eady no t ed , i t is desc r i bed how the m on k , hav ingg o n e to th e fores t , si ts do wn cross- legged an d h aving es tabl i shed m indfulness inf ron t o f himself, a b a n d o n s t h e f i v e h i n d r a n c e s :

W hen h e sees that the five hindrances have been given up in himself, gladness arises,an d w hen on e is glad, joy arises. Wh en the m indisjoyful, the body becom es tranquiland when the bo dy is tranquil one ex periences happiness; the mind of someone who ishappy becomes concentrated. Completely secluded from sense desires and unwholesom e qualities, he dwells having attained the joy and happiness of the first meditation,which is acc om pa nie d by me ntal application and examin ing, and born of seclusion.H e suffuses, fills, soaks an d d re nc he s this very body with the joy a nd happ iness thatcom e from seclusion so that ther e is no part of his body that is untou ched by that joyand happiness. (D I 73)As we have no t e d , t h i s pas sag e doe s no t i nd i c a t e how in p r ac t i ca l t e rms t hemonk ac tua l l y a t t a i nsjhana: we a r e no t t o ld wha t p r ac t i ce t he monk was do ingin o rde r t o abandon t he h indrances . Bu t i t s eems sa f e t o conc lude , g iven t hevar io us para l le l s an d l inks be tw een th i s passage an d the desc r ip t ion of the pra ct i ce o f e s t ab l i sh ing m indfu ln es s , t ha t we a r e t o un de r s t a nd t ha t som e th in g l ikethe p rac t i ce o f wa t ch in g t he b r ea th is a s sum ed .

So f a r, t h en , we can sum u p t h e p r ac t i ce o f me d i t a t i on a s p r e sen t ed i n ea r lyBu dd his t texts in th e following ter ms . I t involves re t i r ing to a q uie t p lace , s i t tingdown c ros s - l egged , mak ing onese l f a l e r t and p l ac ing t he a t t en t i on on some obj e c t o f co n t e m pla t i o n such as t he b r ea th . Pe r seve rance w i th th i s con t em pla t i onresu l t s i n a s t a t e o f min d cha rac t e r i zed by , on t he on e ha nd , a con t en t e d ca lmresu l t i n g f rom a f r ee do m f rom d i s t u rb ing t hou gh t s and emot io ns , and , on t heo t h e r h a n d , a h e i g h t e n e d s t a t e o f a l e r tn e s s a n d a w a r e n e s s .

I t s eem s wo r th con s ide r ing a l it tl e f u r t he r how the ea r l y tex t s un de r s t a nd t hena tu re o f t he h in dr an ce s t o m ed i t a t i o n p rac t i ce . A pas sage o f some s ign if icancei n t h i s c o n t e x t is o n e t h a t c o n c e r n s a brahmana w h o q u e s t i o n s t h e B u d d h aa b o u t t h e r e a s o n s wh y s o m e t i m e s v er se s t h a t h a v e b e e n l e a r n t l o n g a g o b e c o m eun c l e a r , wh i l e o t he r ve r ses t ha t have l e a rn t on ly r ecen t l y r em a in c l ea r (S V1 2 1 - 6 ) . T h e B u d d h a r e s p o n d s w i th a n e x t e n d e d a n d d e t a i le d s im il e c o n c e r n i n gt h e n a t u r e o f e a c h o f t h e h i n d r a n c e s

T h e mi nd po sses sed an d ove rc om e by a t t r ac t i on fo r t he ob jec t s o f s ensua l de sire (kama-raga-pariyutthita, kama-raga-pareta) is l ike a bow l of w ate r m ixe d withl ac o r t u rmer i c , o r w i th b lue o r r ed co lour ing ; a pe r son w i th good eyes igh t l ooking down into th i s bowl of water for the ref lec t ion of h i s own face would notkno w an d see i t a s i t i s. T h e m ind posses sed and ove rco me by ave r sion (vyapada)i s l ike a bowl of w ater th a t has bee n h ea ted on a fi re an d i s s tea m ing an d boi l ing(uda-patto aggina santatto ukkaUhito usmudaka-jato); the mind possessed and over c o m e b y s l e e p i n e s s a n d t i r e d n e s s (thina-middha) is l ike a bow l of wa ter co ver edwi th moss and l eaves (uda-patto sevala-panaka-pariyonaddho); t he m ind posses seda n d o v e r c o m e b y e x c i t e m e n t a n d d e p r e s s i o n (uddhacca-kukkucca) is like a bo wlof wa ter ruf f led by th e win d, d i s tur be d, s t i r red rou n d an d r ippling (uda-pattovaterito calito bhanto umi-jato); f ina l ly the mind possessed and overcome by doubt(vicikiccha) i s l ike a bowl of wa ter tha t i s d i r ty , uncle ar , m ud dy an d placed in th ed a r k (uda-patto avilo luto kalaUMto andha-kare nikkhitto). Ag a in , any one l ook ing

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R u p e r t G e t h i ndow n in to any o f t hese fo r t h e r e f l ec t ion o f h is f ace would n o t kn ow an d see i ta s i t i s . I n t h e s am e way , wh en t he m ind i s pos ses sed an d o ve rco m e by any on e o ft h e h in dr an ce s on e do es no t kno w (an d see ) a s it i s i ts l e t t i ng go , wh a t i s o fbene f i t t o oneself wh at i s of ben ef i t to o th ers , wh at i s of ben ef i t to b ot h; versesw h i c h h a v e l o n g b e e n l e a r n t b e c o m e u n c l e a r , l e t a l o n e t h o s e w h i c h h a v e n o tb e e n l e a r n t

A m in d n o t pos ses sed o r ove rco me by t he h ind ran ce s , howe ver , is l ike a b ow lof wa t e r un m ix ed w i th l ac o r t u r me r i c , o r b lue o r r ed co lo ur in g ; li ke a bowl o fwa te r t ha t ha s n o t be en h ea t e d o n a fi r e , i s no t s t eam ing an d bo i l i ng ; l i ke abowl of wa ter n o t cov ered wi th moss an d leaves ; l ike a bow l of wa ter n o t ruf f ledby t he w ind , un d i s t u rb ed , no t s t i r r ed ro un d , n o t rippling; l i ke a bowl o f wa t e rtha t i s c lear , br i gh t , c lean an d plac ed in the l ight accho vippasanno anavilo alokenikkhitto). Anyo ne l ook ing dow n in to such a bowl o f wa t e r fo r t h e r e f l ec ti on o fhis face wo uld kn ow a nd see i t ju s t as i t i s . In th e sam e way, w he n th e m in d is n o tposses sed and ov e rco m e by t he h in dra nc es , o ne kno ws ( a nd sees ) a s i t i s t he i rle t t ing go, wh at i s of b ene f i t to oneself t o o the r s and t o bo th ; ve r ses t ha t haven o t b e e n l o n g l e a r n t b e c o m e c l e a r , l e t a l o n e t h o s e t h a t h a v e .

Th is passa ge is s igni f icant for two rea son s , I th in k. In th e fi r st p lac e i t m ak esc l e a r t h e p s y c h o l o g ic a l a n d e m o t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n c a l m i n g t h e m i n dan d body , t ha t i s a t t a i n ing a s t a t e o f t r anqu i l l i t y on t he o n e ha nd , an d see ingth ings cl ear ly , he ig h t e ne d awarenes s on t he o th e r . Second ly , it po in t s t o t h e wayi n w h i c h t h e h i n d r a n c e s a r e n o t to b e u n d e r s t o o d a s o b s t a c l e s p e c u l i a r t o t h es p i r it u a l p a t h o f m e d i t a t i o n , b u t r a t h e r a s e m o t i o n s t h a t a r e g e n e r a l l y d i s t u r b ing and d i s t r ac t i ng .

