global culture nationalism globalization and modernity a theory culture and society special issue

8/6/2019 Global Culture Nationalism Globalization and Modernity a Theory Culture and Society Special Issue

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Mike Featherstone



GLOBAL CULlURE

ationalism, globaization and modernity

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MIKE FEATHERSTONE

SAGE Publcos h k ew Deh



ditoa matea and arangement � Mke Feahetone 19

Idividual chapters@Rolad19, Roy Boyne 19 @A Berge 19 @PeterWoey19@ Margaet Arher 19 � lan Touraine

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Bauman 19 Anthoy D. Smith 19 @Fedh H Tenb

19 � Johan P Aaso 19 @VlfHanne 19 @olkrGssner 19 @ Yves Dealay 19 @Ajun Appadurai 19� Joathan Fridm 19 @John ONeil 19 @ Bryn S.

Tuer 19 � Stephen Mennell9 @Peter F Beyer 19� tho Ki 19

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Mike Featherstone

Rolad Robertso

GLBAL ULU

CNENS

Global Culture: An ntroducton

Mappng the Global Condtion

Globalzaton as the Central

Concept

Immanuel Wallersten Culture as the Ideological

Battleground of the Modern World-

1

System

Roy Boye Culture ad the World-System

mmauel Wallersten Culture is the WorldSystem A

Reply to Boyne 6

Abert Bergese Tung WorldSystem Theory on

Ptr Worsly

Margaret Archer

la Touraie

Zymut Bauma

thoy D. Smth

its Head 6

Modl of h Modrn World

System

Theoy, Culr ad PostIndustrial

Soiety

The Idea of Revouto

Modety ad Ambialee

Towad a Globa Cuture?

11

1

11

edih H Tebru The Deam o a Seular Eumee

The Mea ad Lmits o Poliies

o Developmen 1

Johan P Arnaon Natonalm Globalaton and IL________

M

_

o

_

d

_

e

_

r

_

n

_

it

_

y

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Vlf Hannerz Cosmopolitans nd Locals in World

Culture 237

olkmar Gessner and Conflcts of Culture in Cross-border

Angelia Schade Leg Retions: The Conception of

Reserch Topic in te Sociology of

Lw 23

Yves Dezalay The B g Bn g nd the Lw The

Interntionliztion nd

Restructurtion of te Le Fied 279

Arjun Appduri Disuncture nd Difference in the

Gob Culturl Economy 29

Jonthan Friedmn Bein in the World Globiztion

nd Locliztin 3

on O'Neill AIDS s Globlizin Pnic 329

ryn . Turner Te Two Fces of ociooy Gobor Ntionl? 33

tephen Menne The Globiztion of umnociety s ery Lonterm Soci

Process Eis's Teory 359

Peter F Beyer Privtiztion nd e Pubic

Influence of Reliion in Glob

ociety 373

Anthony Kin rcitecture Cpit nd te

Gobliztion of Cuture 397



Global Culture: n ntroducton

ike Fetherstoe

Is there a oba cuture I b a ba cuture we mean somethnakn to the cuture o the natonstate wrt are then the answer spatent a neate on On ths comparson the concept o a obacuture as , not east because the mae o the uture o a natonstate s one whch eera emphaszes cutura homoenet and

nteraton ccordn to ths ne o reasonn, t woud bempossbe to dent an nerated oba cuture wthout theormaton o a word state a hh un ke prospect Yet wemoe awa rom the statc poart suested b our ornaqueston and tr to empo a broader denton o cuture and thnkmore n terms o processes, t mht be possbe to reer to teobazaton o cuture ere we can pont to cutura nteratnand cutura dsnteraton processes whch take pace not on n

an nterstate ee but processes whch transcend the statesocetunt and can thereore be hed to occur on a transnatona or tras soceta ee t thereore ma be possbe to pont to transsoceacutura processes whch take a aret o orms some o whch haepreceded the nterstate reatons nto whch natonstates can brearded as ben embedded and processes whch sustan theechane and ow o oods peope noraton, knowede andmaes whch e rse to communcaton processes whch an someautonom on a oba ee ence there ma be emern sets othrd cutures' whch themsees are conduts or a sorts oderse cutura ows whch cannot be mere understood as theproduct o batera echanes between natonstates It s thereoremseadn to concee a oba cuture as necessar entan aweakenn o the soerent o natonstates whch under thempetus o some orm o teeooca eoutonsm or other masteroc w necessar become absorbed nto arer unts andeentua a word state whch produces cutura homoenet and

nteraton It s aso mseadn to reard the emerence o thrd

Theor Cuure & Soce (AE Lonon Newbury Par an New Deh) Vol 71990 114



2 Thory utur Soity

cuures as he embodmen o a ogc wch pons o omogenzaon Th bnar ogc whc sees o compreend cuure a emuua excuse erms o omogene/heerogene, negraon/dsnegraon, un/ders, mus be dscarded A bes,hese concepua pars wor on one ace on o he compe prsmwhch s cuure Raher we need o nqure no e grounds, earous generae processes, nong e ormaon o cuuramages and radons as we as e nergroup srugges and nerdependences, whch ed o hese concepua opposons becomngrames o reerence or compreendng cuure wn he saesoce whch hen become proeced ono e gobe

osmodernsm s boh a smpom and a poweru cuura mage

o he swng awa rom he concepuazaon o goba cuure essn erms o aeged homogenzng processes eg heores whcpresen cuura mperasm, Amercanzaon and mass consumercuure as a proounersa cuure rdng on he bac o Weserneconomc and poca domnaon and more n erms o heders, are and rcness o popuar and oca dscourses, codesand pracces whc ress and pabac ssemc and orderModes o undersandng whch operaed wn a src smboc

herarch and a bound conex are now ased o accep ha asmboc herarches are o be spaazed ou and ha e cone sboundess The ocus on he gobe s o sugges ha a new ee oconcepuazaon s necessar Ye e concepon o cuure ashang escaped he bounded naonsae soce aso pons o am, he mage o he gbe as a snge pace, he generae rameo un whn whch ders can ae pace A he same me, heempaon o he pos modern mood s o eschew suc heorecacompcaons and o regard he changes whch pon o a gobacuure as openng up anoher space ono whch can be nscrbedspecuae heorzaons, hn hsores and e derus o he exocand specacuar Te chaenge or socoog, s aempng ocome o erms wh he upsurge o neres n cuure n he 1980swhch has seen a owerng o he boundares beween and e oersoca scences and he humanes, s o bo heorze and wor oumodes o ssemac nesgaon whch can car hese goba zng processes and dsnce orms o soca e whch render prob

emac wha has ong been regarded as he basc subec maer orsocoog soce conceed amos ecuse as he boundednaonsae

The argumen ha he rse and deeopmen o socoog as been



Fetherstone n ntodution

oo domnted b the spec cse o the rse o the modern ntonstte n whch the prtcur hrcterscs o nton ntertonprocess hve been enerzed nto mode o soc nterton nwhch socet becomes the e rme o reerence or socoo snn wder cceptnce see n ths coecton the peces bRobertson Arnson Menne nd urner Wersten (98 orempe hs rued th ths dentcton o socoo wth thestud o socet shoud be rejected on two counts Frst t deveoped n the nneteenth centur s prt o n ntthetc tndem theother h o whch ws the stte n whch socet ws seen s substrtum o mnners nd customs whch hed peope toetherSecond ths rtc dvson between the potc nd soc

nd we shoud dd the economc whch ve rse to the seprtedscpnes o potcs socoo nd economcs n the nneteenthcentur shoud be rejected n vour o more nterted soc scence pproch combned wth hstor hstorc soc scence.Yet t s mste to rerd socoo s ben soe preoccupedwth the ntonstte socet n nterest n ob nd unvers processes cn be trced bc t est s r s the Enhtenment . Furthermore there est mportnt subtrdtons wthn socoo

whch hve endevoured to oow the broder pproch whchWersten endorsed We nd vrous bends o the soc scenceshstor nd phosoph not on content to unversze Westernmodes o modernzton rtonzton ndustrzto revouton nd ctzenshp to the rest o the word word conceved sbound toether b unvers hstor but so the unversztono n etrn concern wth don justce to prtcurtes ndderences wth huanity. From the pont o vew o those t theoreront o he upsure o nterest n cuture nd perspectves such

s postmodernsm the ssumptons o the rtonzton modernzton nd ndustrzton modes re to be treted wth suspconIn ect the ssumpton s tht we hve moved beond the oc othe unvers ron ce rtonzton process (ermp 1 98 .As Mret Archer rues n her contrbuton the vrous brndso ndustrzton converence nd postndustrzton theorwhch were popur n the 1960s nd 190s subordnted cuture tostructur deveopment nd sheved the queston o the retonshp

between cture nd enc Lewse n hs rtce n ths coecton An Tourne rues tht the de o revouton whch hsbeen t the hert o the Western representton o modernztonented bee n the oc o the sstem socet wthout ctors.



Thory utur Soity

From he vaae po of he ae weh eury seems ha heera of revouo s ow fay ove. s hese ssues pus areas sesvy o he paruares ad exhauso of Weser modery a oba rumsae whh oher uura

ad vzaoa rados are beom mpossbe o oreha has ed some o arue ha soooys bas uderraduae eah proramme shoud shf from revov aroudoa soees o fous o eraoao ad oba ssues(Tryaka 986).

Wh he Freh rado he emphass o he dea of humay he ew uversa seuar reous dea whh a be raedbak o SaSmo ad Come ame o fu deveopme he

aer wrs of urkhem. For urkhem as soees expadedad reased ompexy he deree of soa ad uura dffereao deveoped o he po a whh eve for members of heame soey he oy h hey reaed ommo was herhumay. Ths dea of he huma perso whh deveoped ou ofdvduas moray was for urkhem he aura suessor oChrsay Lukes 9 : 8ff) . For urkhem he saredess ofhe perso oud beome oe of he few uura deas apabe of

provd a rua po of ufao for a reasy dffere aed ye erdepede word. hs orbuo Tebruk dsusses a reaed uura dea he dream of a seuar eumeewhh aso a be raed bak o he rouds of Chrsedom Thedea of a seuar eumee whh aed s hsora dyam fromhe Freh Revouo has uderoe rasformaos o hepowerfu uura maery of soasm wh s dream of a obauure ad he poswar era he equay poe dea of deve opme boh of whh se off a whoe seres of oba uura

sruesThe debaes abou he pae of uure wordsysems heory

brs o he fore may of he ssues we have jus rased. I sWaerse s reerao of oe of hs era ees hs pee ouure ad he word sysem ha he wordsysem s based o aparuar o ha of he easeess aumuao of apa whhrases quesos abou hs oepuaao of uure Boyesarume ha Waerse s empoys a vew of uure as merey

dervave ad reave o he brue ad dseresed objevsm ofwordsysems heory mees a equay forefu defee hsexhae wh Waerse. smar rsm s made by Worseywho wshes o oes Waerses ofao of he hree words



Featherstone n ntrodution 5

nto hs centra concepts of core and perphery. For WorseyWaerstens mode s another varant of potca economy whchdoes not suffcenty take cuture nto account; he remarks thatwthout the cutura dmenson t s mpossbe to make sense of amodern word n whch natonasm reon and nterethnchostty has been far more mportant than nternatonasm andsecuarsm .

Ths arument s deveoped further by Beresen n hs contrbuton Turnn Word Systems Theory on ts Head . Beresen aruesthat there s a common neouttaran bass to both wordsystemsanayss and nternatona reatons theory whch neects the powerreatons and cutura reatons whch preceded the nterstate sys

tem Beresens arument here s anaoous to the cutuayembedded economy aruments of urkhem about the non contractua bass of contract and Smme quest to bud a storeybeneath hstorca materasm varants of whch can aso bedetected n the work of Weber and Marx ) For Beresen Waerstencommts the ndvduast error of workn from parts to whoes nwhch the subunts the ndvdua states are assumed to acqurether defnt ve propertes pror to partcpaton n the wordsystem

Rather he arues for the vast maorty of the words states thenternatona system preceded ther exstence and moreover madethat exstence possbe n the frst pace . A system whch was forcefuy created throuh conquest and coonzaton throuh power notexchane. Lkewse nternatona reatons theory focuses on nterstate reatons and neects the nternatona state system n the formof cuture ndependent dpomatc anuaes Latn then French and systems of representaton nked to the Church and dynastcfames n the Mdde Aes) whch arose aonsde state acton and

made t possbeBeresen s arument can aso be reated to the theory of oba

zaton deveoped by Robertson n whch natonstates are not seento smpy nteract but to consttute a word a oba context nwhch th e word becomes a snuar pace wth ts own processes andforms of nteraton see aso Moore 966) Robertson whose pecen ths coecton extends the arument he has deveoped over anumber of years emphaszes the autonomy of the obazaton

process whch shoud be seen not as the outcome of nterstateprocesses but to operate n rativ ndependence of conventonaydesnated soceta and sococutura processes. For these reasonsRobertson mantans that the term obazaton s preferabe to



6 Thory utur Soty

nternatnaatn tera nter natntate eane a tdraw attentn t th for wtn w te wrd bemeu nted' It pnt t te pre ba mpren w a edt te urrent deree ba mpet and ntenedutura nt ver te dentn te ba tuatn baatn pre w ud n ter ave rendered tewrd nt a nuar pe tr a varet traetre trute mpera eemn a ne natn r pwer b r tetrump a tradn mpan unvera pretarat a rm ren r te wrdederat mvement tee are trapbte w ud ave prdued varu bend and rm utura nteratn and derentatn tem a we a te

urrent pae te baatn pre ud bead t enta te prdutn ba uture Fr bertn tepae aeerated baatn a taen pae ne te 880 e t tward te dea te meneu untar natntatewa te ne apet t pre <d ud nt be mundertd a an mpedment r t wa te an dea w beamerapd baed nant ave been te nreae n tenumber nternatna aene and nttutn te nrean

ba rm mmunatn te aeptane uned batme te devepment ba mpetn and pre te devepment tandard ntn tenp rt and neptn umannd

baatn pre w pnt t te etenn bautura nterreatedne an a be undertd a eadn t aba eumene dened a a ren pertent uture nteratnand eane pt 987 0 Hanner 989 prewereb a ere utura w prdue bt firty utura

menet and utura drder n nn teter prevuated pet reatve meneu uture w n turnprdue mre mpe mae te ter a we a eneratndenttrenrn reatn and a ondy trannatnauture w an be undertd a enune trd ture' ware rentated bend natna bundare ppadura remarn pee te mpet te ba utura w nw tanpae at dubt n te ntnun ueune entreperper

mde ppadura uet we an neve ve dmenn ba utura w w mve n nnmrp pat Frttere are thnoa prdued b w pepe turtmmrant reuee ee and uetwrer Send tere are



Featherstone, n ntroduton

hno the machiner and plant flows produced b multinational and national corporations and government agencies.Thirdl, there are jnn produced b the rapid flows ofmone in the currenc marets and stoc echanges . Fourthl, there

are d the repertoires of images and information, theflows which are produced and distributed b newpapers,magazines, television and film. Fifthl, there are do linedto flows of images which are associated with state or counterstate movement ideologies which are comprised of elements ofthe Western nlightenment worldview images of democrac,freedom welfare, rights etc. While Appadurai has emphasized thedisjunction between these cultural flows, it should be added that

states, multinationals as well as other agencies, institutions andinterest groups will attempt to manipulate, channel (close oropen up the cultural boundaries of others to these flows withvaring degrees of success in relation to their relative powerresources. We will now lo in more detail at some of the transnational cultural flows, and then turn to the hermeneutic problemsentailed.

The changes in the world econom which have taen place in the

9s and 98s, which some have referred to as a new phase ofcapitalism disorganized capitalism or postFordism (ash andUrr, 98 Offe, 985 ; ipietz, 98, are generall represented asentailing the demonopolization of economic structures with thederegulation and globalization of marets, trade and labour. Theglobalization of capital flows with 24hour stocmaret trading,which gained pace after the Big Bang' of October 986, not onlderegulated local marets and made local capital vulnerable to thestrategies of corporate raiders, it necessitated new norms for the

maret too. The globalization of capital, ezala remars in hiscontribution to this collection, also entailed the globalization of themaret in services to finance, commerce and industr. A newcategor of professionals international lawers, corporate taaccountants, financial advisers and management consultants wererequired as the various business and financial interests soght tochart and formalize the newl globalized economic space. Thisreintroduction of competition and maret imperatives in the world

of law led to a process of homogenization and interconnectionbetween national legal sstems. The breaing down of barriersfavoured the strongest performer: the North American law firmswhich had alread eperienced the emergence of megalaw firms'



8 Thory, utur Soity

and the creaton of law factore n th ene the globalzaton ofthe maret for legal erce wa n man wa an Amercanzaton . t alo made pace for a new generaton of lawer le ted to thequaartocratc deal and ddan for maretng charactertc ofthe gentleman lawer. Now the empha wa upon technca competence, aggree tactc and a mertocratc etho whch made thenew lawer perfect aulare to the new breed of corporate rader.A mlar proce of deregulaton and globalzaton occurred wthnrelated profeonal actte uch a archtecture and adertng.o thee we could add a range of pecalt n the flm, deo, teleon, muc, mage and conumer ndutre whch ng refer to adegn profeonal'. h cotere of new pecalt and profe

onal not onl wor outde the tradtonal profeonal and organzatonal culture of the natontate, the eperence the problemof ntercultural communcaton at frt hand. Th, plu the necet of mong bacward or forward between dfferent culture,arou mperfect protothrd culture necetate new tpe offleble peronal control, dpoton and mean of orentaton, neffect a new tpe of habtu . he not on operate n a compreedglobal pace made poble b new mean of communcaton, but

freuentl wor n and nhabt a pecfc tpe of urban pace theredeeloped nner ct area. ng ( 99 refer to thee a global orworld cte, cte n whch the global fnancal and banng erce and culture ndutre are concentrated. Yet n practce, aHannerz (989 pont out, global cultural centre whether of thetradtonal tpe (e.g. focal pont of hgh culture and fahon ucha Par or new form of popular culture ndutre (e.g. flm andteleon n o Angele, Bomba and Hong ong do not necearl correpond to economc (e.g. oo and poltcal (e.g.Wahngon centre. Although there are of coure ntance nwhch all three functon are concentrated together (e.g . New Yor,ondon.

