Results from the transport research programme

GETTING PRICES RIGHT

E U R O P E A NC O M M I S S I O N

Information on the wider transport activities of the European Union is also available on the Internet.It can be accessed through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/index_en.html).

Manuscript completed in July 2001.Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2001ISBN 92-894-1549-5© European Communities, 2001Photographs shown on page 7 (2 to 4) have been provided by Eureka Slide.Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.Printed in Belgium.

This brochure was produced by the EXTRA consortium for DG Energy and Transport and represents

the consortium’s views on research into transport pricing. These views have not been adopted or in

any way approved by the Commission and should not be relied upon as a statement of the Commission's

or DG Energy and Transport's views. The European Commission does not guarantee the accuracy of

the data included in this brochure, nor does it accept responsibility for any use made thereof.

Additional information on the transport research programme is available on the Internet.The programme’s Knowledge Centre (http://europa.eu.int/comm/transport/extra/home.html) provides:

• structured guides to the results and projects for particular topics;• summaries and final reports of individual projects;• access to project web sites and other contact details.

References to some projects are included in this brochure, to help the reader access further information quickly through the Knowledge Centre.

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side from the huge benefits to usersand the economy as a whole,transport generates unwanted side

effects. These include congestion,accidents, air pollution, global warming

and noise. The most efficient way ofcontrolling such effects is to charge usersfor the resulting costs to society1. Thiswould mean a radical reform of pricing inthe transport sector. Through its transportresearch programme2, the European Unionhas targeted a range of actions to help policy-makers implement this approach.

This brochure highlights the most significantresults. Its purpose is to raise awareness of the information and decision support

that is now available, and to encouragereaders to obtain further details through

a web-based Knowledge Centre (at http://europa.eu.int/comm/transport/extra/home.html).

The challenge: how to implementpricing in practice

In the mid-1990s there was no consensuson how to implement pricing reform.Key issues included:• Can the principle of charging for social

costs be put into practice?• What are the most effective pricing

instruments in different situations?• How will charges change?• What effects will this have on transport

demand, financing of infrastructure,the environment, the economy and society?

• What can be done to ensure political andpublic acceptance?

The transport research programmehas played a central role in providing answers to these questions. It has developed guidelines and tools to supportthe introduction of new forms of pricing,identified the most promising solutions,and demonstrated their likely impacts.

THE NEED FOR RESEARCH

In this brochure, discover how research is contributing to the reform of pricing policy, and identify topics worthinvestigating further on the web.

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GETTING PRICES RIGHT

The transportresearch programmehas played a centralrole in facilitating a fairer and more efficient approach to charging fortransport in Europe.

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KEY RESULTSResearch has taken the reform of transport pricing closer to reality. Some major conclusions are describedin this section.

Near-optimal charges can beimplemented in practice

n principle, transport pricing should reflect “marginal social costs”,charging users for the additional

costs caused by their use of infrastructure, including externalities such

as congestion and environmental damage. Research has shown that this

concept can be translated into practical pricing or taxation measures using existingtechnology. Moreover, simple “second best”approaches such as cordon tolls for enteringa congested area can achieve nearly asmuch as a theoretically optimal solution.The major trend will be a move to more variable charges, differentiated between peak and off-peak periods and levied at the point of use.

Charges can take account ofcongestion, pollution and accidents

The transport research programme hasdrawn together the available knowledge onhow to determine the costs of transportactivities, particularly the monetary valuesof externalities. The work concluded thatenough knowledge exists to launch pricingreform, even though further

research will be needed to fill some gapsand reduce uncertainties. Practical guidelineshave been provided on the methods for calculating costs, and these methodshave been demonstrated in site-specificevaluations. In urban areas, congestion is becoming the main problem and canrepresent 90% of all external costs (particularly during peak periods).

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Modelling studies have estimated the societal benefits of pricing reformfor Amsterdam, Athens, Brussels, Dublinand London. By removing subsidies toparking (such as free parking at

shops and offices) and introducing a simple cordon toll for access to the congested central area, 60-80% ofthe theoretically attainable benefitscould be realised.