I n p r i n c i p l e s o m e t h i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s o f o v e r c o m i n g t h e h i n d r a n c e s c a n b eobse rv ed wh en ev e r t he mi nd i s ap p l i ed t o any new t a sk t ha t r eq u i r e s a ce r t a inm en ta l app l i ca t i on and dex t e r i t y . T a ke t h e ex am ple o f l ea rn in g t o p l ay a mus i c a l i n s t r u m e n t . I n o r d e r to p r o g r e s s o n e n e e d s to p r a c t i c e r e g u l a r l y a n d p a t ient ly . Alm ost inevi tably , a t t imes oth er , l ess t ax ing ac t iv i t ies se em m u c h m o rea t t r ac ti ve an d p l ea sur ab l e t ha n s t rugg l i ng w i th o n e s p r a c t i ce . T h i s is t h e f ir s th i nd ran ce o f des i r e fo r t he ob jec t s o f t he s enses . A t t imes on e may b ec om e f rus t r a t ed , i r r i t a t ed and angry , s ee ing f au lt s i n on e s mus i ca l i n s t r um en t o r t ea ch e r ,o r us ing t he f ac t t ha t t he ne ig hb ou r s a r e mak ing t oo m uc h no i se a s a r easo n fo rno t pe r seve r ing w i th on e s p r ac t i ce . T h i s is t he s e co nd h in dr an ce o f i ll-wi ll. O rt h e v e r y t h o u g h t o f o n e s p r a c t i c e m a y m a k e o n e f ee l t i r e d a n d d r o w s y , y e tw h e n o n e t h i n k s o f d o i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e t h a t t h e m i n d f i n d s m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g ,s u d d e n l y t h e m i n d a p p e a r s w i d e a w a k e a n d a l e r t T h i s is t h e t h i r d h i n d r a n c e o fs l e e p i n e s s a n d t i r e d n e s s . O r o n e m a y s u d d e n l y b e c o m e o v e r e x c i t e d a t o n e sp rog res s , o r depr es s ed a t w ha t on e sees a s on e s l ack o f p r og res s . T h i s is t hef o u r t h h i n d r a n c e o f e x c i t e m e n t a n d d e p r e s s i o n . F i na ll y o n e m a y d o u b t t h ewh ole en t e r p r i s e , a sk ing ones e l f wh a t t he po i n t is i n l ea r n in g t o p lay a mus i ca li ns t rum en t anyway . Ju s t a s any on e w i sh ing t o m ak e p ro gres s i n t he l ea rn ing o f am u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t m u s t a c q u i r e s o m e m e a s u r e o f c o n t r o l o v e r s u c h h i n d r a n c e s , s o t h e m e d i t a t o r i n t e n t o n d e v e l o p i n g h i s m e d i t a t i o n s u b j e c t m u s t , d e a lw i th t hese immedia t e de f i l emen t s o f t he mind .

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O n th e Prac ti ce o f Bu ddh i s t M edi t a t i onT he ma te r i a l we have cons ide red so f a r sugges t s a bas i c f r amework fo r Bud

dh i s t me d i t a t i o n p rac t i ce a s conce ive d i n t h e ea r ly tex t s : by t ak ing an ob j ec t o fc o n t e m p l a t i o n t h e m i n d c a n b e b r o u g h t t o a c e r t a i n s t a te o f c a l m a n d c o n t en tmen t , and t ha t s t a t e o f ca lm and con t en tmen t i nvo lves a spec i a l c l a r i t y o fm in d wh ich i s t he gat eway t o s ee ing t h r ou gh t he o rd in a ry ap pe a ra nce o f t h ingsto how they ac tua l l y a r e , i n o the r words t o en l i gh t enment Some scho l a r s t endto see w ha t I sug ges t as th e un de r lyi ng f ramework of Bu ddh is t medi ta t ion as al a t e r syn thes i s o f o r i g ina l ly d ive rg en t an d even i ncom pa t ib l e c once p t i ons o f t hena tu re of th e Bu dd hi s t pa t h an d goal : a way of st il ling em ot io ns has bee n ar ti fi c ia ll y an d fo rc ib ly ha r m on ize d w i th a way o f i n t e ll ec tua l und e r s t an d i ng . 1 2 1 haveto s ay t ha t I d i s a gre e . T h e a r gu m en t s an d r eas ons a r e co mp lex and i nvo lved ,an d I h o p e to ex pl or e th em fully in a fu tu re s tudy. Suff ice to say in the p res en tcon t ex t t ha t t he focus ing on t he d ive rgen t and i ncompa t ib l e i n t he ea r l y Buddh is t ac co un ts of th e pa t h an d goal is a c lass ic ins tanc e of a fa i lure to see thewo od fo r t he t r ees . T ha t i s, I do no t w ish t o deny t ha t t he r e a r e somet imes diff e r en t vo i ces spe ak in g i n t he ea r ly Bu ddh i s t t ex t s , bu t r a t he r sugges t tha t t hosed i f f e r en t vo ices ne ed t o be u nd e r s to od i n r e l a t i on sh ip t o a ma s t e r na r r a t i ve .T he p reoccupa t i on w i th d i f f e r ence and d ive rgence i n ea r l y Buddh i s t t ex t s hasmean t , I t h ink , t ha t some t imes t he ev idence fo r t he k ind o f f r amework I havet r ied to sketch out in the f i r s t ha l f of th i s essay has not been ful ly apprecia ted.Furtherobjects of meditationHaving sugges ted a bas ic f ramework le t us cons ider some of the ways i t i s e labora ted in the ear ly texts . In th e f ir s t p lace in addi t io n to the objec t s of me di ta t ionm e n t i o n e d i n t h e S a t i p a t t h a n a S u t t a , w e f in d o t h e r o b je c ts a n d p r a c ti c e s m e n t i o n e d , s o m e t i m e s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o w h a t a p p e a r t o b e a t t e m p t s a t p r o v i d i n gm or e com pr eh en s iv e l is ts o f pos s ib le me d i t a t i on ob j ec t s p r ac t i ce s , (e . g . M II11 -22 ; A I 34 -4 0) . Th es e lo ng er l is ts inc lu de suc h i tems as (1) the var ious phys ica l devices known askasina o r kasinayatana, given as ten in nu m b er (ear th , f ire ,wa t e r , w ind , b lue ye l l ow r ed , whi t e , space , and consc iousnes s ) ; ( 2 ) t he va r i ous' r e c o l l e c t i o n s * (anussati), g i v en a s s ix i n n u m b e r ( B u d d h a , D h a m m a , S a n g h a ,g e n e r o s i t y , v i r t u o u s c o n d u c t , t h e g o d s ) . W h i l e t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e s e o b jec t s a re use d for c on tem pl a t i on is n ot exact ly speci f ied in the Nikayaswe aren o t expl ic i t ly to ld tha t th e m o n k go es of f to th e fores t s i ts dow n cross- leggedand con t empla t e s t hese ob j ec t s the desc r i p t i ons o f t he e f f ec t on t he mind o fcon t empla t i ng t hese ob j ec t s have c l ea r r e sonances w i th t he desc r i p t i ons o f t heprac t i ce o f t he ways o f e s t ab l i sh ing mindfu lnes s an d t h e a t t a i nm ent o f jhana:

At such time as the noble disciple recollects the Tathgata, his mind is not preoccupied with desire at all, it is no t preoc cup ied with h atred, it is no t preo ccupied with delusion; his m ind is jus t sincere on ac cou nt of the Tathg ata. Now the noble disciplewho se min d is since re acquires a feeling for what is profitable, a feeling for the truth;he acquires a glad ness that is conn ected with the tru th. When on e is glad, joy arises.W hen the m in d is joyful, the body becom es tranquil, and wh en the b ody is tranquil1 2 See La Vallee Pouss in (1937 ), Schmitha usen (1981 ), Griffiths (1981 ), Vetter (1988), Gom-

brich (1996).209


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R u p e r t G e t h i none experiences happiness; the mind of someone who is happy becomes concent ra ted 1 ^

T h us , i t s eem s , we can t ake t he l on ge r l is ts a s g iv ing a l t e rn a t i ve p r ac t i ces t h a tr ep res en t d i f f e r en t ways t o cu l t iva t e a s t a t e o f emo t ion a l c o n t en tm en t an d c l a ri ty o f mi nd . It i s wo r th n o t i n g a lso t ha t some t im es pa r t i cu l a r p r ac t i c e s a r e s a id t ob e s u i t e d to c o u n t e r i n g sp ec if ic d e f il e m e n t s a n d m e n t a l t e n d e n c i e s : m e d i t a t i o non t he ug l i nes s o f t he body coun t e r s l us t ; f r i end l i nes s coun t e r s i l l -w i l l ; m indfu l nes s o f b r ea th ing c ou n t e r s exces sive t h in k ing (A IV 353 , 358 ; U d 37 ) .