One conequence of thee change that more and more peopleare now noled wth more than one culture, thu ncreang thepractcal problem of nterculture communcaton. A Gener andchade pont out, ntercultural communcton ha deeloped a anew reearch area nce the end of the late 96 to netgate the

practcal problem and mundertandng encountered b prateperon, agence and organzaton whch are brought nto contactfor a aret of reaon uch a, for eample, croborder legaldpute. Whle uch people, and the cultural pecalt and profe



Featherstone n ntrodution 9

sionals we hae mentioned ma as a consequence deelop thirdcultures fo tansnational communication it is b no means clearthat this necessaril entails the geneation of a cosmopolitan

outloo.ndeed, as Hannez suggests in his aticle in th is collection, we canenisage a range of responses between the polarities of localism(territoiall anchoed o bounded' cultures inoling facetofaceelations among people who do not moe aound a great deal andcosmopolitanism (transnational cultural networs extended in spacein which there is a good deal of oerlapping and mingling whichencourages an orientation to engage with the other. ome of thepeople who trael widel, such as businessmen and expatriates, are

often locals at heart who do not reall want to leae home. For thesethee is an expanding liteature of doitourself trael guides onhow to find home comfots aboad and how to aoid the embarrassment of unintended cultural insults and faux a towards foreignhosts The majoit of presentda tourism is of the home plus'(sun, sea, sand wildlife, etc. aiet, in which new and potentialldistubing expeiences are stictl controlled. As Zgmunt Baumanagues, most touism sees to educe hemeneutic poblems b

diecting touists to special enclaes in which functional mediatospla the bounda maintaining ole n contrast we can positaieties of cosmopolitanism, such as in diplomac, in which theothe cultue is lagel masteed and thee is the capacit to communicate the fuits of this competence to others ia thid languages,such as diplomatic languages A futher example of cosmopolitanism is the tansnational intellectuals who eep in touch ia globalcultual flows and who ae not on at home in the cultues, but

see out and adopt a eflexie, metacultual o aesthetic stance todiegent cultural expeiences .One complication to the ocalcosmopolitan dichotom, is the

stange . Fo Bauman the stange someone who comes todaand stas tomorow cannot be integated into the cosmopolitan/local fiend/enem foms of sociation indeed the strangerintoduces a distubing indeteminac ito atempts at classificatorclait Within the uban enionments of modenit the alien ostranger appeas inside the lifewold and efuses to paticipate in the

states construction of an imagined communit, its efforts toeliminate stanges and edefine them as friends through nationalisic assimilation policies Yet fo Bauman these attempts to attaincultual uniformit and homogeneit ultimatel fail Modernit



Featherstone, n ntrodution

encounters. While this increasingl dense web of cosmopolitan local encounters and interdependencies can gie rise to third culturesand incrasing tolerance, it can also result in negatie reactions andintolerance. John Neill, for eample, discusses the global panicgenerated b A S as leading to both an intensification of the sensethat the world is one place which must pull together to fight offthreats to world order, and at the same time, a deglobalizingreaction arising from the difficult of sealing off the nationstatefrom global iral flows. n a similar ein, Beer points to the was inwhich the globalization of religion produces a situation in whichthere are no outsiders who can sere as a repositor of eil. Withglobalization, the person who was uneuiocall outside now

becomes a neighbour, with the result that the inside/outside distinction fails his can lead to responses of ecumenicism, tolerance anduniersalism in which eerone is included, or resistance to globalization in the form of counter moements, such as the arious nonWestern fundamentalisms which react against Westoicati r,in the West, see to embar on a neoconseratie programme ofdedifferentiation to restore Western Christendom. n this contetthe analogies between a national culture and global culture again

brea down. While we can refer to the process of formation ofnational identities and the role of intellectuals in mobilizing thethni in attempting to deelop a unified national culture, we aremade painull aware of the alternatie traditions and histories, thelaers of local cultures which were suppressed as a result of this proect t becomes impossible to tal about a common culture in thefuller sense without taling about who is defining it within whichset of interdependencies and power balances, for what purposes,and with reference to which outside cuture(s) hae to be disarded,reected or demonified in order to generae the sense of culturalident it o contemplate this on a global leel means imaginatielto construct an outside to the globe, the sphere of global threatcaptured onl in the pages and footage of science fiction accounts ofspace inaders interplanetar and intergalactic wars n additionthe transnational cosmopolitan intellectuals (sering which masterswe might as would hae a long wa to go to rediscoer, formulate and agree upon global uialents to the thni

t is also all too eident that discussion of a global culture isgenerated from within a particular time and place and practice. hisone within a Western uropean academic setting in nglish, as wemoe towards the end of the twentieth centur. t is hard for us to



2 Thory utur Soity

imagie from the cetrait of our Egish academic discourse, asWater Bejami ( 968: 8 remars, havig to thi of theprobems of trasatig our aguage ito that of oWester

aguages ad how this might effect their sese of pace withi theword (oier ad Roseberr 1989. Yet it is a too cear that thedia scietist or iteectua i New ehi who wishes to deveopcotacts to echage iformatio with his Japaese oppositeumbers must do so i Egish. We are sow becomig aware thatthe West is both a particuar i itsef ad aso costitutes theuiversa poit of referece i reatio to which others recogisethemseves as particuarities (aai , 1 988 The debates about howto characterize Japa o the Wester cotiuum of premoderit,

moderit ad postmoderit brig this probem ito promiece.Whie ecoomica Japa has become a major goba presece,goba cuture fows ito ad, especa out of Japa have beewe reguated. The etet to which the ta of a ew age of cuturei Japa i the 1 98s (see Harootuia, 1 989 wi materiaize ito asefcofidet goba cutura project, remais to be see. Nevertheess, we are becomig aware that the orietaizatio of the word(Maffesoi , 988 is a distict goba process athough the tas of

pacig the age of ctua associatios smmoed up b thi scocept, ad their pace i the cotiuig strugges to defie thegoba cutura order, has et to beg.

No

Tis issue woud not ave been possibe witout te pioneeing wok on gobaiation

by Road Robetson wo bougt tis patiua set of pobems into te ouna

Theor Cuure & Soce in te eay 98s. Te oneptuaiation of te issue and

fina bend of papes as benefited geaty fom ou disussion ove te yeas andfom is advie and suggestions. Roy Boyne aso made a numbe of impotant

omments and suggestions. I woud aso ike to tank anet Abu Lugod osef

Beie Mike Hepwot Hans Mommaas Danie Poo Byan S. Tune and

Suii Wada fo te vaious ways in wi tey ave eped in putting togete tis

issue.

I . Zygmunt Bauman ( 1 989: 52) makes tis inkage epiit wen e wites te

modes of postmoenity, unike te modes of modenity annot be gounded in te

eaities of te na tion state .

2 It is iteesting to note tat in t is agument fo an integated istoia soiasiene Waestein as no pae fo psyoogy Fo an appoa wi aso seeks to

go beyod te nationstatesoiety fame of efeene but agues fo integated soia

siee w iudes psyoogy see Mosovii (1988 and fotoming. Eias

1 98 198 198 as aso deveoped istoia and poessua appoaes wi



Featherstone, n ntrodution 1 3

sytese may o te austomed eves ad terrtora domas o soa see

udg te syooga ad soooga w are ormay et aart (see aso

Eas 969)

3 Trd utures may ead to a roess o routato ad ormaato o

otats order to redue ambguty gve te g demads su eouters aeuo dvduas' ersoa aomsmets Yet t s aso ossbe tat roesses o

ormaato ad te ormaato o ormaato may our oe te

otats ave beome ess emotoay treateg (see Wouters 986 ortomg

For a aout o te robems o artatg te wrtg o a word

story te rojet o wrtg a revsed verso o te oay desrbed isory

of he Scieic ad Culural Developme of Makid sosored by UNESCO

w ued togeter storas rom a arts o te word see Bure 989)

Rf

Bauma Z 989) Soooga Resoses to Post moderty C Mogard ad

ML Masao (eds Moderismo e Posmoderismo Roma Buo Edtore

Beam W 968) llumiaios New Yor Harourt Brae ad Word.

Bure P 989) New Refetos o Word Hstory Culure ad isory 5

Eas N 969) Sooogy ad Psyatry S .H Foues ad .S Pre (eds

Psychiary i a Chagig Sociey Lodo: Tavsto

Eas N. 978) he Ciilizig Process Volume Oord BaweEas N 982) he Civilizig Process, Volume Oord Bawe

Eas N. 985) O te Soogeess o Sooogy' Sociologisch dschr )

Featerstoe M. 987) Cosumer Cuture Symbo Power ad Uversasm

. a ad ada ed Ma Culur ular Culur a Sal L he Middle Eas Bouder Westport Press.

Featerstoe M ortomg Postmodersm Cosumer Cuture ad oba

Dsorder' Posmodeism ad Cosumer Culure Lodo: Sage

Haeram H . 987) Beyod te Iro Cage" o Moderty' heory Culure &Sociey

Haer U 989) Notes o te oba Eumee' Public Culure 2) Harootua H . 989) Vsbe Dsourses Ivsbe Ideooges M . Myos ad

H. Harootua eds Posmodersm ad Japa Duram, NC Due Uversty

Press.

Kg A 990) Global Ciies Lodo outedge

Koyto I. 987) Te Iteratoa Ara Froter Te Mag o Ara

Pota Cuture he frica roier Boomgto: Idaa Uversty

Press

as S. ad Urry, . 87) he Ed of Orgaized Capialism Oord: Poty Press

et A 987) Miracles ad Mirages he Crisis of Global ordism Lodo

VersoLues S 973) Emile Durkheim is Le ad Work Harmodswort Ae Lae

Maeso, M 988) Le emps des ribus Pars Kse

Moore W E 966) oba Sooogy: te Word as a Sguar System' , merica

Joual of Sociology 75)



4 Thory uur Sociy

svii S 1988 L hi /i d di ais Fayad

svii S ming sins f TwnyFis Cny hoy & oiy.

O K. 198 Dioid pii Ofd iy ss

i N and Rsby W 1989 Tis Tps smdn AnpgissEnn O and Disv Tmsvs ooy d oiy 18

Saai N 1988 dniy and is Cii T bm f Univsaism and

aiaism oh A i Qy 83

Si H 198 Eni Inmain Fws Nw Basis f ba

Dminain in Dmmnd and R asn ds iio i iio.

ndn Biis Fim Insi

Ssing 1 98 On Naina Idniy Sm Cnpins and isnpins

Ciiisd oi i /oio 6

Tiyaian EA 1986 Sigys a Lap Fwad Cang f

nnainaiain io oiooy 1.Wasin 1 98 WdSysms Anaysis in A . iddns and . Tn ds

oi hoy ody Od iy ss.

Wni A fming m C Ca Timp Eang

hoy & oiy 7)

Ws C 1986 Fmaiain and n maiain Canging Tnsin Baans

in Cviiing sss hoy & oity 3

Ws C ming Sia Saiiain and nmaiain in ba

spiv hoy & oiy 7)

Mk Fo teaches ocoog at Teessde Potechnc He sauhor o Po odi and onur uur and coedtor oBody uur nd ociy both o whch wl be publshed b agen ate 99



6 Thory utur Socity

is considerable danger that globalization will become an intellectual pla zone a site for the epression of residual socialtheoretical interests, interpretive indulgence or the displa of

worldideological preferences. n an case thin that we must taever seriousl mmanuel Wallersteins (98: 39 contention thatworldsstems analsis is not a theor about the world t is aprotest against the was in which social scientific enquir was structured for all of us at its inception in the middle of the nineteenthcentur. ' Even though do not subscribe to worldsstem theor inthe conventional sense of the term primaril because of its economism (Robertson and echner 985 and am not pessimistic about thepossibilit of our being able to accomplish significant theoreticalwor visvis the worldasawhole, consider it to be of the utmostimportance for us to realize full that much of the conventionalsociolog which has developed since the first quarter of thetwentieth centur has been held in thrall b the virtuall globalinstitutionalization of the idea of the culturall cohesive and sequestered national societ during the main phase of classical sociolog(Robertson 99a. ronicall, the global aspect of that phenomenon has received relativel little attention (Meer 98.

Goblizio d Srcrio of Word

The present discussion is a continuation of m previous efforts totheorize the topic of globalization , a tas made all the more difficultb the recent and continuing events in China, the UR and Europewhich have disrupted virtuall all of the conventional viewsconcerning world order. At the same time those events and the

circumstances which the have created mae the analtical effort allthe more urgent. We have entered a phase of what appears to us in 99 as great global uncertaint so much so that the ver idea ofuncertaint promises to become globall institutionalized. Or, toput it in a ver different wa there is an eerie relationship betweenthe ideas of postmodernism and post modernit and the dabdageopolitical earthquaes which we (the virtuall oba w) haverecentl eperienced

We need to enlarge our conception of world politics in such awa as to facilitate sstematic discussion of the relationship betweenpolitics in the relativel narrow sense and the broad questions ofmeaning which can onl be grasped b wideranging empiricallsensitive interpretations of the globalhuman condition as a whole



8 heory Cuture Society

worldasawhole. regard this as an urgent matter partl becausemuch of the contemporar discussion about the global scene is beingconducted b interpreters operating under the umbrella of culturalstudies with eceedingl ittle attention to the issue of global compleit and structural contingenc ecept for frequentl invoedcliches about late capitalism and/or the salience of the multinational corporation This is not at all to sa that the economic factoris unimportant nor certainl that the tetual (or powernowledge aspect of the world sstem is of minor significance.Rather am insistng that both the economics and the culture of theglobal scene shuld be analticall connected to the general structual and actional features of the global sstem.

maintain that what has come to be called globalization is inspite of differing conceptions of that theme best understood as indicating the problem of the/orm in terms of which the world becomesunited but b no means integrated in naive functionalist mode(Robertson and Chirico 1 98. Globalization as a topic is in otherwords a conceptual entr to the problem of world order in the mostgeneral sense but nevertheless an entr which has no cognitivepurchase without considerable discussion of historical and compar

ative matters t s moreover a phenomenon which clearl requireswhat is conventionall called interdisciplinar treatment. Traditionall the general field of the stud of the world as a whole hasbeen approached via the discipline of international relations (ormore diffusel international studies. That discipline (sometimesregarded as a subdiscipline of political science as consolidatedduring particular phases of the overall globalization process and isnow being reconstituted in reference to developments in other disciplinar areas including the humanities (er erian and hapiro1 989. ndeed the first concentrated thrust into the stud of the worldas a whole on the part of sociologists during the 1 96s (discussed inNettl and Robertson 1 968 was undertaen mainl in terms of theidea of the socioogy / iteratioa reatios And there can belittle doubt that to this da the maorit of social scientists thin ofetrasocietal matters in terms of international relations(including variants thereof such as transnational relations nongovernmental relations supranational relations world politics and

so on. Nonetheless that tendenc is breaing down in conunctionwith considerable questioning of what Michael Mann (1986 callsthe unitar conception of societ. While there have been attempts tocarveout a new discipline for the stud of the world as a whole



Robertson Mappig th Goba Coditio 9

including the longhistorical maing o f the contemporar worldsstem (eg. Bergesen 98 m own position is that it is not somuch that we need a new discipline in order to stud the world as awhole but rather that social theor in the broadest sense namelas a perspectie which stretches across the social sciences andhumanities (Giddens and Turner 198: ) and een the naturalsciences should be refocused and epanded so as to maeconcern with the world a central hermeneutic and in such a wa asto constrain empirical and comparatiehistorical researc in thesame direction.

Undoubtedl there hav been arious attempts in he histor ofsocial theor to moe along such lines but the er structure of the

globalization process has inhibited such efforts from taingoff intoa fullfledged research program (Robertson 99a mostnotabl during the crucial taeoff period of globalization itselfnamel 1 881 925 n so far as that has indeed been the case then weare led to the posit ion that eerting ourseles to deelopgoba socialtheor is not merel an eercise demanded b the transparenc ofthe processes rendering the conemporar world as a whole as asingle place (Robertson 1 98a 989 but also that our labors in that

regard are crucial to the empirical understanding of the bases uponwhich the matri of contemporar disciplinarit and interdisciplinarit rests. There has been an enormous amount of tal in recentears about selfrefleieness the criticaltheoretic posture and thelie but ironicall much of that tal has been about as far remoedfrom discussion of the real world in the fold sense ofquotidian contemporar realities ad the concrete global circumstance as it could be n other words much of fashionable socialtheor has faored the abstract and from a simplistic globalperspectie the local to the great neglect of the global and ciilizational contours and bases of western social theor itself. (As will besen the distinction between the global and the local is becominger comple and problematic to such an etent that we shouldnow spea in such terms as the global institutionalization of the lifeworld and the localization of globalit.

uring the second half of the 198s globalization (and itsproblematic ariant internationalization became a commonl

used term in intellectual business media and other circles in theprocess acquiring a number of meanings with aring degrees ofprecision This has been a source of frustration but not necessaril a cause for surprise or alarm to those of us who had sought



0 hoy, Cutu Socity

eale the deade to establsh a elatel stt deto oglobalzato as pat o a attempt to ome to tems sstematallwth majo aspets o otempoa meag ad hage'Robetso 1 98 Neetheless a steam o aalss ad eseahhas bee deeloped aoud the geeal dea ot alwas the atualoept o globalzato . Ad t s m teto hee to take stoko some o the most pessg ssues ths aea ot so muh bsueg ad ealuatg deet appoahes to the makg o theotempoa woldsstem wold soet global eumee owhatee oe hooses to all the latetweteth etu woldasawhole but athe b osdeg some elatel egleted aaltalad hstoal themes.

deal wth globalzato as a elatel eet pheomeo. at ague that t s t matel elated to modet ad modezato as well as to postmodet ad postmodezato' so aas the latte pa o mots hae a aaltal puhase). Let t beemphatall lea howee that attemptg to just thatpoposal am b o meas suggestg that wok wth the ame othe globalzato paadgm should be lmted to the elatel eetpast . All that am matag s that the oept o globalzato

pe se should be appled o a patula sees o deelopmetsoeg th conct stuctuation of th wod as a who hetem stutuato has bee alulatedl hose. Although wllshotl osde some aspets o Atho Gddes's etue to the global see' aot addess ths pape the geealpoblems whh ase om the oept o stutuato Cohe989. wll sa ol that the oto o stutuato s to be oassstae to us aaltall the deades ahead t has to be moedout o ts quasphlosophal otext ts oemet wth theaoal dsouses about subjettadobjett ddualadsoet olutasm ad detemsm ad so o Ahe 1 988 . has to be made detl eleat to th wod whh we le. thas to otbute to th e udestadg o how the global sstem hasbee ad otues to be mad. t has to be oused upo thepoduto ad epoduto o the wold' as the most saletplausblt stutue o ou tme Wuthow 1 98 65) he sameapples to the ultualage poblemat whh Magaet Ahe

(1988 has eetl theozed.Huma hsto has bee eplete wth deas oeg the

phsal stutue the geogaph the osm loato ad thesptual ad/o the seula sgae o the wold Waga 1 9



Robertso Mappig th Goba Coditio 1

oeets ad orgaatos oered wth the patterg ad/orthe ufato of the worldasawhole hae terttetlyappeared for at least the last two thousad years deas about therelatoshp betwee the uersal ad he partular hae beeetral to all of the ajor latos ad so o Ee soethglke what has reetly bee alled the globalloal exus (or theloalglobal exus) was theated as log ago as the seodetury whe Polyus hs ivrsa History wrote referee to the rse of the Roa epre Forerly the thgswhh happeed the world had o oeto aog theseles . But se the all eets are uted a oo budle' (Koh,1 9 1 1 1 ) Howeer the rual osderatos are that t hs ot

bee utl relately reet tes that t has bee realstally thoughtthat huaty s rapdly beog physally speakg, a sglesoety' (Hob house 1 906 33 1 ) , or s t utl qute reetly thatosderable ubers of people lg o arous parts of the plaethae spoke ad ated dret referee to the proble of theorgaato' of the etre heloetr world. It s upo thshealy otested proble of the orete patterg of theworld ludg resstae to globalty that I seek to eter

the oept ad the dsourse of globalatoThe worldasawhole ould theory, hae beoe the realtywhh t ow s ways ad alog trajetores other tha those whhhae atually obtaed (eher, 1989) The world ould, prple, hae bee redered as a sgular syste (Moore 966)a the peral hegeoy of a sgle ato or a grad allae'betwee two or ore dyastes or atos the tory of theuersal proletarat' the global truph of a partular for oforgaed relgo the rystallato of the world sprt' theyeldg of atoals to the deal of free trade the suess of theworldfederalst oeet the worldwde truph of a tradgopay or yet other ways. Soe of these hae held sway aterta oets world hstory. Ideed og to tersaalytally wth the oteporary rustae we hae toakowledge that soe suh possbltes are as old as world hstory ay eagful sese of that phrase ad hae, fat, greatlyotrbuted to the exstee of the globaled world of the late

tweteth etury Moreoer uh of world hstory a be frutfully osdered as sequees of globalao' the sesethat, for exaple hstor epre forato oled the ufato of preously sequestered terrtores ad soal ettes. There



heory Cuture Society

hae also bee shfts the opposte deto as was the ase wththe deufato of medeal Euope although the se of thetetoal state also pomoted mpealsm ad thus oeptos ofthe woldasawhole

Noetheless whe all s sad ad doe o sgle possbltyhas o so I lam bee moe otuously pealet thaaothe. Thee may hae bee peods wold hstoy whe oesuh possblty was moe of a globalg foe' tha ohes adthat must etaly be a ual aspet of the dsusso of globalato the loghstoal mode but we hae ot as a woldpeople moed to the peset globalhuma umstae alogo o ee a small luste of these patula taetoes Ad yet

the peset lmate of globalty thee s a stog temptato fosome to sst that the sgle wold of ou day a be aouted fo tems of oe patula poess o fato suh as westeato' mpealsm o the dyam sese lato Ideedas I ague elsewhee (Robetso I 990b) the poblem of globalty sey lkely to beome a bass of mao deologal ad aalytalleaages of the twetyfst etuy4

Whle I etaly do ot subsbe to the ew that soal theosts

should at all osts attempt to be eutal about these ad othemattes I am etaly ommtted to the agumet that oes moalstae should be reaistic that oe should hae o ested teest the attempt to map ths o ay othe aea of the huma odtoMoe pesely I ague that systemat ompeheso o themaostutuato of wold ode s essetal to the ablty of ayfom of otempoay theoy ad that suh ompeheso mustole aalytal sepaato of the fatos whh hae faltatedthe shft towads a sgle wold eg the spead of aptalsm

weste mpealsm ad the deelopmet of a global medasystem fom the geera ad goba ageystutue adoultue) theme Whle the empal elatoshp betwee the twosets of ssues s of geat mpotae (ad of ouse omplex)oflato of them leads us to all sots of dffultes d hbtsou ablty to ome to tems wth the basic ad shtig terms of theotempoay wold ode

Thus we must etu to the questo o {he actua fom of eet

ad otempoay moes the deto of global tedepedeead global osousess I posg the bas questo ths way wemmedately ofot the tal ssue as to the peod dug whhthe moe towads the wold as a sgula system beame moe o less



Robtso Mappig th Goba Coditio 2

xorabl f w thk of th hstoy of th wold as osstg for ay log t th obctiss of a aty of dfft latos xst g aryg dgrs of spaato fro ah oth oua task ow s to osdr th ways whh th wold odfro bg ly tslf to th probl o th possblty of tsbg fo tslf How bfor og drtly to that tal ssuI ust attd bfly to so bas aalytal attrs Ths I do ath rt statt of Gdds 987 2559 o Natostats th Global Stat Syst

Gdds aks uh o f th pot that th dlopt of thsogty of th odr stat fro ts bggs dpds upo arflxl otord st of latos btw stats (Gdds

987 26. Mor spfally h agus that th prod of tratyakg followg th st World Wa was fftly th frstpot at whh a rflxly otord syst o atostats ato xst globally (Gdds 987 256. fully ou wth both thphass upo th porta of th postrst World War prodad Gddss la that f a w ad fordably thatgpatt of wa was stablshd at ths t so was a w pattof pa (Gdds 987 256. Mor grally Gddss argu

t that th dlopt of th od stat has b guddby rasgly global os org ts sogty s fot ogal f gat pota Howr h tds to oflatth ssu of th hoogato of th stat ( Hgls ss) what Gdds alls th usal sop of th atostatGdds 987 264 ad th ssu of latoshps btwstats

My aut s that t s potat to ak a dstto btwo th o hd th dffuso of xptatos org thxtral lgtay ad od of oprato of th stat ad o thothr th dlopt of gulat os org th rlatoshps btw stats whl radly akowldgg that th ssu ofth powrs ad l ts of th stat has dd b mpiricay lkdto th struturg of th rlatoshps btw stats ad orortat t osttuts a rual axs of globalato Jas r ra989 has rtly daw attto to a portat aspt of thatth by datg th proxty of th foral larato of th

Rghts of Ma that sorgty rsds th ato to JryBthas dlarato th sa yar of 789 that thr was ad for a w word aly tratoal whh wouldxprss a or sgfat way th brah of law whh gos



oy Cutu Socity

ooly uder the ae of the aw of atios' (Betha,1 98 36).