Simple measures are often sufficient 3

Methods for estimating the costs oftransport have been demonstrated for the Milan–Frankfurt and London–Lilleroutes. The level of external costsdepends strongly on the characteristicsof the various sections of each route,such as the local population density and the power plant used to generate

electricity for the trains. For example,external costs per 1000 passenger-kilometres varied for rail between 0.8 and 8 euro, and for road between 24 and 75 euro in these two corridors.On the Frankfurt–Milan route, externalcosts per tonne-kilometre were tentimes higher for road freight than for rail.

Monetary values for intangibles 4

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GETTING PRICES RIGHT

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Modelling results for major cities indicatethat the local population could benefitfrom pricing measures by up to 400 europer capita, particularly if the revenuesare returned to people in a lump sum orby reducing taxes on labour. Optimal

pricing could reduce transport volumesin the urban area by 7-14%, improvingtraffic speeds by 30-70% in peak periods. However, charges for urban car use would more than double inmany cases.

Societal benefits of pricing reform 5

Pricing reform will benefit societyas a whole

Estimates have been made of the benefitsto society from pricing reform. There areoverall gains in welfare, less time is wastedin congestion, there will be fewer accidentsand the quality of the environment willimprove. The transport system will workmore efficiently, requiring fewer subsidiesto public transport. However, the impactswill not be uniformly distributed – somewill pay more and some will pay less,depending on the context. For example,charges for using cars in congested citiesare likely to increase, while price reductionsmay be appropriate on inter-urban routesand in rural areas.

New patterns of charging willchange travel behaviour

Small-scale demonstration projects haveshown that pricing measures are effectivein changing people’s behaviour and travelpatterns. The changes need not be dramatic to have a noticeable effect on the traffic conditions. Some transfer ontopublic transport can be achieved, but ingeneral car users change the timing, routeor destination of their trip more readily thanthe mode of transport used.

The effects of road pricing measureshave been demonstrated in severalurban areas. In Trondheim, charging forroad use during peak periods accordingto the level of congestion reduced traffic levels by more than 10%. Thiswas mainly due to drivers changingtheir time of travel, with a smallerdecrease in the total number of tripsdue to trip suppression or modal shift.

In Bristol, 15-20% reductions in daily car travel could be largely attributed todrivers switching to public transport –particularly as a result of special incentives during periods of poor airquality. Nevertheless, the overall conclusion is that drivers tend to travelat different times or by different routesbefore considering switching to publictransport.

Effects of road pricing 6

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Pricing reform can bemade acceptable

One of the major barriers to radical changesin prices could be political and public non-acceptance. Through extensive surveys,the transport research programme hasidentified ways of making new chargingschemes more acceptable. For example, therevenue from charges should be earmarkedfor the benefit of the local population, withincreased investment in public transportbeing a popular choice. Effective marketingand consultation is also essential.

Research results are informing policy

The transport research programme hasplayed a central role in evaluating thepotential for optimising prices. Throughnetworking activities, a consensus is emerging on the implications of the widerange of research on pricing, and goodpractice has been identified. Needs for furtherstudies have been defined – these include a more detailed look at the practical implementation of pricing across the modes,and at the links between pricing and the financing of infrastructure investments.

Around 6000 people were surveyedabout the reform of transport pricing.Public acceptance of new pricing measuresis low, particularly among motorists,even though pricing is perceived to bean effective tool. To increase acceptability,the reform of pricing should be staggered,starting with simple systems with lowcharge levels. In addition:

� The revenue should be earmarked forpublic transport, or returned to thelocal population in some other way.

� Compensatory measures should beconsidered for social groups which aredisadvantaged by the pricing scheme.

� Evidence that pricing measures havebeen effective in solving transport-related problems should be provided.