T he o the r a sp ec t o f t he e l abo ra t i o n o f t he p r ac t i ce o f m ed i t a t i on we find i nthe N ikayas i s t he a t t em pt t o de f i ne a nd m ap wi th i nc reas in g psycho log i ca l a n de m o t i o n a l p r e c i s i o n t h e d i f f e r e n t st a t e s a n d a t t a i n m e n t s t h a t r e s u l t f r o m t h eprac t i ce o f me d i t a t i on . T h us a t l ea s t t he i n it ia l desc r i p t i on o f t h e s t a t e o f m indach i ev ed by t h e ways o f e s t ab l i sh ing o f mm dfu ln es s a pp ea r s t o be co uc he d i nre la t ive ly ge ne ra l t e rm s: i t i s a s ta te in wh ich th e m ed i ta to r i s m ind ful , c lear lyc o m p r e h e n d i n g , a n d free ( t e m p o r a r i l y ) o f d e s i r e a n d d i s c o n t e n t . T h e a c c o u n to f t he fourjhanas s e e m s c o n c e r n e d to p r o v i d e a n e x a c t a c c o u n t o f t h e p r o g r e s s iv e s ta g e s o f t h is c o n t e n t m e n t a n d h e i g h t e n e d a w a r e n e s s . T h e i m p o r t a n t t h i n gt o n o t e is t h e f o c u s o n t h e s a m e t h e m e s a n d t h e u s e o f p a r a l l e l t e r m i n o l o g y f r e e d o m f r o m h i n d r a n c e s ( d e s ir e a n d a v e r s io n ) , j o y a n d h a p p i n e s s , m i n d fu lnes s and c l ea r awarenes s in va r ious con t ex t s .

A c c o r d i n g t o t h e samannaphala s c h e m a , b y o v e r c o m i n g t h e h i n d r a n c e s am e d i t a t o r g o e s o n t o a t t a i n t h e f o u r jhanas, ach ievin g a s ta te of m in d tha t isc o n c e n t r a t e d (samahita) t h o r o u g h l y p u r i f i e d (parisuddha) a n d c l e a n s e d (pari-yodata), s t a i n l e s s (anangaria), w i t h o u t d e f i l e m e n t s (vigatupakkilesa), sensi t ive(mudu-bhta), w o r k a b l e (kammaniya), s teady {(hita), u n s h a k e a b l e (anenja-ppatta).T h i s s ta t e o f m i n d i s b r o u g h t a b o u t t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e f o u r jhanas, b u t it fallssh or t of aw ak en ing . Ra the r , i t is the s ta te of min d th a t form s t he bas i s for var i ou s h i gh e r kno wle dge s cu lm ina t i ng i n know ledg e o f su f f e r i ng , i t s a r i s i ng , i tsceas ing and t he way l ead ing t o i ts ceas in g the four n ob l e t r u ths .

P A R T 2 : T H E E X E G E T I C A L S O U R C E S

The ascetic practicesH a v i n g c o n s i d e r e d i n r a t h e r g e n e r a l t e r m s s o m e o f w h a t t h e e a r l i e r t e x ts h a v eto s ay ab ou t t h e p r ac t i ce o f m ed i t a t i o n l e t u s no w tu rn t o cons ide r w ha t t h el a t e r m a n u a l s o f T h e r a v a d a B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t a n d p r a c t i c e h a v e to s ay . T h e t w om o s t i m p o r t a n t m a n u a l s a r e t h e V i m u t t i m a g g a a n d V i s u d d h i m a g g a .

T he bas ic t h em es an d co nc e rn s o f t he ea r l i e r t ex t s a r e st il l t o b e fo un d b u to f t en deve lo ped o r ad ap t ed t o a s l igh t ly d i f f e r en t s i t ua t i on . T h e ac co un t o f t h epa th in t he S ma ni i a pha l a S u t t a t akes fo r g r an t ed t he way o f li fe o f t he a sce ti c(samana), r e co m m en di ng a s ec lu ded p l ace such a s t h e fo r e s t , e t c . , f o r t h e p r a c t i c e o f m e d i t a t i o n . T h e l a t e r m a n u a l s h a v e a s t h e i r b a c k g r o u n d a m o r e s e t t l e d1 3 A III 28 5-8 8 (= V 329 -33 3) rep eats the same for the oth er five reco llectio n practices.

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O n th e Prac t i ce o f Bu ddh i s t Med i t a t i on

1 4 Vim 27 -3 8; Vism II 1-93 ; for a discus sion of the ascetic practices in various ancie ntsources see Ray (1994), 293-323.1 5 A III 219-2 1 (= Vin V 13 1,1 93 ).

1 6 Vism II 56 (translated by N nam oli).1 7 Ray (1994 ), 293- 323 ; Schopen (1995).1 8 Vism II 88.

2

way of l i fe in monas ter ies (vihara); an d a st r ict ascet ic l ifestyle an d l iving in th efores t o r a t th e ro ot of a t ree , e tc . , a re pr ese nte d as inc lude d in a speci fic li st oft h i r t een a sce t i c p r ac t i ce s (dhutanga) , 1 4 This l i s t of asce t ic prac t ices has anteced e n t s i n t h e N i k a y a s . 1 5As th e wo rk of Sc ho pe n h as shown we sh ou ld b e wary oftaking the descr ip t ion of the asce t ic l i fes ty le found in the ear ly texts as necessar i ly a n d straigh tforw ard ly ref le ct in g th e actual i ty of the way of li fe of the earl iestBu dd h i s t m on ks . N on e t he l es s , I t h ink we can see in t he m an ne r o f t h e p r e sen ta t ion of the th i r teen asce t ic prac t ices in texts such as the Vmuttimagga a n dVisuddhimagga a conce rn t o ma in t a in i n t he con t ex t o f a more s e t t l ed monas t i cl ifes tyle ce r ta in asce t ic va lues and pra c t ices tha t were seen as cond ucive to an duse fu l f o r t he p r ac t i ce o f med i t a t i on .

T he V i suddh imagga p resen t s each o f t he t h i r t een a sce t i c p r ac t i ce s has hav ingth ree g r ad es . I qu o t e t he des c r i p t i on o f t he t r ee - roo t dw e l l e r 's p r ac ti ce by wayo f e x a m p l e :

56. T h etree-root dweller s practiceisundertakenwith o n e o f the following statements: Irefuse a roof o r *I undertake the tree-root dweller s practice .