Thus whe udoubtedly the two ssues upo whh I hae beedweg a Gddes's aalyss hae bee ad rea losely ter

dependet, t s rual to keep the aalytally apart order thatwe ay fuly appreate aratos the natue of the epraloetos betwee the. I su, the proble of otgeyarsg fro state soeregnty ad the deelopent of relatoarules betwee soereg unts s ot the sae as the ssue of therystazato ad dffuson of oeptos of atoal statehood(Sth, 199) Nor s t the sae as the deelopet ad spread ofoeptos of the shape ad eang of ternatoal soety'

(Gog, 1 98). The seond set of atters s o a dfferet leel' thathat addressed by Gddes.

My prary reaso for ephaszg ths atter s that t prodesa edate etry to what I osder to be the ost pressggeera proble the oteporary dsusso of gobalzato.Gddess aalyss s a good exaple of an attept to oe towardthe gobal rustae a the oentoal oers of sooogal theory. hle readly oedg that t s hs spef oer

to tak about the oder natonstate and the teral ad externalolee wth whh ts deeopent has been boundup, the fatreas that spte of al of hs talk about global atters at the endof hs aalyss, Gddes s restrted presely by hs hag to enterthe urret world syste' wth a dsusso of the gobal statsyste' (Gddens, 1987: 276; ephass added). Ee though heeetualy separates, analytal ters the atostate syste(wth the abguty whh I hae dated) as the potal aspet ofthe world syste fro the global forato syste' (as relatgto sybo orders/odes of dsourse'); the worldaptasteooy (as the eoo deso of the word syste); adthe word ltary order' (as oerg law/odes of sato') aog les resent of approahes of the 1 960s (Nettlad Robertso, 1 968) ad, ronally, of a geeral Parsoa, futoaperate approah Gddes edsup wth a ap' ofwhat he reutatly alls the world syste, whh s etered upohs ofated haraterzato of the rse of the oder state syste.

Mappg the word soasetfally s, of ourse, a ooproedure, t hag rystallzed durg the 1 960s wth the dffusoof pereptos oerng the exstee of the Thrd World, o theoe had, ad polarzed Frst (lberalaptalst) ad Seod



Robetso, i h ob odiio 2

(dustagoust) Wods, o the othe e se thateod the begg o the uet hase o oteoay, atetetethetuy globalato thee has oleated a lage

ube o deet ad, deed otg deologa ad/oset as o the od syste o atoal soetes souh so that t s easoabe to say that the dsouse o ag s ata gedet o gobaolta utue, oe hh usesgeogahy (as the use o othSouth ad astWest te oogy) th otal, eoo, ultual ad othe os o laeet o atos o the globateatoa a Muh o thsoeal eot has esuted sgat ok as, o eale oha Gatugs Th Tru Word (980) ad Pete Woseys(98) egthy dsusso o the utues o the thee odsdeed the kd o ok hh has stogly eded us o theajo eaages ad dsotutes the oldasahoe s asgat atdote to those ho o seak bthey goballage tes o a sgle old oetheless thee a be o deygthat the old s uh oe sgula tha t as as eety as say,the 1 90s Thus the ua questo eas as to the bas o ostutue tes o hh that sht has oued That that o

has bee iod uo eta aeas o the old s, o ouse, aua ssue but utl the atte o o (oe elaboatey,stutuato) s adequatey theated ou ablty to oehedthe dyas o the odasahoe ll be seeely ted.

A Ml Modl of Goblzo

What I a oeg hee s hat I a ad adoate as a eessalya ode o gobaato. Ths ode does ot ake gad

assetos about ay atos ajo ehass ad so oRathe t dates the ajo ostag tedees hh haebee oeatg elatey eet hstoy as a as od ode adthe oesso o the od ou te ae oeed

As I hae dated, oe o the ost essg tasks that egads to oot the ssue o the udoubted saee o the utayato state oe dusely, the atoal soety se aboutthe deghteeth etuy ad at the sae te to akoledge tshstoa uqueess, deed ts aboalty (Mel, 1986). Thehoogeous ato state hoogeous hee the sese o aultuayhoogeed, adsteed tey (Adeso, 983) s thus a ostuto o a atula o o le That e aeousees hae bee easgy subjet to ts ostats does ot



6 hoy, Cutu Socity

ea that for aalytal purposes t has to be aepted as thdeparture pot for aalyg ad uderstadg the world Thus Ihae argued ot erely that atoal soetes should be regarded as

osttutg but on geeral referee pot for the aalyss of theglobalhua rustae but that we hae to reoge eeore tha we do ow that the prealee of the atoal soety the tweteth etury s an apct of gobaization (Robertso 989) that the dffuso of th ida of the atoal soety as afor of sttutoaled soetal s (Leher 989) was etral tothe aelerated globalato whh bega to our just oer oehudred years ago. I hae also argued ore spefally (Robertso 98a 989 990b) that the two other ajor opoets ofglobalato hae bee addto to atoal soetes ad thesyste of teratoal relatos oeptos of idividuas ad ofhumankind. It s ters of the shftg relatoshps betwee adthe upgradg of these referee pots that globalato hasourred reet etures.

Wth suh osderatos d I ow propose uaodably seletal ters that th e teporalhstoral path tothe preset rustae of a ery hgh degree of goba dnsity and

compit a be deeated as oows

Phase I th grmia phas astg Europe fro the ealyffteeth utl the deghteeth etury. Ipet growth ofatoal outes ad dow payg of the edeal t rasatoal syste. Aetuato of oepts of the ddual ad ofdeas about huaty. Heloetr theory of the world adbegg of oder geography spread of Gregora aledar

Phase II th incipit phas lastg aly Europe fro the deghteeth etury utl the 80s Sharp shfttowards the dea of the hoogeous utary state; rystallato ofoeptos of foraled teratoal relatos of stadardedtely dduals ad a ore orete oepto of huad.Sharp reases oetos ad agees oered wth teratoal ad trasatoal regulato ad ouato. Beggo proble of adsso of oEuropea soetes to teratoal soety. Theatato of atoalsteratoalsssue.

Phase III th ta-off phas lastg fro the 80s utl thed90s Ireasgly global oeptos as to the orretoutle' of a aeptable atoal soety theatato of deas



Robrtso Mappig th Goba Coditio 2

org atoal ad prsoal dtts; luso of so oEuropa sots tratoal soty; tratoal foralato ad attptd pltato of das about huaty

ry sharp ras ubr ad spd of lobal fors ofouato Rs of ual ot lopt ofglobal opttos .g Olyps Nobl Prs Iplta to of World T ad argloba adopto of Grgoraaldar Frst Word war Lagu of Natos

Phas I th struggforhgmoy phas lastg fro tharly 1920s utl th d1 960s sputs ad wars about th fragltrs of th globalato pross stablshd by th d o f th tak off prod Globwd tratoal oflts org fors oflf Natur of ad prosps for huaty sharply fousd byHoloaust ad ao bob Utd Natos

Phas th ucrtaity phas bgg th 1960s addsplayg rss tds th arly 1990s. Iluso of ThrdWorld ad hghg of global osousss lat 960s. Mooladg Atuato of posatralst alus Ed of ColdWar ad sprad of ular wapos Nubr of global st tutosad ots gratly rass Sots rasgly fa

probls of ululturalty ad polythty. Coptos ofdduals rdrd o opl by gdr th ad raalosdratos Cl rghts tratoal syst or flud dof bpolarty Cor th huakd as a spsouygratly had s world l soty ad world tshp Cosoldato of global da syst

As I ha sad ths s a ssarly skltal skth wth uh

dtald ad or rgorous dsusso of th shfg rlatoshpsbtw ad h rla autooao of ah of th four ajoropots o b addd Clarly o of t ost portatpral qustos has o do wth th xtt to whh h for ofglobalato whh was s fly oto durg th prod1880192 wll hold th og dads I or thortal uh or ds to b do so as to dostrat th ways whh h slt rsposs of rlat ollt ators ostpartularly sots o globalato play a rual par thakg of th worldasawhol Robrtso 198b). ffrtfors ad dgrs of soal partpato th globalatopross ak a rual dffr to ts pr for. I ay as ya pot s that thr s a gral autooy ad log to th



8 heory, Ctre Society

gobaato proess whh operates reative depedee ostrtly soetal ad other ore oetoaly studed sooulturalproesses The gobal syste s ot a outoe o proesses o

basaly trasoetal org (otra uha, 1 98) or ee o thedeeopet o the terstate syste Its akg has bee uhore opex ad ulturally rh tha that

No

I i of or ig ir o o i ig of coi

rdicl rc of o of gr rfor" ov of odivl

Wr ior' ocili lco Pro id i 1 96 i

f rdicio coi wil fro i ow irl dic volv i dircio of rorio or wr i o xid iiio of

oliicl docrc' Pro 96 3967 O or d Pro iid

inionli of coi d d crcil coriio o world ordr

old glr 1 990 33 orv i cor of i iricl li of

clr i dvcd idril ocii ic of r jor Axi

owr Gr J d ll d o drcivr i if ifcio

ric dicrdiig of ir oci d oiicl ccoid i r

df i World Wr v lf gc of cici ir ocil

cg d cooic cc i o ir rd

ow rci r ocglo x gooc x odwic Agr

I rg cific i i cocio ig of word ordr r crl o

glol cr ro o gloli oro 990

5 I dic growig igificc of goorid ov i oro

989 1990

6 I rg o oro forcoig igr lvl of gri

glolizio c zd i r of glol iiiolizio of r

ioi w ir d riclr lo oro 1987 198 9.

r wic diffr fro oiio of Ar Brg i ic i i

vo of CS) r o r word or o i d izig ulur d n c of ig of glo

Rf

Adro B 1983 ind Counii Lodo: ro

Arcr M 1988 Culur nd ny h Pl oj Culur in Soil hory.ridg ridg ivri Pr

Ard H 1 957 Krl Jr: Ciiz of Word 53950 i P A Scli

d h Phiooph oj Karl pr L S O CorB J 198 h Prinipl oj Morl nd Lilion Nw or Lfr

Brg A 1 980 Fro Ui irii o Gooog Sif fro dividl

o World Wol Priordi Ui of Ai 11 i A

Brg d Sudi oh Modrn World-S Nw or Acdic Pr



Roberso Mappn h ba Cndn

Bull H., and Watson, A. (eds) (1984) h pio of ttio Soity

Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Cohen, I.J (1989) Stttio hoy A thoy Gidd d th Cotittio ofSoi L. New York: St Martin's Press.

Der Derian J ( 1 989) The Boundaries of Knowedge and Power in International

Relatons pp 3 10 in J. Der Derian and M.J. Shapiro (eds), t

tiottt Rtio otod Rdi of Wod oitiLexington MA: Lexington Books.

Der Derian J. and Shapiro M.. (eds) (1989) ttiottt Rtio

otod Rdi of Wod oiti. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books

Galtung, J. ( 1980) h Wod A tio pti. New York: Free

Press.

Galtung, ( 1 985) Global Conict Formations: Present Developments and Future

Drections pp. 2374 n P Walersteen, Johan Galtung and Carlos Portales

(eds), Go iititio. Boulder: Westvew Press.

Giddens, A. (1987) h Ntio-Stt d Vio Berkeley: Universty of

California Press.

Giddns A. and Turner J. (1987) Introduction pp. 110 in A. Giddens and Turner (eds), Soi hoy ody. Stanford: Stanford Unversity Press

Gong GW (1 984) h Stdd of Ciiitio i ttio Soity Oxford:

Clarendon Press

Hobhouse L.T. ( 1906) o i otio A Stdy i Copti thi Vo. .

New York: Henry Hot.

Ingehart R (1990) Ct Shift i Add dti Soity. Prnceton:

Princeton Unersity Press

Jaspers K. ( 1 957) Philosophica Autobography pp 394 n P A Schipp (ed ),

h hioophy of K Jp a Salle: Open Court

Kern, S. (1983) h Ct of i d Sp 88-8 Cambridge, MA:

arard nersy Press

Kohn, H. ( 1 971 ) Natonasm and Internationasm , pp. 1 1934 in W W Wagar

(ed), itoy d th d of kid Albuquerue: niersty of New Mexico

Press.

echner FJ (1984) Ethncty and Reitazaton in the Modern World System',

Soiooi o 17 24356

Lechner, F.J ( 1 989) Cultura Aspects of the Modern Word-System pp 1 1 28 n

WH. Swas (ed), Riio oiti i Go pti New York

Greenwood Press.

Lesourne, JF (1986) Wod pti A op A t. New York:

Gordon and Breach.

Luhmann N (1982) The World Socety as a Socia System, ttio Jo

of G Syt 8 1318

McNeil, H (1 986) oythiity d Ntio Uity i Wod itoy. Toronto:

Uniersity of Toronto Press.

Mann, M (1986) h So of Soi ow Vo A itoy of ow fo

th ii to A .D. Cambrdge: Cambrdge nversity Press.

Meyer, J W. ( 1 980) The World Poity and the Authority of the NationState' , n A.

Bergesen (ed.) Stdi of th od WodSyt New York: Academc Press.

Moore, WE (1966) Global Sociology the Word as a Singuar System', A i

Jo of Soiooy 7 1 47582



30 hory, Cutur Socty

l J nd Robon R. (1968 o S d h Modooj So Th oro oj No Go d A d London b.

sons (1964 Con nd h W h Sooogy of Confli

pp 3909 in A nd on (ds So Ch Sor, P d

Coq w Yo Bs Boosson ( 1 967 Sooo Thor d Mod So w Yo s.

Robon R ( 1 978 M d Ch Oxfod Bw

Robson R ( 987 Goblon hoy nd Civilion Anlyi

Copr Cio Rw 17 (l 0-30.

Robon R ( 987b Globon nd So Modniion A o on Jpn

nd Jpn Rligion Sooo A 47(S 354.

Robson R. ( 1 989 Goblion ois nd Rgon pp 1 03 n J .A

Bfod nd . Lnn (ds Th Ch oj Ro. ondon Sg

Robson R. (990 Af olgi? Wlf olg nd h h of

Gobon in BS n (d Thor oj Mod d PoodLondon Sg.

Robson R ( 1 990b Goby Gob C nd g of Wod Od' n H

Hfp nd S (d So Ch d Mod Bly

Unvsiy of Cifon ss.

Robson R (fohong So hoy C Rviy nd h obl of

Globly n AD Kng (d Cr Gobo d h Word SRobon R nd Cho J (1985 Hny Globlion nd Wodwd

Rigio Rgn A hoi xpoon Sooo A

4619-4

obon nd h F Modnon Gobiion nd hobl of C n WodSy hoy Thor Cr & So

(3 3

Rosnn R. (1986 Th R oj h Trd S Cor d Coq h Modr Word w Yo i Boo

Sh AD (979 No h Twh Cr w Yo w Yo

Unvsy .

Sh AD (1 9 1 Th h w Yo Cbdg Unvsiy

Wg WW d ( 197 Hor d h Id oj Mkd Abqq

Unvy of w Mo

Wlln . ( 1 987 WoldSys Anyss pp 3094 n A Gddns nd J n (ds So Thor Tod Snfod Snfod Unvsiy

Wosly (194 Th Thr Word Cr d op ondon

Widnfld nd ioon.

Whnow R (978 Rgo Movn nd h nson in Wod Od

pp 6379 n J dn nd G B d Udrd h Nw Rio.

w Yo Sby

Rold Robo s Professor of Soology at the ersty ofPttsburgh ad the author of umerous papers ad books o arousaspets of the global stuato ludg s forthomg Gobaza

to (Sage)



Culture a the deological Battleground of the

Modern W orIdSte

ue Werse

s no o hn n h s nvsl b o py o l

ls nd hn o n s o h (Mn 1 88 1 4

Culture s probably the broadest oept o all those used thehstoral soal sees It ebraes a ery large rage of oota tos ad thereby t s the ause perhaps of the ost dffuty.There s howeer oe fudaetal ofuso our usage whh Ishall address.

O the oe had oe of the bas buldg stoes of soalsees ew of the world ost expltly ephased by theathropologsts s the oto that whle all persos share soetrats wth all others all persos also share other trats wth olyome other ad all pero hae stll other trat whh they harewth o oe else. That s to say the bas odel s that eah persoay be desrbed three ways the uersal haratersts of thespees the set of haratersts that defe that perso as aeber of a sere of groups that persos dosyrat harater

sts Whe we talk of trats whh are ether uersal ordosyrat we ofte use the ter ulture' to desrbe the olle to of suh trat or of suh behaors or of suh alues or of suhbelefs I short ths usage eah group has ts spef ulture' To be sure eah ddual s a eber of ay groups ad deedof groups of ery dfferet kds groups lassfed by geder byrae by laguage by lass by atoalty et Therefore eahperso partpates ay ultures .