Meeting consumer objections 7

A framework has been provided forinformation exchange between thelarge number of research projects ontransport pricing. This has facilitated adialogue with Member States and otherstakeholders, and has sought to buildconsensus on the research results.The findings have been translated into

policy recommendations for European,national and local levels. They have also made a major input to EU policydevelopment, for instance through a high-level group on transport infrastructure charging. This interactionis continuing through a thematic network.

Building consensus on pricing 8

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AREAS OF RESEARCH

he aim of research on transportpricing has been to show that pricing reform is both practical

and effective. This has included:

• evaluating the typical impacts of alternative strategies;

• providing guidelines on their implementation;

• identifying legislative and market barriers.

The research has focused on six main issues:

How to put new chargingconcepts into practiceIdentifying strategies to implement the principle of marginal cost pricing in different contexts.

How to estimate the monetaryvalue of indirect costsProviding guidance on the quantificationof impacts such as congestion, pollution,global warming, accidents and infrastructurewear and tear.

How user costs could changeQuantifying the increases and decreases in charges that would result from more efficient pricing.

How travel behaviour could changeDemonstrating and analysing the effects on transport demand, travel patterns andmodal choice.

How to increase political andpublic acceptabilityDetermining stakeholder views and the implications for successful introductionof new pricing schemes.

How to relate pricing to financing Identifying ways of financing transportsystems that bridge the gap between pricing at marginal cost and recoveringtotal costs.

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NEW CHARGING CONCEPTS HOW TO IMPLEMENT THEM?

Optimisation of pricing policies3

Estimation of economic costs and benefitshas shown the relative merits of alternative approaches to charging fortransport. The results indicate that efficient pricing need not be complicated.Cordon pricing plus parking chargesgive 60-80% of the attainable benefits inurban areas, and congestion pricingachieves a similar result for inter-urbanhighways. For urban car transport, pricesshould be increased by 100-250% in thepeak, with smaller increases off-peak,while current charging levels are moreor less correct for inter-urban car travelin the off-peak period. Efficient pricingmay reduce or increase fares for publictransport, depending on the city contextand the current level of subsidies, androad freight charges are likely to increase.

he current system of charging for transport is inefficient, oftenbeing driven by general tax purposes

and the recovery of infrastructurecosts rather than making the user pay the real costs. The most obvious examplehere is the failure to differentiate chargesbetween peak and off-peak periods, so that no account is taken of the associatedvariations in congestion, exhaust emissionsand accidents.

The concept of charging at marginal socialcost should correct this problem. Thetransport research programme has studiedhow the concept can be implemented,modelling the likely results in a range ofcities and transport corridors. This work has helped to quantify the major distortionsin current charging practices and has identified the scale of benefit from practicalcorrective actions.

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Charges on major transportcorridors 9

Case studies have shown the effects ofpricing reform for five specific corridors.They have also demonstrated that a practical methodology to calculatemarginal social cost for all modes doesexist, even though many of the valuationsremain somewhat uncertain. The results

reinforce the conclusion that the effectsof moving to a more efficient pricingsystem are likely to be diverse, dependingon the national context and the currentlevel of prices and subsidies.For example, while there is generally a case for lower prices for publictransport (bus, rail and air), in some places existing subsidies are alreadyexcessive.

Pricing reform for urban transport 10

Results from modelling for Edinburgh,Helsinki and Oslo suggest that optimalreform of pricing would benefit the urbanpopulation by 200-400 euro per capita eachyear. A major part of this gain would resultfrom the effective use of the revenues, forinstance allowing a reduction in labourtaxes. A policy package suitable for immediate implementation would achieve30-75% of the theoretically attainable benefits. This would increase to 75-90%after institutional reform, for example topermit cordon tolls to be added to higherparking charges and fuel taxes.

Case studies and surveys in five cities indicated that the legal and institutional frameworks required to implement marginalcost-based pricing for urban transport have,so far, not been put in place. For example,these are different to the frameworks neededfor road pricing on inter-urban highways.

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INDIRECT COSTSHOW TO VALUE THEM?