T he tree-ro ot dweller sho uld avoid such trees as a tree near a frontier, a shrine tree,a g um t ree , a fruit tree,a bats tree ,a hollow tree, or a tree standing in the middle of amo na st ery . H e ca n cho o se a tree standing on the outskirts of a monastery. These arethe directions.57. T h i s has t h r e e grades too . He rei n, o n e wh o is s tr ic t i s no t a l lowed to have a treethat he has ch os en t idied up . He can m ov e the feilen lea ves with his foot while dw elling t here . T he m ediu m o ne i s a l l o wed to get i t t idied up by those who h app en to com ea lo ng . The mi ld o ne ca n t a ke up re s idence t here a f t er summo ning mo na st ery a t t endants an d n ovice s and g et t ing th em to c lear i t up , leve l it , s trew sand and m ake a fenceround with a gate f ixed in it O n a special day a tree-root dweller should sit in someconcea led place e lsewhere rather than there .

Th e m o m en t a ny o n e o f t he se three ma kes h i s a bo de under a roof, his ascetic pract ice is br ok en . T h e reciters of the Anguttara say that it is broke n as so on as he k now ing ly mee t s t he da wn under aroof.Th is i s the breach in t h is ins t a n ce . 1 6

While the descr ip t ion of the mi ld grade cer ta inly sugges t s a wi l l ingness to recogn i se l e s s ex t r eme fo rms o f a sce t i c i sm, I do no t t h ink , however , we neces sa r i l yhave to agree wi th Ray and Schopen when they sugges t tha t the la ter t exts a reincre as ing ly hos t i l e to the asce t ic way of l ife in the fores t , a t b es t begru dging lyack no wle dg ing i t , a t wor s t de l i be ra t e ly t r y ing t o t am e i t by do in g t h e i r bes t t oc o n t a i n i t w i t h i n t h e m o n a s t e r y . 1 7 In fac t the a t t i tude towards the asce t ic practices i n a t ex t suc h a s t he V i sudd h im agg a mig h t a lso be t ake n a s a con ce rn t omodera te asce t ic zea l , and avoid asce t ic i sm for asce t ic i sm's sake . For the Visuddh im ag ga t he pur po se o f t h e a sce t ic p r ac t i ce s is f u r t h e ra nce o f on e ' s med i t a t i on p rac t i ce ; t hey a r e no t an end i n t hemse lves . 1 8 Moreove r , t he accoun t o f t heascet ic pra c t ice s i s im me dia te ly fol lowed by a l is t of t en im pe dim en ts tha t theprospec t i ve med i t a to r mus t ove rcome in o rde r t o p rogres s w i th h i s med i t a t i on .


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R u p e r t G e t h i nCer t a in ly som e o f t hese im pe d im en t s r e l a t e t o t h e du t i e s an d r e spo ns ib i l i ti e s o fc o m m u n a l m o n a s t i c l if e: c o n c e r n w it h o n e ' s d w e l li n g a n d t h e m o n a s t i c r e q u i s i tes , the respon s ibi l i t i es associa ted wi th tea ch ing a c lass of pup i l s , th e d em an d so f f el lo w m o n k s . T h e p o i n t s e e m s to b e t h a t i n o r d e r t o m a k e p r o g r e s s w i t ho n e ' s m e d i t a t i o n o n e n e e d s t o m a k e s o m e s p a c e a n d f r ee o n e s e l f t o s o m e e x tent f rom everyday dis t rac t ions .The teacheras 'goodfriendO n e i s now in a pos i t i on t o ap pr oa ch ' t h e go od friend ' (kalyana-mitta), ' t heg i v e r o f a m e d i t a t i o n p r a c t i c e ' (kammaUhana-dayaka). T h e Visuddhimagga givessom e acc ou n t o f t he qua l i t ie s o f a ' go od f r i end ' a nd o f t he r e spec t fu l be ha v i ou rt h e p r o s p e c t i v e p u p i l s h o u l d s h o w t o w a r d s h i s t e a c h e r . T h e b e h a v i o u r r e c o m m e n d e d b y t h e V i s u d d h i m a g g a i n f a ct g o e s b e y o n d t h e m e r e l y r e s p e c t fu l : t h em e d i t a t o r s h o u l d d e d i c a t e h i m s e l f (attanam niyyateti) e i t h e r t o t h e B u d d h a o r t oh i s t each e r . An a t t i t ud e o f co m ple t e t r us t i n t he t ea ch e r is con duc ive t o p ro gre s si n m e d i t a t i o n a n d w il l e n c o u r a g e t h e t e a c h e r to h e l p t h e p u p i l a l l h ec a n i n c l u d i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , t e a c h i n g h i m ' s e c r e t b o o k s ' ( V is m I I I 1 2 5 - 2 7 ) .W h a t e v e r t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s e s e c r e t b o o k s , t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y a r e m e n t i o n e dhe re sugges t s t ha t t he t each ings on t he p r ac t i ce o f med i t a t i on p re sen t ed i n t ex t sl ike the Vimuttimagga a n d t h e Visuddhimagga a r e n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e c o m p r e h e n sive.1 9 As wel l as an a t t i tu de of t rus t in the te ac he r , th e texts em ph as ise t he imp o r t a n c e o f a p p r o a c h i n g t h e ta s k o f m e d i t a t i o n i n t h e p r o p e r s p i r it ( V is m HI128-3 0 , IV 27 ) .Meditation practicesand thetheoryof temperamentsT h e t eac he r cho ose s a m ed i t a t i o n p rac t i c e f rom a l is t o f t h i r t y - e igh t (V imut t i magga) or forty (Visuddhimagga) p o s s ib l e p r a c t i c e s . 2 0T h i s li st o f me d i t a t i o n p ra c tices is p r e s en t ed w i th r e f e r en ce t o (1 ) a t he ory o f ch a ra c t e r t ypes r e l a t ed t owhich t ype a pa r t i cu l a r p r ac t i ce m igh t su i t, an d (2 ) how f a r a p a r t i c u l a r p r ac t i c ec a n b e d e v e l o p e d i n t e r m s o f ' c o n c e n t r a t i o n ' (samadhi).

W hi le t he re is n o t t he space t o con s ide r t he sub t l e t ie s an d com plex i t i e s o f t hetheo ry o f ch a ra c t e r t ypes he re , i ts gen e ra l psycho log i ca l l og ic i s c l e a r . 2 1 T h e t h e -

The secret books (glha-gantha) are me ntioned several t imes in the Pali comm entaries (PsII 264, Mp V 96; cf. Nidd-a I 112, As 374, Moh (B e) 1 38). What precisely they were is unclear. Th e sub com me ntaries (Ps-pt (B e) II 198, Mp-t (B e) III 369, Vlsm-mht (B e) I 134) refer to books on meditation practice dealing with the truths, de pe nd en t arising and so onthat are profound and concerne d with empt iness , but ment ion s no ne by nam e. Somescholars have speculated about a possible connec tion with the Khmer esoteric ma nualsof me ditation bro ugh t to light by the work of Bizot; see Bec her t s intr odu ction to Bizot(1988) and Cousins (1997).The Vim list of 38 topics of meditation seems to be the older and standard list; it is referred to frequendy in the comm entar ies (Sv 185, 393 , 644 , 1033; Ps I 168, 1 95, 254 ; II 87,89 , 236, 358 , 413; III 236; IV 95; V 40; As 158, 168; Vibh-a 118, 349, 36 4). T he list of 40kammatthna appears to be peculiar to Vism and later texts such as Abhidh-s and Abhidh-s-mht-Th e theory seem s to be adumb rated in th e Nikyas in the notion that certain me ditationpractices are suited to counteracting particular tendencies or problem (see above). Thetheory in some form is also assumed in Niddl (II 359, 453), Niddll (B e 177) , Pet (36-7 ,1 4 1 ,1 4 4 , 2 1 6 ) a nd Net t ( 2 4 - 5 , 9 0 ,1 1 7 - 8 ,1 2 2 - 3 ,1 9 0 ) .