I ths usage ulture s a way of suarg the ways whh

hoy & Soiy (SAGE London wby k nd w Dlh Vol 7

1 3 1-



3 oy Cutu Socity

groups dsgush heseles ro oher groups I represes whas shared wh he group, ad presuaby sulaeously oshared (or o erey shared) ousde Ths s a que ear ad

que useul oepO he oher had, ulure s aso used o sgy o he oay o

he spey o oe group agas aoher bu sead eraharaerss witi he group, as opposed o oher haraersswh he sae group We use uure o reer o he hgher ars asopposed o popular or eeryday prae We use uure o sgyha whh s supersruural as opposed o ha whh s he base W e use ulure o sgy ha whh s sybol' as opposed o ha

whh s aeral' These arous bary dsos are odea, ahough hey all see o go he dreo o he aephlosopha dsos bewee he deal a he rea, orbewee he d ad he body

Whaeer he ers o hese bary dsos, hey a go aque dere sruural dreo ro he oher use o uureThey po o a dso wh he group raher ha o he uy ohe group (whh o ourse s he bass o dso bewee groups)Now, hs ouso o he wo oales o he oep, uure' ,s so ogsadg ha ao be a ere oersgh, espealyge he a ha he dsusso o ulure geeral ad o sdeo paruar has bee so ouous hroughou heeeeh ad weeh eures

I s saes o presue ha logsadg elleual ousosare delberae ad he a o he ouso shoud sel be hesargpo o he aayss Se hs oluous dsusso has a ake plae largey wh he oes o a sgle hsora

syse, he apals worldeooy, ay be ha o oy hedsusso bu he oepual ouso are boh he osequee ohe hsoral deelope o hs syse ad rele s gudgog

The phosophal dsos bewee he deal ad he realad bewee he d' ad he body are ery ae, ad haege rse, broady speakg, o wo perspees, a eas wh heoex o soalled Weser phlosophy Those who hae prooed

he pray o he dea' or o he d hae eded o argue hahe dso pos o a oologal reay, ad ha he dea orhe d s ore pora or obler or soe way superor ohe real or he body' Those who hae prooed he pray ohe real or he body dd o howeer ake he erse poso



Waerste Cutu as th Idgica Battgud 33

Istead, they teded to argue that the dea or the d are otdstt essees but rather soa etos, ad that oy the reaor the body truy exst. I short they hae teded to argue that the

ery oet of the dea or the d are deooga weapos ofotro, teded to ask the true exsteta stuato

Let us thus desgate as uture (usage I) the set of haraterstswhh dstgush oe group fro aother, ad as uture (usage II )soe set of pheoea whh are dfferet fro (ad hgher tha)soe other set of pheoea wth ay oe group. There s oegreat probe about uture (usage I). Who or what has suh auture? It sees that groups hae But f uture s the ter

our setf oabuary whh has the broadest ad ost ofusgusage, group s the ter that has the aguest usage A group as ataxoo ter s aythg ayoe wshes to defe as a group.There exsts o doubt to foow the utima ati of suh a ter, agroup of a those who are of a ge heght, or who hae a ertaoor har . But a suh groups be sad to hae utures? Therewoud be few who woud a so Obousy, t s oy ertagroups the that hae utures.

We oud try ths exerse startg fro the other dreto To

what kds of groups are utures (usage I) oray attrbuted?Natos are ofte sad to hae a atoa uture Trbes ad/oreth groups are ofte sad to hae a uture It s ot uusua toread about the uture of urba teetuas or of the urbapoor More rarey but frequety, we ght read of the uture ofCousts or of regous fudaetasts Now what thosegroups presued to hae utures (aways usage I) share oo s that they see to hae soe kd of sefawareess (ad

therefore a sese of boudares) soe shared patter of soazato obed wth a syste of reforeet of ther aues or ofpresrbed behaor, ad soe kd of orgazato The orgazato ay be qute forazed as the ase of a atostate, or ta be qute dret, as for exape the shared ewspapersagazes ad possby the outary assoatos whh at asouato etworks betwee urba teetuas

Howeer as soo as I rase the questo of who or what has a

uture, t beoes edatey obous how sppery s the terra What s the edee that ay ge group has a uture? Theaswer s surey ot that a presued ebers of ay of thesegroups at sary to eah other ad dfferety fro a others Atost w oud argue for statstay sgfat reatoshp



eory Cuture Sociey

bewee goup ebeshp ad ea behao o aluepefeees o whaee.

Fuheoe f we pess he ae a lle fuhe s que lea

ha ou sasal fdgs would ay osaly (ad pobablysgfaly) oe e. Tha s o say behao o alue pefeees o howee oe defes ulue s of ouse a eolgpheoeo ee f s a slowlyeolg oe a leas fo eahaaess (say food habs).

Ye o he ohe had s suely ue ha people dffeepas of he wold o dffee epohs o dffee elgous olgus oues do deed behae dffeely fo eahohe ad ea ways ha a be spefed ad faly easlyobseed. Fo exaple ayoe who aels fo Noway o Spawll oe ha he hou a whh esauas ae os owded fo heeeg eal s que dfee he wo ues. Ad ayoewho aels fo Fae o he US wll obsee ha he fequeywh whh foeg sages ae ed o hoes s que dffee.The legh of woes sks Bal ad Ia s suely skglydffee. Ad so o. Ad I hae oly ed hee elees of so alled eeyday behao Wee I o ase oe eaphysal ssues

woud be easy as eeyoe kows o eae gop dffeees.So o he oe had dffeees ae obous whh s wha he

oep of ulue (usage I) s abou. Ad ye he degee o whhgoups ae fa ufo he behao s dsessgly dffulo aa Whe M says ha we hae a apay o eaeulual eales ad he a es of he I ao buagee. Bu I he wode how we a kow who he we ae whohae hs apay. A ha po I beoe skepal ha we a

opeaoale he oep of ulue (usage I) ay way haeables us o use fo saees ha ae oe ha al. Theahopologss o a leas soe of he hae agued oglyha he oep of h ua aue ao be used o daw eag ful plaos abou eal soal suaos. Bu s hs o equallyue of he poposed subsue ulue?

Ths he s whee I beg Culue (usage I) sees o o ge usey fa ou hsoal aalyses. Culue (usage I) s suspe as adeologal oe o jusfy he eess of soe pesos (obouslyhe uppe saa) wh ay ge goup o soal syse agashe eess of ohe pesos wh hs sae goup. Ad f deedhe ey dso of deal ad eal d ad body weeakowledged o be a deologal weapo of ool he he



Wallersten Cutur a th doogica Battground 3

onfuson of the two usages of ultur would be a ey logalonsequene sne t would no doubt add t the poss of skngthe true exstental stuaton I would lke therefore trae he

atual deelopment of the ulture n ether or both usages oertme wthn the hstoral system whh has gen brth to ths extense and onfusng use of the onept of ulture the modern worldsystem whh s a aptalst world eonomy

II

Let us begn by reewng some of the reale of the eoluton ofths hstoral system as they hae affeted the way s partpantst heored t That s I am onerned wth the degree t whh thshstora system beame onsous of tself and began to deeopntelletual and/or deologal frameworks whh both justfed tand mpelled ts forward moement and thereby sustaned tsreproduton I shal menton sx suh reates whh hae mplatons for the theoretal formulatons that hae ome to permeatethe system

The aptalst wordeonomy s onstruted by ntegratng ageographaly ast set of produton proesses We al ths theestabshment of a snge dson of labor Of ourse all hstoralsystems are based on a dson of labor but none before was asomplex as extense as detaled and as ohese as that of theaptalst worldeonomy The poltal framework wthn whhths ds on of labor has grown up has not howeer been that of aworld empre but nstead that of an nterstate system tself a

produt of the hstoral deelopment of ths system Ths nterstatesystem has been omposed of and gen brth and legtmay to aseres of soalled soeregn states whose defnng haraterst sther terrtora dstnteness and ongruene ombned wth thermembershp n and onstrant by ths nterstate system It s not thenterstate system howeer but the separate states that ontrol themeans of oene Furthermore ther ontrol s n theory exlusewthn ther respete jursdt ons Although suh total ontrol s amyth state preempton of olene s at least masse f neerexluse

Ths organaton of soa lfe where the predomnant eonompressures are nternatonal (a bad term but the one n ommonuse) and the predomnant poltal pressures are natona ponts



36 hery Cuture Sciety

to a rst otradto the way partpats a explate adusty ther atos How a oe expla ad justy theatoaly ad teratoaly sutaeously?

. The aptast worldeooy utos as do ost (perhapsal) hstora systes by eas o a patter o yla rhyths Theost obous ad probably the ost portat o these rhyths sa seegy reguar proess o expaso ad otrato o thewordeooy as a whole O preset edee ths ye teds tobe ro ty to sxty years legth oerg ts two phases

The utog o ths ye (soetes alled log waessoetes Kodrate yles) s oplex ad wll ot reew there (see or exaple Walerste 98). Oe part howeer othe proess s that perodaly the aptast wordeooy hassee the eed to expad the geograph boudares o the syste as awhoe reatg thereby ew lo o produto to partpate tsaxa d so o abor Oer 4 years these suesse expasoshae trasored the aptalst wordeooy ro a systeloated prary Europe to oe that oers the etre globe

The suesse expasos that hae ourred hae bee aosous proess utg ltary poltal ad eoo

pressures o ultple kds ad o ourse olg the oerogo potal resstaes the oes to whh the geographexpaso was takg plae We all ths proess orporatoad t too s a oplex oe (see Hopks ad Walerste 18)Ths proess pots to a seod otradto whh the popuatoso eah suessely orporated oe aed Shoud the trasoratos that were ourrg ther oe be oeed o ashages ro a loal ad tradtoal ulture to a worldwde

oder uture or were these popuatos rather spy uderpressure to ge up ther ulture ad adopt that o the Wester perast power or powers? Was t that s a ase o oderatoor o Westerato?

3 . Captals s a syste based o the edless auulato oaptal t s thereore a syste whh requres the axuapproprato o surplus aue There are two ways to rease theapproprato o surpus aue Oe s that workers work harder adore eety thereby reatg greater output wth the saeaout o puts (other tha hua laborte) The seod way sto retur ess o the alue that s produed to the dret produers Ishort aptas by deto oles a pressure o al dretprouers to ork ore ad to be pad less



Wallerste, Cutur as th Idooga Battgroud 3

Ths requreet howeer rus afoul of the log of the d dual' s pursut of hs/her ow terest The ost obous eteor hard work s hgher reopese Oe a substtute oero for

hgher reopese, but of ourse oero aso has a ost adthereby ts use also redues surplus aue It folows that , uless oea substtute (at least partally) soe other otato or workother tha reopese or fear t s ery dffult to obtasultaeously the tw goals o harder work ad ower pay Howa oe thk about ths syste suh a way as to ahee thsobjete?

4 Captas as a syste requres oeet ad hage, at eastforal hage The axal auuato of apta requres otoy goods ad aptal to rulate but apower as well It requres addto a ostat eouto the orgaato o produto ters both of the ature of the leadg setors ad of the stes ofproduto We usually aalye these pheoea uder twoabes that of eoo oato ad that o the rse ad all ofatos

Oe prpa osequee of ths realty s the eorousephass plaed wth the oder worldsyste o the rtues of

ewess No preous hstora syste has eer bee based o atheory of progress, deed a theory of etabe progress But theephass o ewess, ad ts ostat peetato (at least atthe eel of for) rases presely the· questo o egtay egtay of the hstoral syste geera legtay o ts keypotal sttuto the arous soereg states, partular FroBod to Weber to Mao Zedog the questo of legtay has beeostaty debated ad see as a extreey kotty ssue to resoe

It s partuary dfut beause the ery adoay o the rtues ofewess uderes the legtay o ay authorty howeeraborously the egtay was aheed

The aptast syste s a polarg syste, both ts rewardpatter ad the degree to whh persos are reasgly ored topay soaly polared roles It s, howeer, also a expadgsyste ad therefore oe whh al the absoute paraeters haetake the or of a ear upward projeto oer te Se tsoutset, the aptalst worldeooy has had eer ore produteatty eer ore alue' produed, eer ore popuato, eerore etos Thus, t has had eer ore outward sgs ofwealth

d yet, t has bee a poarg syste, t ust at the least be



38 hory Cutur Socity

true that ths rease of wealth has bee gog to oly a sallproporto of the world s populato t ght ee be the ase thatreal osupto per world apta has ot bee keepg pae For

exaple t s surely the ase that there s less physal spae perapta ad fewer trees per apta ow tha 400 years ago What doesths ea ters of that eluse but ery real pheoeo thequalty of lfe'?

The otradto therefore that eeds to be hadled s thatbetwee progress ad deterorato betwee sbly reasgwealth ad ery rea poershet The oly way to defuse theresultg agers ay well be deal but how s t possble to deypheoea that are so publ ad whose publ harater s deedoe of the exgees of the syste? That s the edless auulato of aptal requres as oe of ts ehass a ollete oretato towards osupto

6. Fally the aptal st worldeooy s a htoral systeAd beg hstoral t has a lfe yle ad as ay other suhsyste ust at soe po ease to futo as the osequee ofthe aggregated results of ts eetually paralyg otradtosBut t s also a syste whh s based o a partular log that of the

easeless auulao of apal uh a sysem theefoe uspreah the possblt of ltless expaso

Ltless expaso a see euphor as the age of waftgupward to heae or dsastrous as the age of hurtlgdowward to spae I a sese both ages ostra ato sethere sees to be lttle a ddual a do to affet the patter Theudae realty howeer s ore oplex ore usettlg but alsoore subjet to hua wll

As systes oe towards ther atural dese they fdtheseles trasto to uerta futures Ad the eryuertaty whh at oe leel s lberatg s also dsoertgThus we are faed wth the dlea of how to thk about suhtrasforato whether to dey the proess of syste death orstead to weloe the proess of syste brth

III

The ulture that s the deasyste of ths aptalst worldeooy s the outoe of our olete hstoral attepts to oeto ters wth the otradtos the abgutes the oplextesof the soopoltal realtes of ths partlar syste We hae



Walleste Cutur as th Idoogica Battgroud 39

doe t pat by eatg the oept of ultue' (usage I) as theasseto of uhagg ealt es adst a wold that s fat easelessly hagg Ad we hae doe t pat by eatg the oept

of ultue' (usage II) as the ustfato of the equtes of thesyste as the attept to keep the uhagg a wold whh seaselessly theateed by hage

The questo s how s ths doe? Se s obous that teestsfudaetally dege t follows that suh ostutos ofultue' ae saely eutal Theefoe the ey ostuto ofultue beoes a battlegoud the key deologal battlegoud fat of the opposg teests wth ths hstoal syste

The heat of the debate t sees to e eoles aoud the ways whh the pesued atoes of uty ad destyuesals ad patulals huaty ad ae wold adato peso ad a/woa hae bee apulated I haepeously agued that the two ppal deologal dotes thathae eeged the hstoy of the aptalst woldeooy thats uesals o the oe had ad as ad sexs o theothe ae ot oppostes but a sybot pa I hae agued thatthe ght dosage' has ade possble the futog of the syste

oe whh takes the fo of a otug deologal gag(Walleste 1988)

t s ths gag whh s at the bse of the delbeate ofusosheet the two usages of the oept of ultue ' I should lketo llustate the ssues by aalyg soe ets ade by a polt al telletual Jaaa Rex Nettlefod a speeh he gae 983 to a poltal paty eetg a paty that alls tself the People'sNatoal Paty The speeh tself whe epted boe the ttle

Buldg a Nato, Shapg a Soet Nettlefod wshed toephase the potae of a sese of hstoy' buldg a atoagast those who teah ou youg that they hae o hstoy wothstudyg oly a futue whh they ae expeted to oque'Hee s what Nettlefod sad

Blk dos no ly n skn n h hisoy of h Ais ns

l l ovn o of h nons bn h ions of Ws

Afins bogh s slvs nd h lions of opns ho s ss

ss o indnd lbos. n nd h Cbbn h sbsn of

ly indgnos lf fo s x h bn fogd n h bl of h bk

joiys ly ffos o o o s ih h n nvionn nd o

srvv h s srggl of fndn nd nl knd nd s h

sgg hih is bng dnid i s pop p n h onoi soi nd l



0 heory, Cuture Society

ho o h oy debaceg o h ho p op

o ok o h o o pop bo

hypo g bg k o o oo by ho who p o

ph h wo y o h h o y h joy. O

o y o pop' bo o o y o o w kp h oy p v wh h g joy g g pvg

w (wh y o b og h hog o o h oo

o pow h

Th h h o pop b h w k o hk w o h

oph o b b w o h ooh o o b oo

A o h bg o b h opho o

h o h popo h opho whh o oy o

ow b ho o o who y hy w o hp O pop who

hv go hogh o gg kow h wh p oy o

py o o og oppo whh o ow pv wy w wh b h o wh h oy o oooo po

wok whh o hgh v o h h poy W vy

pgh bo o po bo o po ogo w

ho p y o pop o o o o who wo g

wh o pv o who g h

po o g h p h g h v o

h o h b hk o o h ow op o

vgoo bk ' . Sh w yg h oy wh h v joy

hoplly o h . Ayhg h xp h g o h joy

o h kg' ! W o ky o hp oy o b o wh h b p, py hy o b o og

ho h pow o 1 po h o o hk oy o

h hg (o 1986 90

Note ths aalyss that the defto of a ulture s etralNetteford ats to bud ad shape a etty he alls a ato or asoety Ths s of ourse stadard laguage ad sees to refer to

uture (usage I), a usage hh presuably ephases the ays hh Jaaas are alke But he proeeds to obsere that othersfoud aog those the poer struture of ths sae Jaaaaso a hey sh to do the sae

The to groups see to be usg the atoal otto out of ayoe peope to ea opposte thgs Those ho Netteford als thepreged fe ephase purals th ad uty thout(freedo fro foreg oppresso) Netteford says ths eglets

etrey the bak ajorty ho are argaled ad ho areseekg the reato th [Jaaa o f sooeoo ad poltal fraeorks hh aord hgh alues o he hua persoalty(hh presuably eas a rease eoo ad soaequaty)



Wallerste Cuur as h Idoogica Bagroud

Ho are the prleged fe dog ths? B y a dbackig of theethos' by hyportally ephasg the ay' the atoalotto, by falg to teah a fat (oe that s a fat hoeer ot of the

hstory of aaa, but of the hstory of the Aeras, ad thereforeof the orldsyste) Ths fat s that llos of West Afrasere brought as slaes' hle llos of Europeas ae asasters settlers or detured labourers' The hstor eoutersof these to groups aaa ad the Carbbea' forged thetexture' of a truly dgeous lfe' Blak' s the ter of theresultat ulture' hh s gorous' ad ot a reduto' or ashrkg'

So the ed, hat s beg sad s that the asserto of blak ess' as osttute of the atoal ulture' of aaa (ulturehere usage I) s the ode by hh the argaled ajorty' ahope to protet theseles agast the las of the prleged fe'to represet a hgher ulture' (usage II) Thus hat seespartularst at the leel of the orldsyste (blakess') seres asa asserto of a uersalst thee (hgh alues to the huapersoalty' ) Ths says Nettleford s beg rae osous' but otrast' hh he adts requres a delate balag of sesbl tes' I ths oplated reasog hh sees to e orret, theore blakess' that aaa ould exhbt, the ore olorbldess (or huast alues) t ould exhbt

Ys you ay respod prhaps so but here oes ths argueted? At hat pot do e ross the le fro rae osousess' toras'? For there are learly ay ay ases aross the orldhere the asserto of the partularst ulture' of the (atoal)ajorty' to the exluso of the orty or ortes ould be

see as oppresse? Hae Bretos o ultural' las FraeSedes Flad Au apa Tals Sr aka Kurds Turkey Hugaras Roaa?