The costs of transport have been estimated for three multi-modal corridors:Frankfurt–Milan, London–Lille andMunich–Patras. These costs includedirect operating costs, the value of travel

time, air pollution effects, climate change,traffic noise, accidents, and infrastructurecosts and subsidies. The absolute valueand relative importance of each type ofcost was shown to vary significantly between mode, vehicle type, fuel typeand specific sections of each corridor.For example, on the London–Lille route,air pollutants contribute half the externalcosts from road passenger transport,whereas noise is the dominant factor forroad and rail freight and for rail passengertravel. In contrast, on theFrankfurt–Milan route, accidents are the largest single external cost for roadpassenger transport, and air pollutiondominates for road freight.

Case study calculations 4

Consensus-building activities havefound that all of the main externaleffects (air pollution, global warming,congestion, accidents etc.) can be takeninto account in pricing structures, eventhough some uncertainty exists in theirestimation. Specific evaluation methodshave been recommended for particularimpacts, and a handbook has been

produced giving practical guidelines onestimating the costs of urban mobilityand selecting ways to finance it. Thehandbook includes advice on the use ofsimple pricing solutions (such as parkingand cordon charges), according to citycharacteristics such as size, severity of environmental problems and thefinancial position of public transport.

Practical guidelines for users 12

ricing reform requires the calculationof the social or indirect costs oftransport, as well as the direct costs

of infrastructure use. Previous EU-funded research has studied the healthand other impacts of air pollution and noisefrom stationary and transport sources, andhas compiled robust methods for monetaryvaluation of the damage11.The transport research programme has now shown how these methods can beused to determine prices for transport in a variety of situations.

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lthough efficient pricing is expectedto benefit the economy as a whole,more information is needed on the

detailed breakdown of the effects. Forexample, data on the distribution of changesin user costs will be important for policy-

makers, allowing them to identify potentialsufferers and design mitigating measureswhere necessary. Research has identifiedthe major trends in costs due to pricingreform, as well as quantifying wider impactson welfare and equity.

USER COSTS HOW MIGHT THEY CHANGE?

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Conclusions on changes incosts 8

Studies have found that the existingrange of pricing policies in EU MemberStates is so varied that the impacts ofmarginal cost pricing have to be assessedon a case-by-case basis. The extent anddirection of any price changes willdepend strongly on current levels oftaxation and charging. But as a broadconclusion, pricing reform to reflectsocial marginal cost would involve:

� a decrease in prices for inter-urbanroad and rail passenger transport andan increase in the price of urban roadtravel (particularly for the private carand during periods of peak congestion);

� an increase in prices for both road andrail freight.

Nevertheless, the aim of pricing reform isnot to deter trips that offer a net benefitto society, but rather to discourage tripswhere the benefit to the individual useris less than the cost to society as a whole.

Econometric modelling has shown thatimplementing marginal cost pricingwould be beneficial to society. The welfaregain (money plus time) could be wortharound 1% of income to city dwellers,particularly if revenues are used to reducetaxes on labour. Optimal pricing reducestotal transport volumes by 7-14% inurban areas, and by about 2% for inter-urban travel. This would allow trafficspeeds in cities to increase by 30-70% inpeak periods as a result of reducedcongestion.

For example, in Amsterdam by 2005,congestion pricing would cut the modalshare of private cars in the peak fromtwo-thirds to around one half, in favourof public transport. As a result,

the average speed on the roads wouldincrease from 13 to 20 km/h.

Case studies for multi-modal corridorsshowed that prices for inter-urban passenger travel should be reduced forall modes by 2010. This result is predicated on the tightening of vehicleemissions controls and some expansionof capacity to reduce congestion.Long-distance road freight is generallyunder-charged, because taxes do notincrease sufficiently with vehicle weightand distance travelled. Price increasescould be as high as 100%. For railfreight, tariffs may need to increase ordecrease, depending on the current levelof subsidies on a given route.