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On the Prac t i ce o f Buddh i s t Medi t a t i onory ru ns t h a t i nd iv idua l s have ce r t a in deep - roo t ed , ge ne ra l psycho log ica l t en den c i e s t ha t can be cha rac t e r i s ed w i th r e f e r enc e t o g r ee d , ha t r ed an d de lus ion .A 'greed* type i s o n e w ho ten ds to a t tach to th ings : he is in the f i r st p lace pos i t ive and enthus ias t ic . A hate type i s one who tends to re jec t th ings : he i s negat iveand unen thus i a s t i c . Bo th t hese t ypes sha re t he qua l i t y o f knowing wha t t heyth in k abo u t t h ings . T h e de lus ion t ype , on t he o the r han d , i s unc l ea r a bo u t wh a the t h inks : he d oe s no t know wh e the r he is pos it ive o r nega t ive a bo u t h i s expe r i e n c e s . T h u s i n e a t i n g , o n e o f g r e e d y t e m p e r a m e n t k n o w s w h a t h e li k es , a n dwh en h e ea t s , h e ea t s s lowly , s avour ing t he t a s t e ; on e o f ha t i ng t em pe ram en t ,on t h e o t he r ha nd , knows wh a t he do esn ' t l ike , an d when h e ea t s , he ea t s hur riedly , n o t bo th e r in g t o s avour t he ta s t e ; on e o f de lud ed t em pe ram en t do es n ' tkn ow w ha t h e l ikes , an d ea t s dr o pp in g b i t s in to hi s d i sh , sm ear in g his face , wi thhis mind dis t rac ted, th inking of th i s and tha t (Vism I I I 93) .

Medi t a t i on p rac t i ce shou ld coun t e r ac t and ba l ance t hese psycho log i ca l t en den c i e s . So , f o r exa m ple , t he g r eed t ype sho u ld be g iven a dwe l li ng such a s acave spa t t e r ed w i th d i r t , f u l l o f ba t s , i n b l eak su r round ings and con t a in ing abu g- r i dd en b ed (V ism I I I 97 ) . T h e ha t e type sho u ld b e g iven a com for t ab l edwe l l i ng w i th sha de a nd w a t e r , we l l -p ropo r t i oned wa l l s, b r i g h t e ne d w i th pa in t i ngs , an d dec ora t ed w i th f lowers (V ism IE 98) . T h e g re ed t ype shou ld me d i t a t eon th e ugl ine ss of the b ody, the h a te type on f r iendl iness (metta), and t he de lu s ion t ype on t he b r ea th .Levels and varieties of concentrationBoth the Vimut t imagga and "Visuddhimagga c lass i fy medi ta t ion prac t ices according to the level of con ce nt r a t i on they can be used to indu ce . Cer ta in prac t ices ,s u c h a s t h e re c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a , D h a m m a a n d S a n g h a , c a n o n ly b r i n gthe mind t o a p r e l imina ry ca lm and happ ines s , t e rmed ' acces s ' (upacara) in relation to fu ll ab so rp t io n orjhana. O th e r me d i t a t i on p rac t i ces , mindfu lnes s o f t hepa r t s body and ug l i nes s , b r i ng t he mind t o t he f i r s t l eve l o fjhana, b u t n o t b e y o n d . T o g o b e y o n d t h e f i r s t jhana t o t he s ec on d , t h i rd an d four th l eve l o fjhana, on e mus t use t he ' d i v ine ab id ing s ' (brahma-vihara), beg inn ing w ith f r i endl iness , or the kasinas, or min dfuln ess of br ea thi ng . Finally , cer ta in prac t ice s thef o u r ' f o r m l e s s ' m e d i t a t i o n s c a n o n l y b e d e v e l o p e d b y a n a c c o m p l i s h e d a n dexper i enced med i t a to r on t he bas i s o f h i s ach i evement o f t he four th jhana usingo n e o f t h e kasinas.

T h i s c l a s s if i ca ti on nea t l y i nco rpo ra t e s t he va r i ous p r ac t i ces fo un d i n t heNikayas i n to a un i f i ed s ch em e . T h i s is no t t he p l ace t o cons ide r t he p ro b l em ofw h e t h e r o r n o t t h e s c h e m e is c o n s o n a n t w it h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m e d i t a t i o nin t he N ikyas , bu t i t is pe rha ps w or th a t t em pt in g t o pas s som e co m m en t on it spsycho log i ca l r a t i ona l e . I n t he exege t i ca l l i t e r a tu r e t he p roces s o f med i t a t i onpra ct ice i s c lear ly un de rs to od as a process of progressive ly s t i ll ing an d s impl ifyingth e mi nd t ha t pas ses by way o f ' a cces s ' conc en t r a t i on t o t he f i rs t jhana a n dth rough t o t he four th . S t i l l i ng t he mind r equ i r e s t ha t t he mind s t ops t h ink ingabou t t h i s and t ha t , and becomes absorbed i n t he ob j ec t o f med i t a t i on . I n o r d e r t o ge t t h e m in d abs orb ed i n t he ob j ec t o f m ed i t a t i o n o ne mu s t acti ve lyth in k of i t a n d ex am in e i t. T h e texts ident i fy two m en ta l qual i t i es in par t ic ular

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R u p e r t G e t h i ntha t accompl i sh t h i s : vitakka a n d vicara. T h e f o r m e r s e e m s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s as imply app ly ing o f t he min d t o t he ob j ec t an d ke ep ing i t i n min d , t h e s e co nd a sa m o r e s u s t a i n e d e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v a r io u s a s p e c t s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s o f t h eo b j e c t : o n e m u s t t h i n k o f t h e o b j e c t a n d t h i n k a b o u t i t . 2 2 W h e n t h i s i s a c c o m p l i shed t he min d beco m es mo re o r l es s abs orb ed i n t he ob j ec t : t he s e t tl e s i n ac c e ss c o n c e n t r a t i o n o r t h e c o m p l e t e a b s o r p t i o n appana) o f jhana w i t h n o des i r eo r t e n d e n c y t o t h i n k o f o r a b o u t o t h e r t h i n g s .

T h e acco mp l i shed m ed i t a to r , i t s eems , can ach i eve t h is s t a t e w i th ou t t h i s k indof i n i t i a l t h ink ing o f and abou t t he ob j ec t o f med i t a t i on :

B y s t i ll ing m e nt a l a ppl i ca t io n a nd e x a m inin g , a m o n k l iv es ha v ing a t t a ined t he j o yand happ iness of the sec on d meditat ion , a state of in ner c lar ity and men ta l unif icat ionwi t ho ut m en t a l a ppl i ca t io n a nd ex a m ining , a nd bo rn o f co nc ent ra t io n . D I 7 4 )