Nettlefor ght agree I do ot ko that all these lattergroups hae legtate las to ther ultural' asserto ad stllargue that the stuato s hstorally dfferet aaa Why?Essetal ly beause aaa t s the ajorty that has bee hstor ally argaled' ad ot the arous ortes' Ad as log

as that reas true the egrtude or ay slar partularsay sere as the egato of the egato as Sartre ( 1 99) argued Blak Orpheus '

What the Nettleford quote does s t o deostrate ho tagled sthe ske of ultural debate the aptalst orldeooy, but also



Thory utur Soity

how cord wth tts ad thrfor how carfu w d to b fw wsh to udrstad ad auat ths doogca battgroud

IV

woud k to tak ach of th sx cotradctos of th captastwordcooy ad show how th doogs of ursas ad ofracssxs hp cota ach of th cotradctos ad whythrfor th two doogs ar a sybotc par

Sc th captast wordcooy s a wordsyst ad for

so t ow o that has xpadd to cor th tr gob t sasy to s how ursas rfcts ths phoo ad ddths has b o of th ost xpct xpaatos of th doogstsToday w ha a twork of Utd Natos structurs, basd thory o th Ursa carato of Hua Rghts assrtg thxstc of both tratoa aw ad aus of a huaty Wha ursa t ad spac asurts W ha a sctfccouty who assrt ursa aws Nor s ths a phoory of th twtth ctury Ursa scc was arady bgprocad th sxtth ctury ad dd far arr Grotuswas wrtg about a ursa aw of th sas th frst haf of thstth ctury Ad so o

At th sa t, of cours, w ha b rctg a twork ofsorg stats wth car trrtora boudars ad wth atoaaws assbs, aguags passports, flags, oy, ad abo acts Th tr ad ara of th gob s today xhaustyddd to such uts, whch ow ubr or 1 0

Thr ar two ways w ca cosdr ths 10 or so sorgstats W ca s th as ry strog sttutos whos rasodtr s to t th adty of ursa rus Sorgty as thory th rght to do wth th frotrs of th coutry whatrth tra (ad costtutoay approprat) authorts dcd todo But of cours, at th sa t, ths 10 or so uts ar as rducto fro th ubr of potca authorts (to us aagu tr) whch std th word as of say 0. Aost ry

o of th 1 0 or so uts coprss a ara that 0 cuddor tha o potca authorty Thus ost of ths sorgstats fac th ssu of how thy ar to trat ths cog togthrhstorcay of what wr prousy sparat tts A of thwthout ay xcpto, do t o th prcp of ctshp a



Wallerste Cutr as th Idoogica Battgroud 3

prple whh today usually asserts that all persos bor thatstate are tes plus erta others) ad that all suh tes ejoyequal rghts The ost otorous exepto South Afra whh as

a state refuses to aowledge the legtay of ths theory ofteshp s osdered for that ery reaso a world sadal)Thus eah state s prolag the uersalty of the equalty oftes ad rtually al l states are aeptg ths prple as a sortof uersal oral law.

We a assert f we wsh that the prple of uersals botho a worldwde sale ad wth eah of the soereg states thatosttute the terstate syste s hyportal. But t s presely

beause there s realty a herarhy of states wth the terstatesyste ad a herarhy of tes wth eah soereg state thatthe deology of uersals atters. It seres o the oe had as apallate ad a deepto ad o the other as a poltal outerweght whh the wea a use ad do use agast the strog.

But rassexs as a deology equally seres to ota theotradto oled reatg soereg states wth a terstate syste that otas a sgle dso of labor For rassexs s presely what legtates the real equaltes the alwaysexstg f otually shftg) herarhes both wth the worldsyste as a whole ad wth eah soereg state We ow that thepeoples of olor were ubjeted to foral oloato as well as tosl lbo dug the hstory of h woldsyste We ow thatthere exst ay foral dsratos oerg the oeetsof peoples Ad we ow that these pheoea hae bee justfedby rast theores soetes based o pseudosee therebydeferrg to the deolog of uersals) ad soetes based o

utgated prejude as the tal of a Yellow Perl whh was sowdespread the Whte areas of the world the begg of thetweteth etury.

At the state leel the pheoeo of justfato by ras of ateral poltal eoo ad soal herarhy s so falar thatt s sarely worth reoutg. I would oly pot out two thgs.Where teral herarhes aot be based o s olor they aalways be based o other partularst rtera as say Norther

Irelad. Seodly eerywhere all the states ddualy ad the terstate syste as a whole the rast delogy taes thesae for It s argued that oe group s geetally or ulturally'ote here ulture usage II) feror to aother group suh away that the group sad to be feror aot be expeted to perfor



Thory utur Socity

asks as ll as th prsuably supror group Ths s sad o holdru hr rally or or a ry log prod to th uur(pg, aohr drc to ursals doctr, so ry

logtr ducaoal procss)So racs s usd, as all ko, to justy ths hrarchs But

sxs? Ys, sxs too, ad to ays Frs, o xasracst rology, o ll d tha s rgularly clothd sxstlaguag Th supror rac s cosdrd to b or ascul,h ror o o b or It s as though sxs as or dply rootd tha racs Whras a purly racst dologygh occasoally al to prsuad, th dologus ca d thr

clchg argut by addg th sxst ortos So hararguts that h doa group s or ratoal, or dscld, or hardorkg, or slcotrolld, or dpdt, hl th doatd group s or ooal, orsldulgt, or lay, or artsc, or dpdt d ths so cours h sa st o charactrstcs that sxst dology clasdsgush ro o

Thr s a scod ay hch sxs doubls th racs Thdoat racal group, bcaus t s sad to b or sldulgt,s hrby though or aggrss sxually (ad or pasxual asll) Th als o th doatd group thror rprst a thrato h als o th doat group ho, although o ad ot, ar soho or slcotrolld' tha th als o thdoatd group But sc thy ar othlss physcally akr,bcaus thy ar o, thy thror rqur th act physcalprocto o h als o th doat group

Furthror, ca tur hs sxst argut aroud ad stll

jusy orld hrarchs No that, as a rsult o rct polcaldlopts, o ha gad or rghts o arous kds Wstr coutrs, th act that thy ha ot yt do as llpolcally so Thrd World coutrs, say thos coutrs hch sla s strog, bcos tsl a urthr juscato o racstdology Th Mosls, t s argud, ar ot culurally capabl orcogg h sa ursal prcpls o aoa rlatosha ar sad to b accptd th Wstr (or JudoChrsa

orld) ad ro ths t s sad to ollo that thy ar also capabl oay ohr hgs W ha od that th hstorc xpaso o a captals

orldcooy orgally locatd prarly Europ to cor ora ohr os o th glob cratd th cotradcto o odr



Walerse Ct as th Idoogica Battgod 45

ao ersus Weserao The sple way o resole hsdlea has bee o asser ha hey are deal I so far as Asaor Afra Weseres ' oderes' Tha s o say he sples

souo was o argue ha Weser ulure s fa uersaluure For a log e he deoogy reaed a hs spe eelwheher ook he for of Chrsa proselyao or of hefaous missio civiisatic' of Fraes oloal epre

Of ourse hs soees ook he sghly ore sophsaedfor of argug ha oly Weser lao of al world a os was soehow apabe of eog fro a preoder foro odery I a sese hs s wha Oreals as a dspe

eary ped Cohed he egao of paruars Isla or Ida or Cha represeed opex hgh uures whh aWeserer ould oy appreae afer log dfful ad sy pahe sudy he Oreass also suggesed ha hese hghOreal ulures were hsorally froe ad ould o eoe buould oly be desroyed' fro whou Varous ersos ofahropoogal heory he searh for he prse preoauure bu also he uersals dso of sruurasahropoogy bewee od ad ho uures led o he saeolusos The Wes had eerged o odery he ohers hado Ieably herefore f oe waed o be oder' oe had soe way o be Weser' uuraly If o Weser relgos oehad o adop Weser laguages Ad f o Weser aguages oehad a he ery u o aep Weser ehoogy whh wassad o be based o he uersal prples of see

Bu a he ery sae e ha he uersals deologues werepreahg he ers of Weserao or asslao' hey were

aso (or ohers were aso) preahg he eeral exsee ad rueof dfferee Thus a uersals essage of ulura ulplyould sere as a j usfao of eduag arous groups herseparae uures ad hee preparg he for dffere asks he sge eooy The exree erso of hs ad a explyheored oe s apathid. Bu lesser ersos perhaps essoherey arulaed hae bee wdespread wh he syse

Furherore ras ad sexs a be jusfed by a rejeo of

Weserao whh a ake he for of legag dgeousdeoogal posos (a soaled real of rado) ha ludebaay ras ad sexs hees A whh po we hae areewed jusfao of he worldwde herarhy I beoesegae o rea Ira as a parah ao o oly beause Ira uses



6 eory, Cuture Soety

terrorst' tats the teratoal area but beause raawoe are requred to wear the ador.

3 . The proble of gettg workers to work harder at ower pay s

herety a dffult oe t rus agast the gra of selfterestThe questo s therefore whether there a exst a deologaotato whh ght help ahee ths otradtory obete ofworld apta et us see what ways uersas ad rassexs a sere ths ed

Uersas a beoe a otato for harder work so faras the work eth s preahed as a defg eterpee of odertyThose who are effet who deote thesees to ther work

exepfy a aue whh s of uersal ert ad s sad to besoay beefa to a l Ths s true ot oly at the ddual leebut at the olete ee Thus states that are low the herarhy ofthe wordsyste groups that are ow the herarhy of states areadured to oeroe the hadap of ower status by og theuersa ethos By beog opette the arket dduas ad groups ay obta what others already hae ad thus oeday shal ahee equalty Ut the equalty reas etable

Thus the uersa work eth ustfes al exstg equaltes

se he explaato of her org s the hstoray uequaadopto by dfferet groups of ths otato States that arebetter off tha other states groups that are better off tha othergroups hae aheed ths adatage by a earer stroger adore edurg otet to the uersa work eth Coerseythose who are worse off therefore those who are pad less are ths posto beause they ert t . The exstee of uequa oesthus beoes ot a stae of rassexs but rather of the

uersa stadard of rewardg effey Those who hae lesshae less beause they hae eared lessBut ras ad sexs opeet ths uersalg theore

ery wel Ras ad sexs whe sttutoaed reate a hghorreato betwee low group status ad ow oe Thus thoseat the ower ed of the sale are easly detfabe by what ay thebe tered utura rtera (uture that s usage ) Culture(usage ) ow beoes the expaato of the ause Baks ad

woe are pad less beause they work less hard ert less Adthey work ess hard beause there s soethg f ot therboogy at east ther ulture whh teahes the alues whhoft wth the uersal work ethos

Furtherore we a est the doated groups ther ow



Wersten Cutur as th Idoogica Battground 4

oresson. n so fr s tey utte ter serteness s uturlgrous s ode of oltl oblton gnst unequsttus tey sole ter ebers nto ultur exressons

dstngus te fro te donted grous nd tus nto soe test of te ues ttrbuted to te by rst nd sexst teoresnd tey do ts n seeng rdox on te grounds of teuners rnle of te equ dty of l ultur exressons

4 Modernty s entr unersng tee ges rorty toneness nge rogress Troug te ges te egty ofolt systes d been dered fro resey te oosternle tt of oldness ontnuty trdton. Tere s

strgtforrdness to reodern odes of legtton does not exst nyore Pot egty s u ore obsureobjete tn te retes of te tst orldeonoy yetsttes of ourse seek onstnty to ee t. Soe degree ofegty s ru eleent n te stblty of l reges

Here s ere uture (usge I) n be ery elful For n tebsene of te ersoned legty of onrlrstortsystes ere re oer norly defnes te lts of legty ftoned olletty t olete sou yotetlnton ose roots re oted n dys of yore s reloussubsttute Fe goernents n te story of te tlst orldeonoy e fed to dsoer te oer of trots to eeoeson And rots s ute often been enfored by otrnsfored nto rs ngost uns ooston of teten to te strnger or grnt) nd sexs (te resuedrt nture of les.

But n te rel ord of te tlst orldeonoy t ts

regulr rse nd delne of ntons ult frous set of trotssoffers ltte n te y of exlnton esely for te losers n teyl sfts. Here ten egty n be restored by eng tote unersng rnles of rorte olt nd solnge by nge n stte struture ( reouton) ke ossbe (for te frst e or one gn) ntonl deeoent Tus by eng to uture (usge II) te dnedeleents of te nton n e te stte n te ne of uners

rogressOf ourse su reolutons ork to restore (or rete)egty by seekng to trnsfor n soe sgnfnt y teoston of te stte n te erry of te orldsyste Flngt te reouton n rete ts on trdton bout tself nd nk



48 ory, Cutur Socity

ths selapprasal to a perhaps resed but stll te hstory o thestate Thus, ulture (usage I I) s eaous or beoes so, oea all bak o ulture (usage I)

The aptalst worldeooy does ot erely hae uequaldstrbuto o reward It s the lous o a reasg polarato oreward oer hstoral te Here howeer there s a asyetrybetwee the stuato at the leel o the worldeooy as a wholead that at the leel o the separate soereg states whh oposethe terstate syste Whereas at the leel o the worldsyste, tsees lear that gap o oe betwee states at the top ad thebotto o the herarhy has grow, ad has grow osderably

oer te, t does ot eessarly ollow that ths s true wth eahstate struture Noetheless, t s also the ase that oe o the oralustatos o the aptalst worldeooy, oe that s used tousty hard work at low pay (the ssue j ust dsussed the preousseto), s that equaltes o reward hae bee dshg oerte, that suh equaltes as exst are trastory ad trastoalpheoea o the road to a ore prosperous, ore egaltarauture

Here, oe aga, we hae a blatat dsord betwee oaldeology ad epral realty How has ths bee otaed? Therst le o deese has always bee deal The rsg stadard olg has bee a etral yth o ths worldsyste It has beesustaed both by arthet sleght o had ad by kg thepared deologes o uersals ad rassexs

The arthet sleght o had s ery straghtorward At theworld leel, t ossts rst o al l o talkg about the uerator adot the deoator, ad gorg the dsperso o the ure We

talk about the uerator whe we rete the expaded world olueo produto, or total alue produed, whle alg to dde t byworld populato Or we aalye qualty o le by obserg soelear treds but alg to out others Thus we easure age oortalty or speed o trael but ot aerage uber o hours owork per year or per lete, or eroetal odtos

But the real sleght o had s to egage atoal rather thaglobal easures, whh oles a double deepto Frst o all ,

a uequal ad polarg worldsyste, there s geographaldsperso Hee, t s peretly possble or real oe, aseasured by GNP per apta say, to rse soe outres whlegog dow others ad the syste as a whole But se theoutres whh the rse ours are also those ost extesely



Wallerste Cutur a th Idoogica Battgroud 9

studed obsered ad easured t s easy to uderstad how falebut false geeralatos take root I addto despte the betterstatstal systes of suh ore outres t s udoubtedly the ase

that they do ot easure adequately the ote opoet ofthe populato (ofte llegally resdee Ad se ths s thepoorest opoet the bas s edet

Stll sperepto of realty s oly a frst le of defese adoe that s reasgly dffult to susta. Hee the last fftyyears a worldwde shea of deelopetals' has bee eretedad propagated whh legtates the polarato By ths potyou wll reale how repette s the patter of deologal justfa

to Frst of all there s the uersalst thee All states adeelop; all states shall deelop The oe the rast thees Ifsoe states hae deeloped earler ad faster th others t sbeause they hae doe soethg behaed soe way that sdfferet They hae bee ore ddualst or ore etrepreeural or ore ratoal or soe way ore oder' Ifother states hae deeloped ore slowly t s beause there s soethg ther ulture (usage I at the state leel usage II at the worldleel) whh preets the or has thus far preeted the frobeog as oder' as other states

The seesaw of deologal explaato the otues to thehypothetal future Se all states a deelop how a the uderdeeoped deelop I soe way by opyg those who alreadyhae that s by adoptg the uersal ulture of the oder worldwth the assstae of those who are ore adaed (hgher presetulture usage I I ) If despte ths assstae they are akg o orlttle progress t s beause they are beg rast' rejetg

uersal oder' alues whh the justfes that the adaed'states are sorful of the or odesedg to the Ay attept a adaed' state to oprehed bakwardess' ters othertha wlful refusal to be oder' s labeled ThrdWorlds orreerse ras or rratoals Ths s a tght syste of justfa to se t blaes the t' ad thereby dees the realty

6 Fally let us tur to the otradto of ltlessess adorga death Ay theory of ltless epaso s a gabler's

paradse I the real world t s ot possble Furtherore to thelted extet that the theory has seeed to aord wth the exstetal realty of the aptalst worldeooy as a worldsyste t hasot seed to aord wth the realtes of the separate states Eethe strogest ad the wealthest of states pciay the strogest



50 hory Cutur Soity

ad weathest hae rse ad deled. We are urretly lg thebeggs of the logter relate dele of the Uted Statesoy reetly stll the hegeo power of the worldsyste.

Thus the worldsyste as a whole ust deal wth the proble oft s eetual dese ad wth the ogog syste the strog statesust deal wth the proble of ther relate dele The twoprobles are qute dfferet but regularly fused ad ofusedThere are basally two ways to deal wth dese or dele to deythe or to weloe the hage.

Oe aga both uersals ad rasses are usefuloserate deologes. Frst of all rasses seres to sustadea ese or dele s at ost a teporary lluso aused byoetarly weak eadershp beause by defto t s sad taot our ge the stregth or the superorty of the doatulture (usage II) Or f t s really ourrg t s beause ulture(usage II) has eded plae to a deepte world huas the ahope of reatg a world ulture (usage I). Thus t s argued thedese or dele whh t s ow adtted ay really be ourrgs due to suffet ephass o ulture (usage II) ad hee toadttg lower raal groups or woe to poltal rghts I ths

erso of deology dese or dele s reersble but oly by areerso to a ore oert rasses. Geerally speakg thshas bee a thee throughout the tweteth etury of what we todayall the extree or eofasst rght

But there s a uersalg erso to ths eerse dea Thedese or dele has perhaps ot bee aused or ot prarlyaused by a reased poltal egaltaras but uh ore bya reased telletual egaltaras The dea of the

superorty of the setf elte ad ther osequet rght todtate publ poly s the resut of a atratoast atoadeal of uersal ulture (usage I) ad ts worldwde uture bearers (usage II) eads for popular otrol of tehoratetes s a al for the ght of the log kes a retur to pre oder prts Ths s the heart of what s today aed eooserats

But f the oertly oserate ersos of the deooges areadequate to the task oe a put forward progresse ersosIt s ot too dffult to weloe the trasto ways that fatsusta the syste There s the uersag ode whhprogresse trasto s see as etable. Ths a lead o the oehad to postpog the trasto utl the equaly etae



Walleste Cutur as th Idoogica Battground

peodtos of tasto ae ealed It a lead o the othehad to te easues whose ealty s the woseg of odtos o the gouds that ths speeds up the ealato of the

peodtos We hae kow ay suh oeetsFally the welog of the tasto a hae the sae

oseate effet a ast fo Oe a sst that t s oly thepesetly adaed goups that a be the leades of the extpesued adae Hee t s oly o the bass of pesetlyealed ultue (usage II) that the tasto to a ew wold wll beealed The oe bakwad egos ust soe way wat o theoe adaed' oes the poess of tasto'

The paed deologes of uesals ad assexs the haebee ey poweful eas by whh the otadtoy tesos ofthe woldsyste hae bee otaed But of ouse, they hae alsoseed as deologes of hage ad tasfoato the slghtlydffeet lothg of the theoy of pogess ad the ostatoof oppessed goups Ths has esulted extaodaly abalet

uses of these deologes by the pesued oppoets of the exstgsyste, the at syste oeets It s to ths last aspet ofultue as a deologal battlegoud that I should lke ow to tu

A at syste oeet s a oeet to tasfo thesyste A atsyste oeet s at the sae te a podut ofthe syste What ultue does suh a oeet aate? I tesof ultue (usage I ) t s had to see how the atsyste oeetsould oeably hae aated ay ultue othe tha that of the

aptalst woldeooy It s had to see how they ould ot haebee pegated by ad expessed the paed deologes ofuesals ad assexs

Howee tes of ultue (usage II ) they hae laed to haeeated a ew ultue a ultue dested to be a ultue (usage I) ofthe futue wold They hae ted to elaboate ths ew ultuetheoetally They hae eated sttutos pesuably desged tosoale ebes ad sypathes to ths ew ultue But of

ouse t s ot so easy to kow what shall be the ultue a ultueof the futue We desg ou utopas tes of what we kow owWe exaggeate the oelty of what we adoate We at the ed,ad at best as psoes of ou peset ealty who pet ouselesto daydea



hory, Cutur Soiy

Ths s ot at all potless But t s surely less tha a sure gude toapproprate behaor What the atsystem moemets hae doe oe osders ther global attes oer I 0odd years has bee

essetally to tur themseles to the ulllers o the lberal dreamwhle lamg to be ts most ulsome rts. Ths has ot bee aomortable post o. The lberal dream the produt o theprpal selosous deologal Wtaschauug wth theaptalst worldeoomy has bee that uersalsm wlltrumph oer rasm ad sexsm Ths has bee traslated to twostrateg operatoal mperates the spread o see theeoomy ad the spread o assmlato the poltal area

The etshsm o see by the atsystem moemets orexample Marxs desgato o hs deas as set soalsm was a atural expresso o the post1 789 trumph o lghtemetdeas the worldsystem See was utureoreted; t soughttotal truth a the peretblty o huma apates; t was deeplyoptmst The lmtlessess o ts ambtos mght hae sered as awargsgal o the deep aty o ths kd o see to tsworldsystem But the atsystem th kers terpreted ths atyto be a trastory msstep a surg rratoalty doomed to

exttoThe problem as the atsystem moemets saw t was ot that

there was too muh see but too lttle Suet soal estet see was stll lakg See had ot yet peetrated toeough orers o eoom le There were stll oes o the worldrom whh t was kept Its results were suetly appled Thereoluto be t soal or atoal or both would at lastrelease the setsts to d ad to apply ther uersal truths

I the poltal area the udametal problem was terpretedto be exluso The states were the hadmades o mortes; theyust be made the strumet o the whole o soety the whole ohumaty The uproperted were exluded Ilude the! Themortes were exluded. Ilude them ! The wome were exludedlude the! quals all The domat strata had more thaothers e thgs out! But we are eeg out domat adoated the why ot mortes ad majortes wome adme? eg out meat prate assmlatg the weaker to themoel o the strog. Ths model looked suspously lkeeryma the ma wth smple but suet meas hard workg morally uprght ad deoted to amly (reds largeromuty)



Walerse Cutur as th Idoogia Battgroud 3

Ths searh for see ad assao wha hae aled hefufe of he beral drea was oaed deep he osous ess ad he praal ao of he worlds a syse

oees fro her eergee he deeeh euryu a leas he Seod Word War Se he ad paruarlyse he world ulural reoluo of 968 hese oees or aeas soe of he hae begu o ee doubs as o he uly hereasoabeess of see' ad asslao' as soal objeesThese doubs hae bee expressed uple fors The greeoees he oueruural oees hae rased quesosabou he produs here he eeeheury aduao

of see The ay ew soal oees (of woe of or es) hae poured sor upo he dead for asslao. do oeed o spel ou here he derse ways whh hs has beeafesed.