Modelling the effects of pricing reform 13

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TRAVEL BEHAVIOUR HOW WILL IT CHANGE?

number of research projects havelooked at the implementation ofspecific pricing measures in practice.

The aim has been to use small-scaledemonstrations and studies of existing

schemes to gain more detailed insights intooperational issues and user reactions.

For example, efficient pricing will requiregreater differentiation in charges by timeperiod and area. Research has shown thatthe major consequence is likely to be travelat different times or by different routes,rather than a change in mode.

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More than 20 case studies have beencompleted on pricing innovations,covering both urban and inter-urbantransport.

The research showed that road use pricing can change modal split from private car to public transport and Park& Ride, giving city centre traffic reductions of 5-25% (for charge levels of1-3 euro). Cordon pricing is particularly

effective when applied to congestedcentral areas and over peak periods(reducing car trips by up to 25%).Pricing of parking is also effective in restraining car trips, if enforcement iseffective.

Integrated payment systems (such assmart cards) have a small impact onmodal split on their own (especially forPark & Ride), but more importantly support pricing schemes that are co-ordinated across different transportmodes. Zone access control has alsobeen tested – the focus here was on proving the viability of technical implementation to enforcement authorities.

A majority of the case studies wereconcerned with fighting congestion,for instance on the French motorways.The findings indicate that car users, inparticular for leisure trips, re-scheduledeparture times to off-peak or changeroutes if price differentials provide anincentive to do so. However, modal shiftor a reduction in the overall number oftrips is minimal. In Leicester for example,road pricing on an arterial road combinedwith Park & Ride provoked two reactions.A number of trips were shifted to thebus, while some car drivers avoided thecharge by using secondary streets.

Experiences with pricing schemes 14

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Insights from surveys and modelling 15

Surveys of freight shippers indicatedthat, when faced with higher prices ortraffic problems, they are more willingto increase their own prices or changeshipping times than have anything todo with modal transfer. The unwillingnessto change mode is largely attributed tobad experience with other transportmodes, no matter whether that experiencehas been directly suffered or just reportedby other companies. Moreover, theexpected magnitude of price increasesin inter-urban transport is not such thatit will cause major modal transfers – andthere is a lack of non-road alternativesfor urban freight. A strong improvementin efficiency and quality from othermodes is necessary in parallel for shippersto consider the scale of modal transfersthought desirable to meet policy goals.

Computer models have been developedfor passenger and freight transport tosimulate mode and route choice forEuropean networks and specific majorcorridors. These models have been calibrated for selected countries androutes. Case study results indicated thatcharging road and air passengertransport with emissions-dependentcosts would provoke stronger changesin modal split than infrastructure investment, and lead to the developmentof lower-emission vehicles and aeroplanes.

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PUBLIC ACCEPTABILITYHOW TO INCREASE IT?

cceptability has been identified as a primary obstacle to pricingreform. The reasons behind the

opposition are many: the impacts willnot be distributed uniformly, the benefits

are not obvious to many transport users,and significant changes in daily travelhabits might be required for many travellers.The transport research programme has therefore used surveys to look at the acceptability issue in detail and identifypolicy actions to increase acceptability.

Survey results indicate that for a pricingstrategy to be accepted by the publicand by businesses, it should include thefollowing elements:

� The objectives of the strategy have toaddress the major public concernsover transport problems. This mustbe evident to those affected by thestrategy, and the prices should beseen to relate to the real costs oftransport.

� The proposed strategy must be perceived as an effective solution tothe problems, for instance based onevidence from pilot applications.

� The revenues must be hypothecated.In general, people want the revenuesto be used in the transport sector,especially to cross-subsidise publictransport. (However, this may not beappropriate from an economic viewpoint, with a reduction in localtaxation being preferable.)

� People must have confidence in the use of the revenues and the protection of privacy.