Such a p roces s i s pe rhaps ana logous t o t he way i n which o rd ina ry sk i l l s a r e ac com pl i sh ed : t he i n it i a l s t ages o f l ea rn in g a l an gu ag e , o r h ow to p l ay a m us i ca li n s t r u m e n t , o r d r i v e a c a r , i n vo l v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e a m o u n t o f d e l i b e r a t e a n dc a r e f u l t h i n k i n g a b o u t w h a t w e a r e d o i n g . O n c e w e h a v e a c q u i r e d t h e s k i l l w ed o it w i t h o u t t h i n k i n g . T e c h n i c a l l y , t h o u g h , i t w o u l d s e e m t h a t a c c o r d i n g t othe sys tem of T h e ra va da A bh idh am m a, we s ti ll r e qu i r e t he k ind o f t h ink ing des i g n a t e d a s vitakka a n d vicara w h e n s p e a k i n g a l a n g u a g e , p l a y i n g a m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t o r d r i v i n g c a r , h o w e v e r p r o f i c i e n t w e a r e . 2 3 S u c h t h i n k i n g i s o n l y a b sen t wh en t he min d r each es t he l eve ls o f s ti ll ness ch a ra c t e r i ze d by t h e s ec on djhana an d bey on d , and it is no t pos s ib l e , i t s eem s , t o speak , p l ay t h e p i a no o rd r ive a ca r in such s t a t e o f m ind . A nd t h i s p rov id es a c l ue a s t o why a m ed i t a t i onprac t i ce such a s r eco l l ec t i ng t he qua l i ti e s o f t he Bu dd ha , D h am m a o r Sa ng ha isu n d e r s t o o d a s u n a b l e t o s u p p o r t t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e jhanas p r o p e r . T h equa l i t ie s o f t he B ud dh a , D h am m a or Sa ng ha a r e r e l a t i ve t o , s ay , t he kasinas o rt h e b r e a t h o r fr i e n d li n e s s, c o n c e p t u a l l y c o m p l e x o b j e c ts o f m e d i t a t i o n . I n o r d e rt o c o n t i n u e t o b e a w a r e o f t h e m , t h e m i n d r e q u i r e s a d e g r e e o f c o n c e p t u a l a n ddiscurs ive ac t iv i ty vi takka a n d vicara tha t is s imply n o t com pa t ib l e w i th t hest i l lnessoi jhana p r o p e r .

I t i s wo r th ma k ing on e fu r t h e r po in t w i th r e f e r en ce t o t h i s l is t o f m ed i t a t i onprac t i ces c la s si fi ed acc ord ing t o t he leve ls o f c on ce n t r a t i o n . I n e f f ec t, w ha t wec al l m e d i t a t i o n is p r e s e n t e d as a c o n t i n u u m f r o m s i m p l e d e v o t i o n a l a c t s a n dc o n t e m p l a t i o n s t h r o u g h t o t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d s p i r i tu a l p r a c t i c e s a n d a t t a i n m e n t s . T o c h a n t t h e f o r m u l a o f t h e q u a l it i e s o f t h e B u d d h a b e g i n n i n g iti pi sobhagavamth any de gr ee of fee l ing i s e f fec tively to en ga ge in the p rac t ice of reco l l e c t i o n o f t h e B u d d h a buddhanussati) ( V is m V I I 2 - 6 7 ) , o n e o f t h e s t a n d a r dthi r ty-e ight or for ty m ed i ta t io n p rac t ices ; i t i s, th en , a t l eas t a pre l im ina ry ex er c is e i n t he p r ac t i ce o f ca lm m edi t a t i o n samatha-bhavana). Such a dev o t i o na l ac tis o n e c o m m o n l y p e r f o r m e d b y la y a n d m o n a s t i c B u d d h i s t s in t h e c o u n t r i e s o f

See the definitions and similes for vitakka an d vicaragiven at As 114 -1 5 = Patis-a I 181 -2= Nidd-a 112 7- 8 = Vism IV 89-9 2) .Acco rding to the system set ou t in such texts as Abhidh -av, Vism cha pte r XTV) and Ab-hidh-s, the sense-sphere processes of impulsion javana) which occur during ordinarywaking states always involve vitakka an d vicara.214


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O n th e Prac ti ce o f Bud dh i s t M edi t a t i onT h era va da Bu dd h i s m . T h i s make s c l a ims t ha t lay pa r t i c i pa t i on i n m ed i t a t i o n isno t t r ad i t i ona l bu t a f ea tu re o f Buddh i s t modern i sm, 2 * p rob l ema t i c . T he c l a imi s i n fac t c i r cu l a r : it on ly has fo r ce wh en m ed i t a t i o n i s un de r s to od w i th r e f e r en ce t o mo de rn i s t ca t egor i e s . I f me d i t a t i on i s un de r s to od a s r e f e r r i ng t o ce r t a intypes o f i ns igh t p r ac t i ce vipassana-bhavana) base d on es tabl i shing mmd fulnesssatipauhana), t h en i t see ms c lear tha t th i s in de ed was no t a t radi t io nal pa r t of

l ay Bu dd h i s t p r ac t i c e be fo re t he m od er n p e r iod . Ye t i t is c l ea r f rom t ex ts suchas t he Vimuttimagga a n d Visuddhimagga t ha t t he no t i on o f bhavana ha s no t t r ad i t ional ly been unders tood so res t r ic t ive ly .Developing insight: ordinary and transcendent jhanaT h e Vimuttimagga a n d Visuddhimagga con t a in a ce r t a in amount o f gene ra l adv i ce(see , for ex am pl e , Vism IV 34 -4 1 o n the af fec t tha t food an d th e weath er mig hthav e on on e s me di t a t io n prac t ice) as wel l as specif ic ins t ruc t io ns for the var iousmedi ta t ions prac t ices . These I must pass over in th i s br ief essay.

L ike t he N ikayas samannaphala s c h e m a , t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e B u d d h i s t p a t hf o u n d i n t h e Vimuttimagga a n d Visuddhimagga f ocuses on t he four th jhana as apivota l s ta te . W ha t i s a l so c lear f rom the Vimuttimagga a n d Visuddhimagga i s thatt he va r i ous leve l s o f co nc en t r a t i on , t he va r i ous men ta l f ea ts ach i eved by t h em edi t a t i on p rac t i ces we have been cons ide r ing a r e n o t en ds i n t hemse lves : t heyfa l l somewha t shor t o f awaken ing bodhi). Th e s ti llness an d pe ace of the fou r thjhana an d the var io us formless a t ta inm en ts , the abil ity to f ly th ro ug h the a ir orreca l l on e s pas t l ives , useful as they may be , a re d i s t inc t f rom awa ken ing. W ha ti s re qu i re d to achieve a wa ken ing, is ins ight . I sh ou ld l ike to f in i sh th i s br ief essaywi th som e obse rva t i on s on t he p r ac t i ce o f i ns igh t i n r e l a t i onsh ip t o t he med i t a t i on p rac t i ces we have been cons ide r ing .

I n g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e m e t h o d o f d e v e l o p i n g in s i g h t vipassana) is to dir ec t thepe r f ec t m ind fu ln es s , s t i ll nes s an d l uc id i ty t h a t h as be en cu l t i va t ed i n t hejhanasespecial ly th e fo ur th jhana to the co n t em pla t i on no t o f t he kasinas,e tc . , b u t of rea l i ty real i ty in the sense of the ways th ings are , or , p erh ap s be t t e r , t he way t h ings work . T h i s i nvo lves wa t ch ing dhammas the m en ta l an dphys i ca l qua l i t ie s t ha t cons t i t u t e ou r ex pe r i enc e o f t he wor ld . T h e m ed i t a to r isins t ruc ted to watch the r i se and fa l l of dhammas a n d s ee t h e m a s im p e r m a n e n t

anicca), suf fer ing dukkha), an d no t s e lf anatta). T h i s l oosens t he m ed i t a to r sa t t a ch m en t t o an d i den t i f i ca ti on w ith expe r i ences ; t he norma l ly un seen p roc es ses wh ere by we co ns t ru c t our pe r so na l i t i e s an d i den t i t i e s on t he bas is o fcoun t l e s s f l ee t i ng expe r i ences a r e s een and r eve r sed . I n s ee ing t h rough t hesep r o c e s s e s a n d r e v e r s i n g t h e m t h e m e d i t a t o r f in d s a p r o f o u n d p e a c e a p e a c etha t has no th in g t o do w i th th i s wor ld an d i s cha rac t e r i s ed a s t he e xpe r i en ce o ft h e u n c o n d i t i o n e d r e a l i t y asamkhata-dhatu), awaken ing bodhi), nibbana. F r o m

the ea r l y A bh id ha m m a t ex t s (Dhs 61ff) onw ards th i s exp e r i en ce o f t h e peace o fnibbana is o n c e m o r e t e r m e d jhana, bu t it is no o rdin ary lokiya) jhana; it is dist inguished fro m o th e rjhanas b y i ts b e i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t lokuttara).