Bu ad hs s he rual po perhaps he real ruph ofulure (usage ) he asyse oees hae hesaed o goal he way For oe hg he prores of oe kd of a syseoee hae ofe bee a odds wh ha of aoher kd (e.geoogss Thrd World lberao oees) For aoherhg eah kd of oee sef has bee eray dded. Thedebaes wh he woes oees or Bak oes oersuh quesos as pola a laes or he desraby of proeelegisation for he 'weaker groups are instances of the actcal

abaees of hese oees.As log as he asyse oees rea a he eel of

aa abaee abou he gudg deologa alues of ourwordsyse as log as hey are usure how o respod o he

bera drea of ore see ad ore assao we a say hahey are o poso o fgh a war of poso wh he fores hadefed he equaes of he word For hey ede by hsabaee he ulura hghgroud o her oppoes Theadoaes of he syse a oue o a ha ses adassao represe he rue alues of world uure (usage I) adha her praoers are he e of uure (usage ), he hghpress of hs ulure (usage ) . Ad as og as hs reas rue we

are al eeloped he pared deologes (ad he false aoy) ofuersals ad rassexsThe uural rap whh we are augh s a srog oe oerla

by uh proee shrubbery whh hdes s oue ad s feroyfro us Ca we soehow dseae oursees? I beee s




possble, though at ost I a oly date soe of the dretos whh, f we oed alog the, I belee we ght fd ways todsetagle

Beyod sets, I suspet there les a ore broadly defedsee, oe whh wll be able to reole tself draatally wththe huates , suh that we a oeroe what P Sow (199)alled the dso of the two ultures (ote the ter aga, here usage II) I suspet we ay hae to reerse the hstory of see adretur fro effet auses to fal auses I thk , f we do, that weay be able to srape away all that s otget (that s, all that sWester) to uoer ew poss bl tes

Ths wll ake possble a ew redeous of world latosW ll soe uersals eerge out of ths redeous? Who kows?Who ee kows what a uersal s? At a oet of worldhstory whe the physal setsts are at last (or s t oe aga?)begg to talk of the arrow of te , who s able to say that thereare ay utable laws of ature?

If we go bak o etaphysal beggs, ad reope thequesto of the ature of see, I belee that t s probable or atleast possble, that we a reole our uderstadg of the orgs

ad egtaes of group partuarss wth our sese of the soa ,psyhologal, ad bologal eags of huaty ad huaeess I thk that perhaps we a oe up wth a oept of ulturethat sublates the two usages

I wsh that I saw ore learly how ths ould be doe, or where ts leadg But I hae the sese that ultural ters our worldsyste s eed of soe surgery Uless we ope up soe of ourost hershed ultural preses, we shall eer be able to dagose

learly the etet of the aerous growths ad shall therefore beuable to oe up wth approprate reedes. It s perhaps uwseto ed o suh a edal aalogy Mede as a ode of kowledge, has oly too learly deostrated ts ltatos O the otherhad, the art of ede represets the eteral hua respose tosufferg, death, ad trasto, ad therefore arates hope,howeer uh t ust be tepered by a awareess of hualtatos

o

his i hs lso b pblish i h ps o iohi on ofoi di Vo. XX Ags 1989

S 1 949 37 ls gi iis is'



Warst Cutur a th Idoogia Battgroud

RfHops T K a Wals mma 97 Capasm a h

opoao o w Zo o h Woloomy' evew 0(56 76379

M Sy W ( 9 he Power oj Sweeess ad he Sweeess oj Power h

D L Dv a Loghm Saslo Rx ( 96 Bg a ao Shapg a Soy' pp 9 0

Wb ( Carbbea eader o Deelopme KgsoSa aa ( 949 Oph o pp 9 Saos as

GalmaSow C (959 he wo Clres ad he Scec evolo w Yo

Cambg vsy ss

Was mma ( 9 Css as Taso' pp 54 sp - S

Am al (s Dyamcs oj Global Crss w Yo Mohy Rvw ss

Walls mma ( 9 Th ooga Tsos o Capasm vsasm

vss Rasm a Sxsm' pp 39 Smh al ( acsm Sesm ad heWorldSysem Wspo CT Gwoo ss

Il ll s th rtor of th Frad Braud Ctr(SONY Bghato) ad th author of h Mod WordSytm.



uue e W oISyse

R Bne

Immanuel Wallerstein's essay begins by quoting Sidney Mintz to the

effect that what is universal is our capacity to create cultural

realities. That view, however, does not truly animate Wallersteins

reflection on culture A more accurate theme for his essay would

refer to our capacity to utilize culturalstratis

in the deception of

ourselves and others

He begins by articulating a typically structuraist and monotonal

view of culture, which for him, is a concept pointing ithr to

characteristics shared within a group which distinguish that group

from other groups r to hierarchical distinctions within groups

which value one set of characteristics rather than another An

example of the former use of the concept would be its deployment as

an indexical expression in a comparison between, say, the shared

values and life-patterns of a particular tribe of American Indiansand the shared values of the first and subsequent generations of

white settlers into North America An example of the latter use ofthe concept would be its utlation n a coparison of the cultureof the Victorian bourgeois family, with their values of work, letters,art, and obedience, and the lack of standards thought to be typical

within the Victorian underclass For Wallerstein, these are th twotonalities of the concept of culture; the former representing

harmony within a group, the latter representing division What isreally crucial, however, is that he thinks that such cultural judge

ments typically imply an attribution of rank and desert, with all the

functions of rationalization or righteous opposition thereby made

available.

Wallerstein holds that there has been long-standing intellectual

confusion between the two usages of the idea of culture, and he

further holds that this may be the consequence of the historical

development of the world system and a reflection of its logic

This is an extremely broad thesis, but it is not one that is easy to

r r (SAG London Nebuy Pak and Ne Deh) Vol 7

()



8 hoy Cutur Socity

susta A gae though the Bble o Patos Rpubic o hakes peae o Cofuus s eough to ofm that questos of theteal oheee o dso wth a goup ad ssues of dst

tos betwee dffeet goups hae aways bee etal both to theways whh dduals ad goups hae udestood themseesad to the aetes of hetoa maoeue aaabe to those whoseek to pesuade othes of the mpotae to the goup of oe ouseof ato athe tha aothe If the oept of utue has olythese two toates oe suspets that to aout fo them temsof the og of the mode wold system s somewhat speous fothe tea ad extea status of the goup has aways bee of

majo momet fo al soa poesse If thee s a o sig log stadg telletual ofuso as fa as the oept of ultue soeed t s muh moe lkely to be attbutabe to fatos ofsoa otology athe tha to ompaatey eet hstoaldeelopmet

oes howee the oept of utue oly hae these two toates I f the oept of utue wee oly about ssues of teal adexteal hamoy ad dffeee the pehaps the aswe to thatmght be affmate But s ot utue aso about the defto adpusut of teests whh ae deemed to be (wth a spef soohsto ultua omple tal autoomous ad spef to theagets pusug them At aothe leel do ot the ethologsts amthat huma utue may be studed as a pat of amal behaouAt stl aothe lee s t ot eessay to lude the physaeomet ay geeal udestadg of ultue ad weeed ot go bak to the aha athopology of Rousseaus ssayo th Origi of Laguags hee fo as ad Haey (98)

emds us easg ubaato makes the uba the mmedatelee of soal ato ad osousess fomato I shot a befad by o meas exhauste efleto o the oept of ultuemust show that goup hamoy sas othe goups ad goupdshamoy sas ts ow osttuto do ot aloe pode themajo toates of the oept of ultue I fat f thee s a ase tobe made fo fdg oe o moe majo toates t pobaby estsupo the dea mplt wth the whole athopologal tad

to ad ee to Ltausss eso of t of h desp to utue s that whh eeds to be desbed that whh aotbe atpated o the bass of some theoeta pemse

Futhemoe f we tu to wtes who ae oeed wth utueude the sg of goup hamoy sas othe goups ad goup



Boye Cutur ad th ordSystm 9

dsharoy sas ts ow osttuto we hae to questoWallerste' s asserto that there has bee a logstadg telletual ofuso oer the dea Wlhel lthey for exaple wrtg

1 883 was ery lear that these were alterate odes of thought:

n in of y of l on hink of pyhoogil ln in vio

inivi hifly only wih pt to hi rol in y of ppo. Th

i wy of ooking hing iffnt fo hi on whih oni xn

ognition of oiy tht i ltion of oniy of xnl oition

of oinion n of boinion of wi in oity T tnny of

btion i opiv whnv on iingih polii hioy fo l

hitoy. (Dilhy 988 1 5

I atual fat howeer these pots would ot be of great terestto Wallerste for he soewhat dsgeuously sggests that theoept of ulture s ot worth the effort What edee he asksa be addued to show that a partular group has a ulture? Cawe operatoale the oept of ulture he woders suh a waythat we a use t to ake stateets that are ore tha tral? Hsegate resposes to these postst questos bespeak a ertaarrowess of approah suh that dfferees betwee groups doot assst the quest for hstoral uderstadg ad ultural dfferees wth groups ted to futo as deologal oer for theadaeet of terests Has Wallerste ot read Max Weber orthought about the ehass of prejude or lsteed to adeabout where t s ot safe to walk aloe? The pot s of ourse thatsk lled soal ators are sklled presely by rtue of ther operatoalato of oepts of ultural dfferee; ad ee f suhudae soologal atters are outsde of Wallerste s frae of

referee does he really hold that dfferees betwee sayProtestat ad Cathol are of o use uderstadg the hstoryof Europea soety?

The uderlyg reaso for Wallerstes rtque of the oept ofulture s ot fat that t has bee a ste of telletual ofusoor that t possesses oly a speous aalytal ut lty It s rather thatt opes oto a for of aalyss ad soal uderstadg whh sopposed to the brute ad dsterested objets of world syste

theory O the oe sde we hae the ug plastty of ulture othe other sde the erta realtes of the rtually tagble struturesof the aptalst world eooy As Wallerste reews the hsssay soe of the raitis (hs ter) ad ther ultural osequees of the eoluto of the aptalst world eooy are



Theoy utue ociety

a upreedetedly oplex, detaled ad ohese iteatioa dso of labour whh oexsts otradtorly wth theulttude of dfferetally prleged atioapoltes whh ultural

attrbutes lke raal haratersts are held to justfy a oplex rhyth yle, repeated eery ffty or sxty years,

of expaso ad otrato, wth eah pulse of the yleoludg wth the oderato' of aothe part of the syste

a bfurated log of aptal auulato o the part of thefr ad ddual reward as the prpal otato buttressedby akg the work eth the ery etre of oderty esurgpartpato the syste;

reletless tehal, orgaatoal ad produt deelopet,rrored by tooofte usatsfed deads for atoal progresswhose eergy a fuel arous fors of poltal oeet

5 a ostat dual proess of wealth auulato ad oershet, whh the wealth arues out of talet eergy adapplato, ad the poershet wll supposedly ed oe ap proprate ultural trats are left behd ad

fally the syste s a hstoral oe ad, as suh, t ust eetually fae the dese that preahg the gospel of ltlessdeelopet t dees dog so by blag weak leadershp forteporary setbaks or by selfastgato for approprate ulturalstadards whh ow ust be oertured by for exaple, equalopportutes legslato or by blag the setsts ad thetehorats

Wallerste belees therefore that the oto of ulture s a partof that set of deas whh hae bee deeloped respose to the

abgutes otradtos ad oplexty of ths real hstoralsyste whh we fd ourseles The oto of ulture has, forh, two prple futos I ts ephass o the dffereesbetwee groups o uque ad stll releat ultural tradtos, thghlghts a erta soldty soethg to hold o to ee though weare all adrft a world that s easelessly hagg O the otherhad, so far as ulture refers to dfferees wth groups tpots to those ehass that dert atteto fro the eoo

dsos whh are at the heart of the aptalst syste ee whleuderpg the It s ths double futo of ulture (falsely?) topersuade us that we do ot le solely aordae wth the log ofeoo produto, ad dupltously to dert us fro dwellgtoo uh o what the other groups hae fo they ae dfeet



Boye, Cutur ad th WordSytm 61

fro us whh explas the tle of Wallerse's essay, Cultureas he deologal Battlegroud of the Moder Worldsyste

Jus what he eas by battlegroud s explaed usg a quotao fro a speeh ade by he Jaaa polta, Rex Netleford, 1 983 Wallerste uses he speeh to show tha the wo futosof ulture a be loked to oflt wth eah other Crudely, argues for atoal stadg sas other atos a arrestdsote oer eral equal es, ad a ee elebrae the aspar of a rh ulural herage erta speehes of WsoChurhll sprg o d) whle, oersely, the radal reforera blae he outsde for pererg he real ad hoogeeousultural dety of he sde, ad a go o o prose reoery of

tha dety We a see pretty learly tha he dsto betwee uersals

ad partulars s etral o Wallerstes uderstadg of theoo of ulture He thks that both uersalst prples adpartularst preudes hae sered deologal fu os hat heyhae bee weapos deployed upo he batlegroud of he oderworldsyste The uersals dea of eshp, for exaple,works o oeal d fferees but t a also operate to protet less

prleged groups O he oher had, ras ad sexs, ofeusfed by referee o he uersalst aspraos of pseudosetf statees regardg gee herae or psyhologaldsposto, are parulars otos hat hae sered to ustfyequaltes s o hard o see where ths s leadg forWalerse, sureyg he world fro he obee edfe ofworldsyse heory, al ulure s derae Ee f oe agreeswth Nelso ad Grossberg 988 3 ha refleo theores,howeer qualfed ad probleazed, play a eessary ad osttue role, ot oy for al ater ad sophsaed Marxss, butalso al hsorally or polally grouded erpretao, srearkable hat a heors of Wallerse s staure preses the rharety of hua hough, aheee, osousess, pa,supdy ad el as bu a ehaal refle of worldsysteeoo sruures

What Wallerse does s o prode a fraewor of uderstadg Bu a fraewor s all hat s Wordsyse theory s

lke a house wthou glass he wdows, fuel the freplae, food he upboards, or beds upo whh o sleep Ee f we gra hesatus of uoestable realy o the a supports of the sruure,ad we should o do so lghtly se we would be sayg hereby



Thory utur Soity

ha he huan senes hae arred a a shared eseology nregard o whh we an exe no radal shfs does no followha he undersandng of ulure wll be exhaused by rodng anaoun of he way ha kees he sruure fro breakng aarFew would ones ha soe ases of ulure an be analysed nha way bu ha s far fro all here s o

s robably n he ase of he reaen of ras and sexs nWallersen s essay ha we see us how oerysrken an analyssof ras and sexs would be f were resened fro he sandon of worldsyse heory alone. Why s hs? s beause heexlanaon offered by Wallersen reas ras and sexs as ehenoenal as ndenal o he leel of he real. There s no

enon of lynhngs of hld olesaon, of bak sree aboronsof he burnng of whes of he Ku Klux Klan The fa s ha rass and sexss oe n an nfne arey of guses and draw uona erable u firu of rerodue ranogrfyngsraeges. Ths u fru s jus one fae of a uluralrealy whh s jus as oenous as he realy whh Wallersendesrbes n ers whh are heseles ulural hrough andhrough To squoe Tennyson Wallersen s ulure s for a ery

sall rowd

Rf

Dhy Whm (1988 Iodio o h Si nsld m h

Gmn ( 1 883 by Rmn J Bns Lndn HvsWhshf

Hvy Dvd (1985 Coio d h U Epi Oxfd Blkwll

sn Cy nd Gssbg Lwnc (ds (1988 Mi d h Ipioo/ Cl Lndn Mmln

Ro Bo eahes Soology a Newasle Polyehn.



uue s e oSyse

A Rey o oyeInue Ween

Is a grea py he world s o as we would lke o e Bu does do ay good o kll he esseger? Roy Boye sars hs pece yasseg ha I cla o e alkg aou he capacy o creaeculural reales whereas ac I a alkg aou he capacy o

ule culural sraeges I gaher he orer s coedale uhe laer s duous, or apulae The pure creae reales hepure ule sraeges Roy Boye clearly has a er sese odscere ha I hae he kows whe soeoe or soe group screag a realy raher ha erely ulg a sraegy I ad haI hae oud o praccal way o draw he le, ad I gae he eorup log ago The hsorcal socal sceces should o dou eored y ad ased o oral opos Bu I do elee socal

scess sere ay purpose y oralg Ul g sraeges s o ay case oral, ad he use o sraeges s ery uch a culuralrealy

Wha shall I say o Roy Boyes loud deucaos ha I reallyhae sopped eag y we ha I ad ha culure olesrch descrpo (who could eer hk oherwse, u do opolcs or ecoocs also ole rch descrpo?) ha I doo hk ha oe ca oly ake ral saees aou culure

(why else would I oher wrg hs arcle, ad ohers, whculure he le?) ha I do o elee culure s erelyderae (how could I hk ha whe I dey he presuedoologcal auooy o hree spheres o ecoocs, polcs adculure?) ha I do hk racs ad sexs are eppheoeal(whe ac I hae sad e ad aga ha hey are udaeal,deg reales o he oder worldsyse)?

Boye apparely hks ha I hk ha ecooc srucureshae echacal relexes, ha hey are agle (hae you or

or tr & ocit ( ondon wby k nd w Dlh Vol. 7

(1990 63-6



4 hory Cuur Sociy

ayoe, Mr Boye, eer touhed a rsg rate of terest' or afallg rate of proft'?) Eough of slogas

We get oly oe defto of ulture Boye's artle: ulture sthat whh eeds to be desrbed, that whh aot be atpatedo the bass of soe theoretal prese' I wrote a whole book,alled Hisorica Capiaism whh I explaed the use of ysoewhat uusual louto the ttle a s refletg y feelg thatost aalyses of aptals were dered fro theoretal presesad that I beleed ts aalyss ust beg wth a desrpto of whathstorally atually ourred Ths atttude I thought I wasotug y artle o Culture as the Ideologal Battlegroudof the Moder Worldsyste' I was seekg to spell out how

ulture' as a oept has bee hstorally used the last twoetures or so, ad what I thought was lyg behd ts use,ludg what I thk hae bee the systeat ofusos tsusage (No doubt lthey also saw a double usage so what?) Itreated the oept of ulture exatly as I would treat ay otheroept (eg ret, bourgeose, the people, deoray, soeregty, surplusalue, ad so forth ad ifiium as hstorallyfored, reated ad rereated, ot erely a tool of aalyss but a

obet of aalyss ae o apology fo ts effot f ouse,ulture s ultately derate ' Eery oept, by beg a oept,ples a derato There s othg speal ths about ulture

Why the s Roy Boye, ad ay others, so agtated about, sodefese about, the hass gard of ulture? I suspet that he sees ulture' the expresso of hua freedo ad free wll agastthe el ehaal oppresse deos that goer us (the poltaleooy' ?) If so, he s truly barkg up a wrog tree If aythg,ulture s a word that desrbes what ostras us ( the osteffete way possble, by shapg our wll' that seeks to assert tsfreedo'), ad s ot a wrd hat desrbes our ablty to esapethese ostrats Herbert Maruse, ros ad Civiizaioeghs agast those who wsh to redefe Freuda oepts bygg a greater role to sooultural fators the forato of ourpersoaltes He otes that ths s the road to our beg reolded bysoety' He argues that the Freuda d, so far as t s basedpresely o bology ad o o ulture, s the oly safeguard of our

freedo, the oly way whh we a eer hope to esape theshakles of brute ad dsterested objets'

There are two atters ult ately at ssue ths debate Oe s thessue of agey a those who suffer (fro say ras) do aythgabout t, aythg that atters? The seod s whether there s soe



Walersten Rpy to Boy 5

thng alled ulture whh deeres a plae een a prleged plaen our epsteology?