Therefore new types of measuresshould be preceded by campaigns to raise awareness of the targeted problems and the effectiveness of the proposed measures. Pricing measures

should be introduced in a staggeredway, avoiding price shocks, and compensation measures should beconsidered for disadvantaged groups.Acceptance requires adequate investment in alternative modes oftransport, as well as public consultationon the proposed scheme. Experiencesfrom several cities show that acceptancetends to increase after implementation,but this is quite sensitive to the level of charges.

In general, people are against congestioncharging, as they see themselves as victims of a non-functioning transportsystem, whereas pricing to curb environmental damage is accepted as a general principle. On the other hand,there is considerable support for roadpricing as a means of financing investment in public transport andinfrastructure. Therefore road tollscould be a stepping stone to raisingacceptance for congestion charging.

The variations between Member Statesin methods for evaluating costs and prices were noted as raising problemsfor acceptability, owing to the effects on market competition – harmonisation of methods across Europe would bevaluable in this respect.

Findings from surveys 7

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Modelling studies estimated the variationin the effects of pricing across differentincome groups in two cities. The impactis relatively small, depending on the waythe revenue is recycled into the economy.With respect to equity of access,reductions in trips by private car were

calculated to lie between 5 and 30%.Overall, accessibility is reduced,particularly for car users. However,if revenues are used to subsidise publictransport services, then accessibilitymay even be increased for most of the population.

Impacts on equity 10

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ricing based on marginal socialcosts will not necessarily cover the total costs of a transport service

or mode. On the other hand, marginalcost pricing will lead to surpluses in somesituations, notably in congested urbanareas. Revenue potential is also a key factor

in attracting private finance to complementpublic funding. Therefore research hasbeen examining the real costs in comparisonto the charges and taxes paid by differentmodes, with the aim of finding efficientways to cover the gaps and redistribute the surplus revenues.

PRICING AND FINANCING HOW TO RELATE THEM?

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A handbook has been prepared givingpractical guidelines on the pricing andfinancing of urban transport. The relativemerits of new mechanisms such as privatefinance, value capture (e.g. taxing landvalues that benefit from transportinfrastructure investment) and crossfunding (e.g. from private to publictransport) are explained.

It is concluded that there will be manycases where marginal cost pricing leavesa need for additional funding. In mostcases a mix of financing measures willbe required, and advice is given onwhen each mechanism is most likely tobe appropriate. Public funding is seenas having many attractions, but may not provide adequate resources forinvestment, in which case a mix of private

sector funding and simple approachesto value capture are recommended.

In related modelling work, it was foundthat optimal transport strategies for a number of cities could be funded byroad pricing or increased parking chargeswith no net additional financial support.In other cities, the optimal strategywould require greater funding.Where cities face constraints on capitalinvestment, private sector finance couldbe used, but then the optimal strategy islikely to be constrained, resulting inlower social benefits. In this case, analternative is to raise additional financethrough value capture. However, themodelling suggested that value captureis beneficial in only a limited range ofcity situations.

The financing of urban transport 16

The financing of inter-urbantransport17

Research suggests that the use of tollsto reduce traffic will be more problematicon inter-urban routes than on urbanroads. The dominant response from users is likely to be a diversion toalternative routes rather than a switchto alternative modes or a reduction in

the total amount of travel. This wouldprobably be counter-productive interms of environmental and congestioncosts. In addition, it would create a barrier to the use of private finance inthe development of road infrastructure,requiring the public sector to take onthe financial risk associated with uncertainties in future traffic levels.

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GETTING PRICES RIGHT

ver the last few years, the transportresearch programme has providedthe theoretical foundation for the

introduction of marginal cost pricing.Current research is extending this foundation

in the following areas:• providing a forum for interaction between

researchers and policy-makers;• evaluating the costs of transport in different

local and traffic contexts, and also atMember State level;

• determining the socio-economic impacts of pricing policies and the effectson market competition.

In addition, new actions are now focusingon practical implementation, such as thedesign and testing of pricing schemes andthe phasing of the introduction of measures.A related issue is the use of regulation andinvestment to complement or substitute foreconomic instruments.