2 4 Gombrich 1983).215


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R u p e r t G e t h i nH o w w e a r e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th i s t r a n s c e n d e n t jhana (which

know s r ea l i t y ) t o t he o rd ina ry jhanas i n d u c e d b y t h e p r a c t i c e o f t h e v a r i o u sm e d i t a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d e a r l i e r b r i n g s u s o n c e m o r e t o t h e c o m p l e x is s u es o fbo th t he psycho logy an d ear l y h i s t o ry o f Bu dd h i s t m ed i t a t i o n p rac t i ce t h a t I r e f e r r ed t o abov e . Are we dea l i ng w i th a l a t e r , som ew ha t a rt if ic i a l an d fo rced , synthes i s o f wh a t we re in t he ea r l i e s t Bu dd h i s t t ex t s two (o r t h r e e , o r f our ) qu i t ed i s t i nc t pa th s o f m ed i t a t i on , i nvo lv ing qu i t e d i s t i nc t co nc ep t i on s o f aw ak en ing ?As I sugges t ed abov e , I wo u ld p re f e r t o s ee t he p r e sen t a t i o n o f t hes e m a t t e r s i nBu dd h i s t exege t i ca l l i t e r a tu r e no t so m uc h a s a r ev is i on is t r e ad in g o f t he ea r l i e rm a t e r i a l t h a t h o l d s t o g e t h e r t h e i n c o m p a t i b l e a n d a t t e m p t s t o h i d e t h e j o i n s ,b u t r a t h e r a s a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r v i si o n a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h ep r a c t i c e o f m e d i t a t i o n a n d a w a k e n i n g t h a t is a l r e a d y a r t i c u l a t e d i n t h eNikayas . In sho r t , I am sug ges t in g tha t th e exeg et ica l l i t e ra t ur e i s essent ia l ly t r ueto t he v i si on o f m ed i t a t i o n p re s en t ed i n t he N ikayas . T h i s r eq u i r e s a rg um en t a tl e n g t h a n d i n t h e p r e s e n t c o n t e x t I m u s t r e s t ri c t m y c o m m e n t s t o c e r t a i n a s p e c t so f t he exege t i ca l l i t e r a tu r e s un de r s t an d i ng which hav e no t , I sugges t , be en fullya p p r e c i a t e d i n t h e m o d e r n s c h o l a r l y l i t e r a t u r e .

T h e Visuddhimagga p r e s e n t s t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t r a n s c e n d e n t jhana i n th e foll owing way . T h e m ed i t a t o r s succes s i n wa t ch in g t h e r is e a nd f al l o f dhammas iss i gna l l ed by t he f ac t t ha t he beg ins to exp e r i e nc e d i r ec t l y a wor ld m ad e u p no t ,a s h e has p r ev ious ly ex pe r i en ced , o f subs t an t i a l be in gs an d ob j ec t s , p u t o f pa t te rn s of events r i s ing an d fa l ling, co m ing in to exis tence , a n d pass in g ou t of exis t en ce . A f ee l i ng fo r t he m ed i t a to r s exp e r i e nce a t t h is st age is we l l evo ked by t heimag es (d r awn f rom th e ea r l i e r t ex ts ) t ha t Bu dd ha gh os a g ives i n t h i s co nn ec t i on : t he wo r ld is no l o ng e r exp e r i e nc ed a s cons i s t i ng o f t h ing s t ha t a r e l a s t i nga n d s o l id b u t r a t h e r a s s o m e t h i n g t h a t v a n i s h e s a l m o s t a s s o o n a s i t a p pea r s l ike dew dr op s a t sunr i s e , l i ke a bu bb l e on wa t e r , l i ke a l i ne d r aw n onwa ter , l ike a m us tard -se ed pla ce d on the po in t of an aw l , l ike a f lash of l ight n ing ; t h ings i n t hemse lves l ack subs t a nce a nd a lways e lu de on e s g r a sp l ike ami ra ge , a con ju r ing t r ick , a d r e am , t he c ir c l e fo r m ed by a wh i r l i ng fi r e b r an d , afai ry c ity , foam , or th e t ru nk o f a b an an a t re e (Vism X X104 ) .

T h e expe r i en ce is p ro fo und ly peace fu l an d i n f act has t he bas i c c ha rac t e r i s t i c sof jhana ( a l t h ou gh t h e t e rm i s no t us ed ) . T h e t ex t s h ig h l i g h t t en qua l i t i e s : i ll u m i n a t i o n obhasa), k n o w l e d g e nana), j o y piti), t r anqu i l l i t y passaddhi), h a p p i n e s s sukha), c o m m i t m e n t adhimokkha), resolve paggaha), a l e r t n e s s upa-Uhana), e q u a n i m i t y upekkha) a n d , s ig n if ic a n tl y , a t t a c h m e n t nikanti). B e c a u s eof th e pr es en ce of th e las t , thes e ten qu al i t i es ar e col lec t ive ly re fe r re d to as th et en de f i l em en t s o f i ns igh t vipassanupakkilesa)

W ha t i s be ing sa id he re is t ha t t he min d , be ing so deep ly a f f ec t ed by i ts exp e r ience, grasp s a t i t an d takes i t for aw ak en ing itself. I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e m e d i t a t o r m a y t h i n k t h a t h e h a s r e a c h e d t h e e n d o f t h e p a t h . T h e t e x t s w a r n t h a t t h em e d i t a t o r m a y b e c o m e c o n v i n c e d t h a t h e o r s h e is a n A r h a t a t t h i s p o i n t , a n dl ive w i th t h is i dea fo r m any yea r s . On ly whe n som e ex pe r i e nce l ike t h e a r i s i ngo f s t r o n g a n g e r o r f e a r b r i n g s h o m e t o h i m o r h e r t h a t th i s c a n n o t b e t h e c a s e

Defined and d iscussed at Vism XX 105-3 0.216


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On the Prac t i ce o f Buddh i s t Medi t a t i ond o e s t h e m e d i t a t o r m o v e o n , r e t u r n i n g t o h i s o r h e r p r a c ti c e u n t i l t h e t r u et r a n s c e n d e n t jhana o f s t r eam-en t ry , on ce r e tu rn o r no n- r e tu rn is a t t a i ned an dh e is pe r son a l i t y is r ad i ca l l y t r ans fo rme d so t ha t he beco m es on e o f t he no b l ep e r s o n s (ariya-puggala).

As th e exeg et ica l t exts pres en t i t , the re is a bro ad c lass ofjhana-type states inwhich t he m in d be com es peace fu l an d s till by focus ing an d bec om ing ab sor be din a pa r t i cu l a r ob j ec t o f con cen t r a t i o n . W hen t ha t ob j ec t is a s imple conc ep tua lobjec t , l ike the kasinas o r th e br ea th or friendliness, th e rni nd is s t i l led te m po rar i ly . Bu t w he n the ob jec t of co nc en t ra t io n i s , in som e sense , rea l i ty itself, thejhana s t a t e has t he t r an scen den t , t r ans fo rming qua l i ty o f awake n ing .