On ageny I pert yself to repeat what I preously sad n adsusson of Walter Rodneys ews on ageny wth whh I wasuh n sypathy

Th ss f gn s n spl n plgs h sl sns. As hs wh

ng gnlzns n h n f gph nqnss nv f

sng n sl nlss pls h n nvl gp s gh n

s wb n f h ng n f h nl An s s xp h

hs wb s n n f b h s f wlls h n n f b h

sl nns (nsns pf l f n s hs

nn h f h n vll n sl sn h s b n

n hh f pw s sng s w llws lgllh h sng g h w fqnl hn h w. Els n wh

sns h sng? Ths sl l s nsf n pbl f

h nls whn w sss gn. Shl h nls sb hs f

h p wn h b p? Th bvs nsw s h nls shl

nh sn h w nxbl ln. Th w nlll n.

(Wllsn 986

On the seond ssue, the portane of studyng ulture I feel

about t the sae way as I feel about studyng eonos orpolts I t s a nonsubjet nented for us by nneteenthenturysoal sene The sooner we unthnk ths unholy trn ty the soonerwe shal begn to onstrut a new hstora soa sene that gets usout of the any uldesas n whh we fnd ourseles Ephasngulture n order to ounterbalane the ephases others hae put onthe eonoy or the polty does not at all sole the proble; t nfat just akes t worse We ust surount the ternologyaltogether

I onfess I hae no easy soluton to offer I a as uh a t ofy eduaton as y olleagues So I too fal bak on usng theexstng sleadng oneptual languages n order to ounateBut I assert that I a n searh of better and that worldsystesanalyss f t has any alue whatsoeer s part of ths searh onenarnaton of our ollete quest for a radallyresedonepton

RfrcWee nl 8 Wl n Th Hsn s Spsn f Hs

m oog 22 33036



Turg orl-System Teory o ts He

bet Begesen

I soology ad poltal see the prealg theoretal approahto explag teratoal order s qute smlar I teratoalrelatos theory the realst ad eorealst posto argues that theteratoal sate system s a produt of struggles for powerbetwee soereg states a odto of teratoal aarhy It

s a assumpto whh a be traed bak to Thuyddes ( 1 9 1 adwas lassally artulated by Hobbes (196 for the atos of themoder state system Ge the obous absee of a world state,ths seems qute reasoable Wth soology the worldsystemperspete assoated wth Immauel Wallerste (1983; 1989makes a somewhat smlar set of assumptos Here the world s seeas deeloped ad uderdeeloped states or oes, the terato ofwhh, through uequal exhage proesses, produes a global oreperphery dso of labor. Here trade ad exhage osttute theprpal soal mehasm for tegratg ths global system

These two perspetes are smlar as they both make the ommotheoretal assumpto that the ompoet oes, or statespreede, ad make possbe, the subsequet stutues ad essesof the larger world, or teratoal system I effet, both postos beg wth subparts of the worldsystem, from whh theydere, albet wth dfferet logs the larger global totalty TheeoHbbesa ratoal hoe bas of realst teratoal relatos

theory has bee heatedly dsussed (Ashley, 1 98 ad the Smthabas of Wallerstes world dso of labor has bee rted byBreer (191 who emphases the prmay of lass relatoswth atos oer exhage relaos betwee them, as the motfudametal soure of aptalsm o a wrld sale Although theare atthetal poltal post os, there s a ommo eoutltarabass to the soologsts of the worldsystem perspete (a Smthadso of labor) ad the poltal setsts of the eorealst ter

atoal relatos perspete (a Hobbesa struggle for power)

Thoy l Soci SAG L wby ew Delh V 7

( 1990 67-81



Bgsn Turig Word-Sytm Thory o its Had 69

to oth gons of th glob atng a wb of ntsotal poltal/ono stutus (olonals o pals) But th yassupton s that hang withi natonal onos st off odtn latons btw sots Fo a global psptths s laly an nddualst bas (agan wh th ndduals ha aptal st stats) Ths though s aly notd baus th atosat th wold ll a now whol ounts and whn thy at t sso soal but what s soa and what s nddual s latFo th natonal stat o sotal pspt psons o subgoups a nddual pats and th soa foaton th whol Butglobally sotal whols a but sall global pats Sotsstats and natonal onos a th nddual oponnts of th

now lag global totaltySond hang assud alady xstng ntnal dffns th

poltal sntsts and soologsts thn assu stats ntat toax ths gn pow and ono ntsts Intnatonalpoltal onoy thosts ha a nolassal ono bassngly opposd to th noMaxs of pals/dpndny/woldsyst thosts Yt both a qut sla Thasonng s fo pats to whols wh th pats a stats o

natonal onos and th whol th ntnatonal o woldsyst Both odls assu that ntaton btwn stats oono ons foows from o s dtnd by poltal oono stngth wthn stats o ons

Thd th s th sultant assupton that baus of thsntnatonal ntatons (whth ono poltal o ultual)th bypodut s so nd of ntnatonal od whh tas thtwo ost ponnt utltaan fos ontat and dson oflabo Th soal ontat on a global sal s th poltal sntst sphass upon g foaton tats and ntnatonal oalton foaton H ontatual latons btwn stats onsttutth y substan of ntnatonal od tslf To put t obluntly th psn of soal stutu at a global ll fo ntnatonal latons g thosts s nothng but th ontatual agnts and undstandngs of so any dst stat atos Fo thwoldsyst thosts global od tas th fo of a dson oflabo now global and now unqua but nonthlss a dson

of labo Wold od fo th Wallstnan pspt snothng o than pattns of tad and unqual xhang

What thn s wong wth ths thos? Most sply th log sbawad Th ost potant and tanfogantd assup



eoy Cutue Society

to, that state ower reedes the eergee of teratoaleoo ad oltal relatos s sly wrog I ot of fat,for the ast ajorty of the world's states, the teratoal systepeceded ther exstee ad oreoer ade that exstee ossble

the frst lae It also otues to reaffrrerodue therglobal osto ad resultat leel of atoal deeloet

old o d o I d

To see ths artstowhole log oerato we a tur to Waller ste' s oeto of the worldeooy whh he ews as a haof roduto ots lked throughout the world Wallerste'soodty' has ru fro erhery to ore, thrd to frst world

ad for a world dso of labor: To talk of oodty haseas to talk of a exteded soal dso of labor' (Wallerste983: 3) The lass eoutltara assuto For Wallersteths global dso of labor aog dfferet roduto roessesdeeloed oe te ad beae ore herarhal, that s, led toa eer greater olarato betwee the ore ad erheral oesof the worldeooy', where olarato eas real oeleels', qualty of lfe' ad the auulato of atal'

(Walleste, 983 3)Now ths brgs us to the key roble: the org of equaltyad exlotato o a global sale The otested ot s Waller ste' s uderstadg of how ths dso of the world to rh adoor (ore ad erhery) was rodued ad otues to be rero dued He says Itally seakg here of the herarhato' ofthe oodty has the satal dfferetals were rather sallad th e degree of satal sealato lted Wth the atalstsyste howeer whateer dfferetals exsted (whether for

eologal or hstoral reasos) were exaggerated refored, aderusted' (Wallerste, 1983: 3) Ad just what dd the exag geratg: etures of uequal exhage

How did his nql xhng wo? Sing wih ny l dinil in h

k oing bs o i. •( h (poy siy o oplx pod

ion poss o iiil siis d mn miitri oodiis ovd

bwn ons in sh wy h h wih h lss s i sold is i

o h oh pi h innd o l inp (os hn n qlly

pid i oving in h opposi diion. W lly hppnd is h h

ws ns o p o h ol poi (o spls bing podd o on

on o noh (Wllsin 9833)



Bergese uig WodSystm hoy o its Had 1

Bu hs s a erso o f he hsoral proess as auallyourred. Frs here are o ay real dffereals) he markewhh beg he proess for he d fferees bewee ore ad per phery are o par of aure bu are forefully reaed hroughoques ad oloao hrough powe o exhage. Ialyhere are o rea dfferees whh are hrough me magfed byuequal exhages bewee dffere areas beause al y heres he exerse of fore power ad h oques of Europeaoloal expaso whh o oly subjugaes areas of he world oore polal domao bu hrough suh fore suh oeoom or exraeoom oero rasforms hese areas oplaaos largesale rahes mes ad all he eoom fra

sruures we all uderdeelopme. Seod Europea/oEuropea power relaos form a sruure of world power whhoues o reaffrm he subordae poso of ooal areas I soly he aft he oques aft he esablshme of a se ofgobal relaos o subordao ha we ge ayhg lke uequalexhage

Ths eeme of fore ad power he pola ad eoomdomae of he Europea ore oer he res of he world s o

oly mssg Walerses exposo bu mysfed by hsaalyss Whe he suggesed a srugge oer pre beweebuyer ad seler where he ore s he buyer ad he perphery heseer mples he relae depedee o buy ad sel o heworld marke .

Bu whe dd he Aes or Ias eer dede o se o he wordmarke? Whe dd hey as Walerses produers loaedsomewhere alog oe of hs ommody has eer sruggle oerpre wh he Europeas? Neer obously! Ad why? BeauseAes ad Ias dd o sar ou wh ay real dffereal heworld marke or dd Core or Parro eer egage hem asrugge oer pre for here eer was ay uequa exhagebewee Europe ad he Aes or Ias. Wha dffereas exsedwere catd hrough polal sruggle bewee Europe ad he resof he world .

Therefore ge oques o uequal exhage ge poalpower d soal orol o ommody has of buyg ad

sellg ge he esablshme of global soal relaos beweehe Europea ore ad he oquered world he ad oly he dodfferees ome o beg These dffereals are polally



hory, Cutur Socity

reated, ot startg pots ature for oquest sets plae aglobal struture of domato oloalsm mag theproduto of raw materals a cssity ad ot a dcisio bybuyers ad sellers a mythal supply ad demad determedworld maret.

Wallerstes theoretal msoepto arses for three reasos.Frst, he mstaely geerales from the Balt trade betwee poltally depdet Easter ad ester Europe to the world as awhole. Whle the Balt trade perpheraled Polad as a produer ofprmary ommodtes, the relatos betwee ester Europe adthe rest of the world dd ot ole soereg states, but areas thathad bee oquered The Ates are ot the Poles, ad whle trade

ad uequal exhage may hae uderdeeloped Polad, t wasoquest whh establshed the poltal framewor of oloalsmwth whh trade wth the Ameras too plae. It was oquestad oloal relatos whh strutured perpheral produto adthereby reated uderdeelopmet, ad, se the oloal relatoharatered most of the world by 94 some 84 peret of theworld was, or had bee, uder oloal rule), ths made the oloalrelato, ot the Baltle uequal exhage relato, the ey ore

perphery relato for the world eoomy as a wholeSeod, the suggesto that the trasatoalty of ommodtyhas s as desrptely true of the sxteeth etury aptalstworld as of the twetethetury Wallerste , 983 3 ) s msleadg, beause the oloal perphery was ot omposed of soeregstates. Coloes are ot states, ad to desrbe oloal pluder adsurplus trasfers as trasatoal' trade s msleadg As oloesbeame depedet they beame states, but for the worldsystem asa whole, wth the frst oloy beg establshed Ceuta 4 , wedot hae a poltally soereg exoloy utl 6, ad eewth the deoloato f the rest of the Ameras the frst half ofthe eteeth etury, we dot hae the deoloato of Afra,Asa, ad Ida utl after 94

Thrd, Wallerste fouses upo state boudares as the poltalrelato the world, whh the maes t seem that almost allommodty has of ay mportae hae traersed these statefroters Wallerste, 983 3 suh that t seems that the world

eoomy as suh has, s a eoom system outsde the poltalstruture of the wordsystem As suh the world eoomy appearsexteral to poltal power ad domato strutures that mghtostra or shape the dreto of surplus extrato ad aumula



Bergesen uig WordSystm hory o its Had 73

ton But ths s true ony when oreperphery reatons are seen aseono exhange and not pota power reatons tuay thss qute a genera probe as orthodox Marxsts aso fee that onysoeta reatons of produton frae and deterne the extratonof surpus fro dret produers and athough they hae been quterta of Waersten they too end up argung that the totaty ofproduton reatons exst ony regonay as n nneteenthenturysae odes of produton n the eran South and aptastodes n Brtan

The portant theoreta pont here s not that there are no suhsoa reatons of produton but that there are aso reatons ofproduton on a word sae goba ratios oj productio n

the for of the ownershp and ontro of oona soa fora tons by ore states that onstran and deterne the soetaodes whh are but the nfrastrutures of the arger goba odeof produton

Fro ths pont of ew nddua ore states oetey onsttute a cass oj stats that hae a oon pota/eono rea ton to the rest of the word estabshng the bass for a theoretadsusson of truy word ass reatons These reatons defne a

word ode of produton whh fraes and strutures that s setsts and deternes Waerstens oreperphery eonoexhanges (nudng unequa exhange) Waerstens oodtyhans therefore are not outsde the exerse of goba pota onstrants beause the portant pota/produton reatons of thewordsyste are not statesoety or stateeonoy reatons butare oreperphery pota reatons Vewng the word as a whoestates and oones hae oon pota reatons of donatonand subordnaton whh onsttute a set of goba proprty ratios or goba cass ratios that are arger than the power andauthorty of any snge state or the soa produton reatons of anysnge soeta ode of produton

Whe unequa exhange and oodty hans ay hae beentransnatona sne the sxteenth entury they are not transoona and that s the portant pont Waerstens oodty hans areexterna to nddua state strutures but itra to oreperpherypota strutures of goba power nd that s the portant pont .

By fousng upon the externaty of goba surpus fows to anysnge state he asks the ontro ore states exerse coctivy asa ass sas the surpus fows fro the underdeeoped wordHs oodty hans paree the unty of the goba produton



4 heoy, Cte Soiety

roess ad thereby mystfy ad mask the uderlyg global relatos of produto.

By so mssg ths oreerphery produto relato Wallerstemakes the lass utltara error of derg the strutural loatoof ore ad erhery from ther exhages rather tha seeg thatt s the oreerhery oltalroduo relato that brgsforh ther uequal eoom exhage relato.

I short trade uequal exhage or log ommodty has doot osrut the oreperhery struture of power ad doma to bu the oreperhery domato relato makes ossble thesurlus extrato ad the dretoalty of ts flow that s makesuequal exhage possble ad reprodues t oer the etures

For Wallerste uequal exhage results a trasfer of art ofthe toal roft (or surplus) beg rodued fro oe zoe toaother . . suh that we a all the losg zoe a erheryad the gag zoe a ore (Wallerste 1 983 32). Note thsaalyss ore ad erphery are osequees ot auses ofsurlus trasfer. The roess though works jus the other wayaroud He speaks of the ertal tegrato of produtoroesses shftg more of the total surplus toward the ore whh

prodes more uds for furher mehazato whh allows produers ore zoes to ga addtoal ompette adatages exstg roduts ad . . . to reate eer ew rare produts wthwhh o reew the proess (Wallerste 983 32) But aga t sot that Spa produed more ompette produts tha the Azteor as

There smply was o a pror world market to whh Spaardad Azte stepped Nor dd uequal exhage betwee these areasresult a trasfer of the surplus proft the Aztes had reated atther ot o the ommodty ha or dd ths exhage lkAmera produers wth Europea produers

That kd o f reasog makes o sese at al l for somethg smssg The oquest ! Not ust as a fat of poltal domato butas he mehasm whereby Azt or a eoomes were destroyedad reosttuted as mes platatos ad rahes whh ddgeerate surlus that oly the moed to Europe. But ot beause ofuequal exhage Whe Spa Portugal Eglad or Frae

shed maufatured goods to ther oloes ad from them wasake attle wheat dgo or otto ths was ot exhage ortrade Not ee uequal exhage Coloes presely beausehey are oloes beause that s a goba popety eatio hae



Bergesen ug Word-System heory o ts Head 5

no choce but to shp surplus. Perpherl proucton s not eter mne b strugges over prce nor the vgres of the mrket normonopolstc prctces of core proucers. Perpherl proucton setermne b the fct tht colones re owne b the core n thtownershp relton tht gob propert relton s mske nmstfe b clng t n unequ exchnge reton Coones befnton re not soveregn ctors n ont freel tre nor getcught n unequ exchnges becuse there s no exchnge n the frstpce

No commot chns n no proucton process n the core ngn n the perpher. Once the worl econom n gobl moe ofproucton come nto exstence there s onl one socl propert

relton on worl scle n onl one proucton process n onone css relton n tht s the core ownershp n contro of per pherl proucton Ths so mens there s onl one moe ofproucton gobl moe of proucton

ig Iiol Rlio o o I d

f power reltons precee tre reltons n worlsstem theor ts lso true tht cultur reltons precee potcl reltons n nter

ntonl retons theor. The ke pont here s the sme s thesocologcl crtque of uttrnsm except now t s sort ofgoboogcl crtque of neorest nternton reltons theoret's strt wth the socoogcl crtque whch ws mnfeste nth e wrtngs of Mrx Weber n Durkhem Ther generl pont wstht nvul cton mples the presence of some kn of soclorer not the other w roun. n Durkhem (19) ths took theform of notng the precontrctul fountons of contrct nvuls o not come together n stte of rue nture to form thecontrctu bons of socet for to nterct t l presupposes nsttutons ke nguge whch mples set of mutul gree uponsmbos n trnsnvul menngs tht s mples the presenceof some form of socl orer t s becuse of such precontrctulcontrcts tht ntercton cn occur n the frst plce. or Weber( 1 958) t ws the cuturl presuppostons of the Protestnt Ethctht unergr the seemngl rtonl cts of the utltrn cptlst t ws not just economc vrce tht me cptlsm the

rtonlstc sstem t ws; rtont ws culturll roote. ForMrx the rgument ws rectl gnst the ssumptons of economsts such s Am Smth who ssume the propenst to truck nbrter ws ntur n not socl n orgn To prphrse Mrxs



6 Thory, Cutur Socity

mous sttement t s not buyng n seng whch mkes peson cptst but cptsm whch mkes peson buy n se t sthe exten css etons o cptsm tht mke men se thebo It ws neve ee choce

Starting from that point, I wi argu that it i not th nationtatin trad dipomacy or war that mak an intrnationa ytm butan intationa ytm that mak a tat trad act dipomaticayand go to war Ths nveson o the uttn ogc s t the het othe goboogc (socoogy on wo sce) ctque o nten ton etons theoy ust s ee socoogsts ovecme the c ton tht no mn exsts outse o po to socety so must we toyovecome the cton o n ntenton stte o ntue o nten

ton nchy popute by seseekng est sttes Snce thencepton o the moen stte system n the teenh centuy t sse to sy thee hs been no stte tht hs exste outse o opo to ths ntenton oe

Just s n nvu cnnot ntect wthout the peexstence ocutue so too oes stte cton mpy commonty tht prcdstte ntecton Ths s the gob nog to Dukhems pe contctu unestnngs

Tke the exmpe o the neesst o ne o ntepesonntecton Thee s n nog wth sttes A stte cts n communctes though pomtc nuge nepenent o the ocvencu t st Ltn n te ench n pomtc epe senttves (mbssos emsses coues etc) n n eecentues though nke ynstc mes The pont hee s tht thepesence o these nkges pecees stte ntecton n uthemkes t possbe n the st pce

om ths pont o vew the ntenton system n the om o tscutue (pomtc nguge n systems o epesentton) oesnot oow the ntecton o sttes but mkes tht possbe Themoen stte oes not stt out n some ue stte o ntentonntue wthout common cutue o soc etons to go oth ncontctuy om pomtc nguge ntenton egmes n the othe cutue coectvey known s the ntenton systemTe pont to emembe s tht the vst moty o the 1 0 o sosttes n exstence toy wee cete out o n ey exstent

ntenton system Those sttes not cete ths system Theycme nto exstence at the cutue n stuctue o the nten ton system ws ey n pce whethe we e tkng boutntenton w n nces o gob stuctues o omnton



Bergesen uig Word-Systm hory o its Had 77

(colonlsm) tht unergr the more surfce coreperpheryson of lbor

Now the queston cn be rse bout the ncepton of the moernnterstte system . D not tht nole sttes nterctng for the frsttme to prouce lrger network of nterstte retons At stkehere s the lrger queston of the lty of the collectst soco logcl perspecte Tht s f one rgues tht the socl precees nmkes possbe the nul from whence comes such collecteorer? Ths s Thompsons (1978) crtque of Althusser's (1971)socology n the reffrmton o f the conscous ctng subject notonly n hstory but mkng hstory. When t s put lke ths opeople mke hstory or oes hstory mke people t seems n

mpossble queston n some sort of compromse seems necessry.There s externl structure yes but there s lso wlle conscouscton gency Agency n structure the ulty of humn xs tence. As Mrx tre to put the sme queston men o mke hstoybut not uner contons of ther choosng At the leel of theconcrete nlyss of ctul hstorcl stutons ths mle robetween the conscous rtonl ctor n the omnpresent soco logcl structure seems resonble. Certnly no one woul rgue

tht l l s etermne nor tht ll s mtter of moment to momentchoce. But ths s not the ssue here. The queston s one of theoretcl prgms n the problem wth the hlfwy soluton s thtt s no nswer t ll to the queston of whether the nterntonlsystem s compose pror of sefntereste sttes or whether thtery nterest s functon of postonl locton wthn the lrgersystem The poston wl opt here s tht the moern stte oesnot precee the nternton system. Both rse t once long wththe ent of moern colonsm mkng the socologsts worlsystem relty t the sme tme s the poltc scentsts nterntonl stte system Actor (stte) n system worl) re temporllynseprble n f nythng the cultur n structurl reltons ofpremoern Europe l the founton n thereby precee theemergence of the moern stte f there s n ege n thschckenegg queston t es wth the worlsystem not the stte.

