Gibbs 4:

Metaphor in Language and Thought

Metaphorical language is not unusual

• Metaphor is not simply a form of speech -- it is a form of thought with its own epistemological (relating to origin and theory) functions

• Metaphors provide:– Foundation for everyday thinking and

reasoning– Foundation for our understanding of culture

Metaphor plays a role in:

• Constituting ordinary concepts (eg. Emotion)

• Motivating semantic change (eg. see > know; root > epistemic modals)

• Motivating meanings of linguistic expressions

• Influencing how people make sense of why words/expressions mean what they do

Metaphor frequencies

• People use an average of 1.80 novel metaphors and 4.08 frozen metaphors per minute of discourse.

• This works out to about 4.7 M novel metaphors and 21.4 M frozen metaphors in an average lifetime.

• (These figures probably aren’t very accurate or meaningful, but give a general idea…)

Communicative Functions of Metaphor

• Metaphors provide a way of expressing ideas that would be extremely difficult to convey using literal language.

• Metaphors are compact.• Metaphors help capture the vividness of our

phenomenological experienceThese functions have been validated by

empirical research.

Metaphor Improves Recall

“One reason why metaphors might be memorable is that these expressions furnish conceptually rich, image-evoking conceptualizations.” (p. 133)

Metaphor may aid learning

Social Functions of Metaphor

• Metaphorical talk often presupposes and reinforces intimacy between speaker and hearer.

• Metaphorical language informs others about attitudes and beliefs.

• Slang contributes to group identity and cohesion.

Metaphor and Politics

• POLITICS IS A SPORT

• POLITICS IS WAR

• Metaphor is consistently used to motivate foreign policy and political reasoning

Extra Homework Idea:

• Analyze the metaphorical content of the political platforms of the candidates in the 2004 election.

• Analyze the metaphorical content of two sides of a highly politicized public debate.

• Cf. for the latter CLONING IS TWINNING vs. CLONING IS INCEST.

Systematicity of Metaphor

• There are conceptual metaphors that motivate numerous expressions:

• LOVE IS A JOURNEY

• LOVE IS A NUTRIENT

• LOVE IS A NATURAL FORCE

• LOVE IS MAGIC

• LOVE IS A UNITY

Polysemy

• “a state in which words have multiple meanings that are systematically related”

• Polysemy is the norm -- most words are polysemous, motivated by extensions

Examples of Polysemy

• see > know in various langs

• root modals (ability can, permission may, obligation must) get extended to domains of reasoning, argument, theorizing > epistemic

• the latter is motivated by metaphorical interpretations of force and barrier

Some Psychological Evidence:

• Gentner & Gentner: metaphoric reasoning in electricity as flowing liquid vs. electricity as moving crowd

• Use of metaphoric gestures indicating conceptualization of events and utterances as “things” in one’s hands.

Two Metaphors for Time:

• Fixed observer, moving events (Christmas is coming)

• Fixed events, moving observer (We’re coming up on Christmas)

• [Note that it is possible to mix the two together in a single utterance: We’re looking forward to the events that will follow]

Metaphor in Science

• Pedagogical Metaphors -- help to convey an idea• Theory Constitutive Metaphors -- are

indispensible parts of a scientific theory• Note: THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS is a

metaphor about theories.• “The computer metaphor is the most important

theory constitutive metaphor in contemporary psychology.” (p. 175)

Metaphor in a few more places…

• Metaphor in Law: influences decision-making

• Metaphor in Art: cf. metaphoric images in cinema

• Metaphor & Myth: Odysseus’ journey, Jacob’s ladder “represent facts of the mind”

• Metaphor in Culture: conventional metaphors can be culture/language-specific

Metaphor in thought and action:

• “Because metaphors organize our experience through their entailments, they help create social realities for us and become guides to action.” (p. 203)

• Our “cultural model for marriage” may be “motivated by a cluster of contiguous conceptual metaphors” [it doesn’t have to be entirely coherent] (p. 204)

Concluding Thoughts

• “metaphor is a fundamental mental capacity by which people understand themselves and the world through the conceptual mapping of knowledge from one domain onto another” (p. 207)

• “metaphor is an integral part of human life”