B u t t h i s e l u s i v e a n d s u b t l e t r a n s c e n d e n t jhana i s no t , as i t we re , a ra bb i tdra wn ou t of a ha t ; i ts bas ic qual i t i es are pres en t in and sh are d w i thjhana statesin ge ne ra l . T h e l i t e r a tu r e shows som e ev ide nce o f d i s cus sion con ce rn ing t h equ es t io n of ju s t whic h s ta tes sh ou ld be sa id to possess the qual i t i es of aw akeni n g ' t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s o f a w a k e n i n g ' (bojjhanga). I have argued in de ta i l e l sew he re t ha t the re i s in the Nikayas a c lear an d def ini te af fin ity be tw een the l is t ofbojjhangas a n d jhana s t a te s i n g e n e r a l . 2 6 Bu t for the co m m en tar i es , st ric tly weshou ld on ly t a l k o f bojjhangasi n t r a n s c e n d e n tjhana, i . e . a t the ac tual m om en t ofa t ta in i ng the pa th an d f ruit T h e po int he re i s tha t if the qual i t i esm indfulness ,i nves t i ga t ion o f dh am m as , e f for t , j oy , t r anqu il l it y , con cen t r a t i on , and equ an im i t y do n ' t succ eed i n ac tua l ly pe r fo rm ing t he func t i on o f awaken ing t he m ind ,t h e n t h e y a r e n o t ' c o n s t i t u e n t s ' (anga) o f awak en ing (bodhi). Never the less , i t i sa l so appa ren t t ha t t he commenta r i e s w i sh t o emphas i se t ha t t hese cons t i t uen t so f awaken ing a r e p r e sen t i n ce r t a in s t a t e s t ha t a r e c lose t o awaken ing , t ha tshare cer ta in essent ia l charac ter i s t ics of awakening.

For th ere a re th ose who bring o ut the con stituents of awakening no t only in the case ofmoments of strong insight, path and fruit; some also bring them out in the case ofjhanas [attained by means] of the kasinaswhich ar e the basis for insig ht, a ndjhanas[attained by means] of breathing-in-and-out, ugliness, and the crine-abidings. Andthey are not contradicted by the teachers of the co m me ntarie s. 27So he re a va r i e ty o f me d i t a t i o n p rac t i ces end ing i n t he a t t a i nm en t o f jhana issa id t o b r i ng i n to be ing and deve lop t he cons t i t uen t s o f awaken ing .

W h at I ha ve t r ie d to sug gest in this lec tur e is th at the re is in at least s ignif icantpor t i ons o f t he N ikayas a b road ly cons i s t en t and de f in i t e t heory o f med i t a t i onprac t i ce : t he mi nd sh ou ld by t he use o f va r i ous me d i t a t i on p rac t i ces be b r ou gh tto a cer ta in kind of deeply peaceful s ta te where cer ta in menta l qual i t i es , cer ta inem ot io ns an d f ee l i ngs , such a s j oy , t r anqu i l l i ty , hap p in es s , mind fu lnes s an dequ an im i ty , a r e acce n tu a t e d . T h ese qua l i ti e s , t hese em ot io ns an d f ee li ngs , a r ethe means t o and cons t i t uen t s o f awaken ing . T h i s s ame t heory o f med i t a t i on i sa r t i cu l a t ed and fu r t he r e l abora t ed i n t he exege t i ca l l i t e r a tu r e w i th more p rec i s i on and de t a i l . W he th e r o r no t such a t he ory o f m ed i t a t i on p rec ise ly r e f lec ts

2 6 Gethin 1992), 162-32.2 7 Ps I 85 = Spk III 139 = Mp II 98 -9 Vibh-a316: t e h i n a kevalam balava-v ipassana-magga-phala-

kkhantsu e v a bojjhangam uddharanti vipassana-padaka-kasina-jjhana^napanamjjhanesu pi uddharanti n a capafisiddha atfhakathacariyehi.

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R u p e r t G e t h i nw h a t t h e B u d d h a t a u g h t , w h e t h e r o r n o t i t is t h e o n l y t h e o r y e v i d e n c e d i n t h eea r ly t ex t s , i t r em a in s , I sugges t , a c l ea r and de f in i t e t he ory , a p ro p e r ackn ow l ed ge m en t an d appr ec i a t i on o f which is l ack ing i n m uc h o f t h e s cho l a r l y d i scus s i on o f ea r ly Bu dd h i s t m ed i t a t i o n . W hi l e t he re i s n o d o u b t ev id enc e o f i ncons i st ency wh ere i nc om pa t i b l e o r r ival v iews an d t h eo r i e s hav e be en un th ink ing ly o rd e l i b e r a t e l y p u t t o g e t h e r i n t h e c o r p u s o f e a r l y B u d d h i s t t e x t s t h a t h a v e c o m edow n to us , t h e r e is a l so ev id enc e o f a b ro ad ly con s i s t en t v is i on . A p ro p e r ap p r e c i a t i o n o f e a r ly B u d d h i s t l i t e r a t u r e r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f b o t h k i n d s o fev idence .

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O n th e Prac t i ce o f Bud dh i s t M edi t a t i onThe th ir ty-e ight med i tat ion pract i ces { k a m m a f t h a n )

meditation practice temperament level of concentration6 recollections Buddha Dhamma Sangha good cond uct generosity gods

f ith access

peace intelligence accessdeath intelligence accessrepulsive ness of food intelligence accessdetermining the 4 elements intelligence accessmindfulness of body (32 parts) greed 1st ihana10 uglinesses the bloated th e livid the festering the cut-up the gnawed the scattered the hacked and scattered the bleeding the worm- infested the skeleton

greed 1st jha na

friendlinesscompassionsympathetic joy hatel s t -3rdjhanas

4 eleme nt kasinas earth water fire airall ls t -4thjhanas

4 colour kasinas blue yellow red whitehate lst-4thjhanas

mindfulness of b reathing delusion/discursivelst-4th jhanas

equanimity hate 4th ihana4 formless attainments all 4th ihana

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Unles s o the rwi se s t a t ed ed i t i onsofPal i t extsaret h o s e of the Pal i Text Socie ty .

A Ang uttara NikayaAbhidh-a AbhidhammvatraAbhidh-s AbWdhammattha-sangahaAbhidh-s-mht Abhidhammattha-vibhavinl-tikaAs Atthaslini (= Dhammasarigani-aUhakatha)B e Burmese editionD Digha NikyaDhs DhammasanganiM Majjhima NikayaMoh MohavicchedaniMp ManorathapraniMW M onier W illiams, San skri t-English Dict iona ryNett NettippakaranaNiddl MahaniddesaNiddll CullaniddesaNidd-a Niddesa-atthakathaPatfs-a Pateambliidamagga-afthakathaPet PetakopadesaPs PapancasudaniS Sarnyutta NikayaSpk SaratthappakasiniSv Sumarigalavilasinit tika (subcommentary)Vibh-a Sam moh avinodani (= Vibhariga-atthakatha)Vin VinayaVim Vimuttimagga (References are toEhara,etal 1977.)Vism Visuddh imagga (References are tochapter and sectionofthe W ar-ren-Kosambi edition (Cam bridge, M ass., 1950)and Nijamoli1964.)

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Buddhaghosa , Colombo: Semage.Ray, Reginald 1994. B u d d h i s t S a i n t s inI n d i a : A S t u d y inB u d d h i s t V a l u e sand O r ie n ta t io n s ,New York: Ox ford University Press.Schmithausen, Lambert 1981. 'On Some Aspects of Descriptions or Theoriesof"Liberating Insight" and "Enlightenm ent" in Early Buddhism' in Studien zum fainismus

u n d B u d d h i s m u s : G e d e n k s ch r i fi f r L u d w i g Alsdorf edited by Klaus Bruhn andAlbre cht W ezler, Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 199-250.Sch ope n, G regory 1995. 'Deaths, Funerals, and the Division of Property inaM onasticC o d e 'inBuddhism in Practice,edited by Donald S. Lopez, Princeton : P rincetonUniversity Press, 473 -502 .Vajiranana, Paravahera Mahathera 1975.B u d d h i s t M e d i t a t io n in T h e o r yandPract ice:AG e n

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Exposition of theTopics of Abhidhamm a, Oxford: Pal

gethin on buddhism

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