CURRENT DEVELOPMENTSIN TRANSPORT RESEARCH

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This section highlights some of the current research into transport pricing. Further details are available from the Links section of the web-based Knowledge Centre.

Informing policy19

A thematic network is providing a forumfor debating the key issues on pricing,as well as facilitating the disseminationand exploitation of research findings.The work will generate five international

seminars, peer-reviewed reports and a set of recommendations for an integrated approach to the implementation of pricing reform.The network involves European andnational policy-makers, and covers allthe transport modes.

To enable prices to be based on the real costs of transport, includingexternal costs, work is needed on themethodology of cost estimation. This is being done both at national level andfor European transport corridors, andwill provide recommendations on howto apply cost figures from one locationor case study in a different context.In addition, pilot accounts are beingdeveloped for Member States, showinghow costs and revenues for each modecontribute to the overall economics ofthe transport sector. Actions to deal

with market distortions in the freightsector resulting from current taxes andcharging systems will be identified.

Evaluating costs 18

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Further lessons on the practical implementation of pricing measures areneeded before pricing measures gainthe necessary social and political acceptance. Therefore, the Commissionis funding a major demonstration

project in eight cities, through to the year 2004. This will test a range ofroad pricing concepts and technologiesas part of a wider strategy to combatcongestion and improve the environment.In parallel, a thematic network will bringtogether and disseminate the resultsfrom these and other demonstrations,aimed at producing a consensus on theimplications for policy.

At the same time, new research willidentify the most effective designs forinter-urban road pricing schemes,particularly for heavy vehicles. Oneimportant focus will be on the migrationpath from current charging and financingsystems towards the implementation ofmarginal cost pricing – and this issuewill be the subject of a dedicated studycovering all the transport modes,both passenger and freight, urban andinter-urban.

Developing implementation strategies 20

Previous research has highlighted theneed to estimate the wider socio-economic and market impacts of policiessuch as pricing. Several studies arebeing launched in this area.These will provide:

� methods for evaluating the socio-economic and regional effects oftransport policies and investments –covering impacts such as urban regeneration, industrial competitiveness,employment, land-use and accessibility;

� a framework for defining combinationsof economic instruments, regulatory

and infrastructure measures thatsimultaneously meet multiple policyobjectives such as efficiency and equity.

Determining impacts 21

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References

Further information on the following projects can be obtained from the web-based Knowledge Centre.

Other key documents referenced in the brochure are available on the DG Energy and Transport website (http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/index_en.html).

1. White Paper "European transport policy for 2010: time to decide", COM(2001)370

2.The transport research programme is part of the fourth framework programme for Community activities in the field

of research, technological development and demonstration for the period 1994 to 1998

3. TRENEN II STRAN project

4. QUITS project

5. AFFORD and TRENEN II STRAN projects

6. CONCERT-P project

7. PATS and PRIMA projects

8. CAPRI project

9. PETS project

10. AFFORD project

11.See ExternE project web site: http://externe.jrc.es/

12. CAPRI and FISCUS projects

13. PETS and TRENEN projects

14. CONCERT-P, EUROTOLL and TRANSPRICE projects

15. SOFTICE and STEMM projects

16. FATIMA and FISCUS projects

17. START project

18. UNITE and RECORD-IT projects

19. IMPRINT-EUROPE project

20. CUPID, DESIRE, MC-ICAM and PROGRESS projects

21. IASON, TIPMAC and TRANSECON projects

The programme’s Knowledge Centre is available at:

http://europa.eu.int/comm/transport/extra/home.html

It provides:• structured guides to the results and projects for particular topics;• summaries and final reports of individual projects;• access to project web sites and other contact details.

Brochures on results from the transport research programme

are available for:

1. Sustainable mobility

2. Clean urban transport

3. European transport networks

4. Single European sky

5. Maritime safety

6. Freight intermodality

7. Getting prices right

8. Road safety

9. Intelligent transport systems

KO-39-01-530-EN

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