Culul -uppoo of Mod S Sm

We cn ress the queston of the orgns of the stte system byrememberng how t n fct rose rom the lrger system of LtnChrstenom pont clssclly e n the nternton reltonslterture by Wght (977). He rgues tht the nterntonl frme



8 hor Cutur Socity

work o the stte sstem precee the emergence o sttes n wsprove b the orgnzton structure o the tn Church nthe culturl unverslsm o Chrstenom. Ths ws represente nprt b the commont o Chrstn prnces whose nstes werelnke to ech other n to the meev pst. The vrous ntern ton congresses tht chrcterze the evelopng stte sstemrose rom erer councls o the Church so tht gn some orerprecee the estbshment o the moern nterntonl orer Itws smpl not Hobbesn selorgntng sstem The Churchws the nterntonl orgnzton o the "Respubc Chrstnn ts conclr mchner prove the moe or the sttessstem' (Wght 19 1) The pont here s tht s councls were

eclnng the seculr congresses were growng For nstnce theCounc o Constnce (1118) whose purpose ws to en theGret Schsm ws lso nvolve n current conlcts betweenEngn Frnce Poln n the Teutonc Knghts It ws olloweb the Counc o Bse (1315) n ts successor o Ferrr Forence (1385) Durng ths tme the more seculr congresseswere commencng lke the Congress o Arrs o 135 nvolvngEngln Frnce n Burgun. These erl seculr congresses

oten h the ppc s metor reectng the mnshng role othe Church n the potcs o the stte sstem (Wght 19 1)

The pont s not the concrete hstorc orgn o moern plo mtc mchner but the mpcton o ths hstorc recor orour more gener theoretc moe o how the stte sstem roseFrom the er stte conerences beng prt o the ter Churchcouncs to the presence o n extrstte nguge or pomcto the heretr nkge o prnces there ws n nternton orerwhch rose t the sme tme s sttes such tht one cnnot seprteout the stte s comng rst n the nterntonl sstem s secon.In ct ths nternton cuture oten precee stte cton ncertn me t possble such tht wht Durkhem (1933) notebout the uttrns tht conrctu orer ws not the source osocet but socet the source o contrcts must now be pple tonternton retons n worlsstem theor Agn most o theworls tes ppere ter ths ssem ws set n pce much kepeope re born nto n ongong lre exstng socet. Ths

mens tht the emphss upon nternton nrch onl cts tomsk the presence o nterntonl structure the sme w tht thenvul bs o uttrnsm msks socetl structure



Bergesen uig WordSystm hory o its Had 9

Bgg Collv o Iol o

Power provdes the socl element mssng n the tomstc pcture of world dvson of lbor the sme w culture provdes the soclelement for the Hobbesn pcture of the nterntonl reltonstheorsts n both cses the collectve must be rentroduced ntothese ccounts The het of the worldsstem then s not trde ndexchnge just lke the hert of the nterntonl stte sstem s notcontrctul regmes between selfseekng stte ctors n unverse ofnterntonl nrch n both cses we hve the neoutltrnworld vew devod of culture/power nd populted wth ctors whohve somehow cqured ther ttrbutes pror to nd ndependent ofther prtcpton n the globl sstem But s noted before most

sttes of the world cme out of the ctons of the worldsstemtself Colonlsm estblshed ther boundres nd ther ntonldenttes were forged n ntcolonl struggle t s not ccdenttht the wekness of Spn s ted to the ndependence movement ntn Amerc or the exhuston of Europe fter 9 to thedecolonzton of Afrc nd As nor tht these ndependencemovements were encourged nd supported b the newl emergnghegemonc power t the tme Englnd encourged nd quckl

recognzed the ndependence movements n tn Amerc nd theUnted Sttes n As/Afrc Therefore there s no w tht thever creton of most of the world' s sttes cn be seen s nthngother thn f not the product of t lest the ntercton wth thelrger nterntonl/worldsstem Wllersten's world dvson oflbor certnl exsts Dfferent prts of the world produce ndexchnge dfferent knds of products f tht there s no doubt But tht s onl the surfce Below nd behnd les the structure of globl

power whch hs mde such trde reltons possble nd contnues toenforce them todTrde nd exchnge nd to nclude the poltcl scentsts

wr nd dplomc do not mke the world or nterntonlsstem but the nterntonl/worldsstem mkes sttes trdeexchnge nd go to wr! Untl ths s full relzed both the nter ntonl reltons trdton n poltcl scence nd the worldsstemtrdton n socolog wll perpetute flse nd msledng pctureof the nture of nterntonl lfe nd most mportntl contnue

to msk the deeper ets of culture/power reltons tht undergrdnd mke possble the more secondr nd surfce nterctons thtpresentl represent the hert of these two theoretcl trdtons



80 ey, Cte Sciety

gpl gv l Rgv

wou ke to cose wth n ron The nt mpuse of the worsstem perspecte ws to e wth questons of unereeopmentfrom more theoretc progresse pont of ew Ntonmoes whethr neocssc or Mrxst h the sme ffcutThe sw eeopment whether b eouton or reouton s nessent ntrsocet process But cptsm ws worwephenomen n ts most nmc processes were thought to be tths gob ee It ws progresse moe n shftng the ee ofnss to the gobe n n scussng cptsm s gobphenomen Tht geogrphc shft though so noe theoretc moe bckwr n tht ths gob economc entt ws

conceptuze n the tomstc terms of son of bor Thepce of the coecte of cutur n power reons ws nowmss ng A progresst n ees of nss ws ost n regressonto the presocoogc moes of the Smthn/Hobbesn retWht s requre now s the fn nteectu reconstructon of soctheor the sme trnsformton of nustc thought tht thesocoogsts for theor n the nneteenth centur Smpspecfng processes t the wor ee s no onger suffcent prt

cu when the e fwe wth the pesoc ssumptons oftomsm tht msk gob cuture n power There s one more stepfor the fegng worsstem perspecte to tke n tht s topce cuture n power t the hert of the nss n repce thenusm mpe n the e of son of bor unequ ornot

N wold o h sbh Cls d Ad Gd fo hpfl o

s. Ths sh ws sppod by h Uvsy of Ao.

I Alhogh pow s od h s os ly h s Wss

wgs h q xhg lo h pdo o of dfg d

podg h opphy r

Rf

Ahss L ( 197 Lenn and ooy w Yo Mohy Rvw.Ashly R (984 Th ovy of oRs' Inenaona Organzaon 52)

22586B R. ( 1 971 Th Ogs of Cpls Dvop A Cq of o

h Mxs New Left Revew 04 2592



Begee Tuig WodSystm Thoy o its Had 8 1

Durh ( 933 Te Dvso oj Lao oe Yor r Pr

Hobb T 964 Leaa Yo Wahgo qar Pr

Thopo P. (97 Te oe oj Teo ad Oe Essas Yor

Moh v

Thu (9 Te eooesa a Yor Mor brarWalr 93 Hsoa Caasm oo ro

War 99 Te ode odsem [ Te eod Ea oj ea

Easo oj e Caas WodEoom s Yor abrg

Wb M. 95 Te oesa E ad e oj Caasm Yor

Srbr'

Wgh M 977 sem oj aes H ( r r r

Pr

Ab Bg ehe Sooogy he vey of AzoTo



Moels of the oern orlSystem

Peter Worsey

I he often been crete wth nentng the Thr Worl n fctthe honour goes to the rench emogrpher Alfre Suy, whofrst use the term n n rtcle n the newspper, L Obatu on 4 August 952 enttle Tros Mones, Une Plnte Tht t rosen rnce n not n the Thr Worl tself, my seem procl

It ws prouct of the Col Wr the epoch n whch two superpowers tre to omnte the entre globe. The clms by ech ofthem tht they lone represente the nterests of humnty s whole ws howeer wely rejecte by people who resste bengsucke nto ether cmp; n rnce by the Gullsts on the Rghtwth ther nsstence on fnng thr ntonl wy n on theeft by the emocrtc but rcl soclsts fghtng both gnstUS hegemony oer the Atlntc Allnce n nternlly the lrgeStlnst rench Communst Prty.

By the en of the Secon Worl Wr, only few excolonlcountres notbly In h chee ther nepenence But twoyers lter Chn the most populous country on erth chee tslberton from mperlst omnton through force of rms.Through the 95s n 96s the number of new AfroAsn sttesstely ncrese. They now begn to come together wth ncresngfrequency to work out new poston n worl ffrs qute stnctfrom ether of the blocs hee by the superpowers. Some h

fought for nepenence through rme struggle. n Vetnm nton o pesnts efete the rench Army n Alger, notherbtter rme struggle ws gong on. Although tht reoluton wscontne mltrly n the Mu Mu Rsng n Keny ws lsoefete by the Brtsh the two mjor colonl Powers now relzetht they coul not go on holng own worlwe reoluton byforce for eer

So the wns of chnge' blew powerfully n Afrc seenteen

new sttes n the sngle yer of 96.

heoy Cuue & Socey Lonon wb n w Dh o 7990 8395




The rst commtment o these new sttes ws to ntonbulngnternll n to the lberton o the remnng colones. Hvngree themselves rom cptlst Europen omnton the h noesre to ll uner nother Europen hegemon tht o thecommunst bloc So when the cme together t Bnung n 1955the eventull consttute themselves s orce nepenent oether cmp' not s et nother boc but s loose AroAsnroupi (Snghm n Hune 1986).

The thereore sw themselves n were seen b others s newhird Worl At the begnnng ths ws prmrl poltclgroupng n whch rcl governments such s those o Nkrumhn Nsser h ple mjor prt n where lberton move

ments nclung tht o Cub n even the communst governmento Chn were nvte Over the ers most o te more rclgovernments were ether estblze or n other ws splce bml tr or other orms o monocentrc usull oneprt regmes.B ths tme most o the eltes n power n the new Arcn steswho jontl consttute the Orgnton o Arcn Unt hbecome more concerne wth consoltng bounres rwn ncolonl tmes thn n puttng the PnArcn el nto prctce

Ntonlsm n ethnc prejuce were reel explote b the morechuvnst eltesB the 19s wrs between excolonl sttes h become

common even wrs between communst countres notbl Chnn Vetnm phenomenon unthnkble to nneteenthcenturEuropen poneers o soclsm Movements or secesson such stht n Br h been crushe. The mge o the Thr Worl s vtl new orce n nterntonl rs to use the subttle thepublsher e to m 964 book h hird Word h becometrnshe

These evelopments were not smpl ttrbutble to mperlstmchntons nor to the converse to some nercble qult othe sprt o ntonlsm. Snster nterventons n mnpultonsthere certnl were sometmes bloo s n postInepenenceZre sometmes clnestne usng proxes But governments o llpoltcl complexons whch h come to power on wve opopulr ntcolonlst but lso ntonlst enthussm ncres

ngl oun themselves unpopulr becuse the h bult or themselves ersome mchne o power centrlze n the hns o new stte elte In the neocolonl equton o power thereorethere were two terms the externl power o strong oregn govern



Wosly Mods of th Mod WodSystm 85

ms a o h wol mak a h al pow o h wsglpay sas

Th lbaly balkas mosas sh as hos o Aa

a h Cabba spally w q abl o ayl ov a wol mak ooll by h vlop salos Mo a mo oo h pow s ov hm wasbg s o by h sas whh ha omly b holoals oppssos (om whos ool hy hogh hy havly sap) b by a w k o ogovmalagy h mlaoal opoao.

Ths w vlopms whh may o h w lashps hao os. h phoa o p Tazaa osa ha alk abo spsg wh a amy alogh.Wh a opl o as Tazaa was oblg o va gh bog Ugaa a h o mpovsh hsl h poss o o h bhy o h Am gm whh ha spaaoss h bo. h oom l Ny lly amyas la hy ha blv ha polal p wol gvhm ool ov h ow oom vlopm Ths hapov o b a om h as.

was ho a hs sag ha h NoAlg Movmsh om pmaly polal popaos sh as h lbao o h mag olos owas a os po oomvlopm as h oo as o h polal mpo.

Th s majo bakhogh am wh h omao oUNCTAD 96 wh agas h opposo o h Ws hUN was o o p Th Wol vlopm sosly os aga o h s m By 9 h OPEC ol al sk a

blow a Ws omao whh plg h vlop wolo ss. A w wapo sm ha b og whh olbg h Ws o hl h ogazao o smla als by po s o pmay goos

Ths pov o o b h as sly bas h vlopooms a apabl h o lvg who mos Th Wolpmay goos sh as baaas o a vlop sbss ohm o a omplasa ag pas wh h ThWol who bak h solay o ay al o b v

Th apay o wol apalsm o a s saglhol ovomally p os by opola mas whh amas a sps o h w Th Wol sas was howv a qamla phomo o hoss hoas a govg ls



8 eoy, Cutue Society

n the countes of tn Amec. Becuse the h been poltclnepenent fo moe thn centu the h not shown muchnteest n the potc peoccuptons of the new sttes. At the tmeof Bnung theefoe the Th Wol h been n AfoAsnwol. But the expeence of Ltn Amec becme ncesngelevnt to the new sttes. Tue US poltcl n n CentlAmec ect mlt nteventon h been commonplce. Buttht powe ws usull mete though gn olgchs noc coonels' the mn on whte hose n the nneteenth centun lte b fecel ntcommunst mlt tne n US stffcoleges

Mt nteventn usul took the fom of plce coups

tt fo no seous chlenge to socl oe bse on theomnton of the lnownng clss n of the Chuch took pceunt the tun of the centu notbl the Mexcn Revoluton of9 The supepowe of the contnent n the nneteenth centutn n the twentethcentu hegemon the US nomll eleon the execse of economc powe

t ws ntul then tht epenenc theo shoul emege fstn tn Amec. n ts most popul veson n the one whch

me mot mpct upon the wol oute tht contnent tht ofAG Fnk t ws moel of the wolsstem whch sw the entewo s poze between coe countes n those on thepephe A sml Mnchen tentve exste n the fel ofpoc onl two choces wee vlble n the subttle of one ofFnk' s ( 99) books uneevelopment o evouton.

Dung the 19s n 197s howeve t becme obvous tht numbe of fome gn excolones wee n fct welvnce long the o to nustzton the soclenewlnustlzng countes' notbl Mexco n zl nthe fou lttle tges' of Est As Twn South Koe HongKong n Sngpoe to nme no othes. Steppng out of the plnento the smoglen nustl polluton of Mexco Ct o SoPulo ws enough to put the Fnkn ssumpton of thenevtblt of uneeveopment une cptlsm n oubt

The secon of hs two ltentves evoluton ws b now b nomens s elstc possbt s t h seeme when hnfu of

guels ne fom the Gama n went on to wn stunnngvcto wth n m tht on numbee 2 e befoe Hvnfe . The eth of Ch Guev n Bolv mke the tun of the tefo evoluton n tht contnent



Worsle, Mods of th Mod Word-Systm 8

Where the te of revoluton stll flow powerfull, notbl nsouthern Afrc, postnepenence governments n Mozmbquen Angol, n n Ncrgu, were vcousl estblze from

outse Vetnm foun herself engge n frher wr gnst hercommunst neghbours, Chn n Kmpuche. But revoutonrregmes, even prt from these ssters, so showe themselvesunbe to orgnze the evelopment of the econom wth themchner the h evelope to fght revolutonr wrs.

Newer kn of eveopment theor therefore begn to reflectthese chnge. Elsewhere, hve crtcze Wllerstens (1974,199) verson, for ll ts mpressve scholr fountons becuseof ts nsstence tht there s onl one sngle worlsstem (Worse,

98) There cn be no oubt tht the expnson of cptlsmoutse Europe begn not becuse people n the West were move b sprt of bstrct geogrphcl enqur: t ws serch for gol nspces Nor cn there be n oubt bout the persstng nmsm ofcontemporr cptsm bout ts cpct to nnovte n toexpn nto new zones To tke the two mensons of lbour nprces, worl cptlsm hs uproote from ther homes nstrbute roun the globe fr more mlons thn were splce

urng n fter the Secon Worl Wr Chnges n wor prces onthe commot exchnges of New York, onon or Chcgo ffectever prmr proucer, even those wthn the COMECON bloc,n re prtcur sstous for mcrocountres epenent onone or two exports Prlel wth ths economc power s the cuturhegemon of the mss me, prtcurl ro n teevson,whch hs mpnte cptlst vlues n the mns of mlons n theSecon n Thr Worls Nght fter nght, on the TV screens of

n countr south of New Orlens, the mges of the goo lfe remges of fe mong the welth n the USA, n the rem s toget, not to New York or Chcgo, but to Mm

Yet the moel fns cptsm everwhere even the communstcountres re smpl prts of the worl economc sstem, whlecptlsm s lso projecte bckwrs nto hstor s the omnntworlsstem, even s er s the sxteenth centur Yet cptsmn ts mercntst phse of expnson outse Europe to the NewWorl n to the Est whch Weber bele boot cptlsm ,

ws qute fferent n much more lmte phenomenoncompre to the ter cptlsm whch trnsforme grcutureong cptst lnes, n mplnte mnes, pnttons neventul nustr The unmportnce of Europe s refecte n the



88 hoy, Cutu Socity

w the Grn Vzer of Turke resse the renh Ambssor,n 666 not smpl s Gour (unbelever) but lso s hogg, ogge, ture eter .

Turnng to more reent tmes, the stntve hrtersts ofboth the Seon Worl n the Thr Worl re lso me tospper n the Wllersten moel s worls, the re smpleompose, n ther omponent sttes smpl llote to onetegor or the other of the moel, s ether ore , perpherl orsemperpherl ountres n nothng else.

n m vew, p cota there re profoun poltl, eonomn ulturl fferenes between the rst Worl n ommunstountres n eh of these omns n not smpl n terms of the

eonom lone. n the poltl sphere, untl 989 stte power lwth the Communst Prt the eonom, too, hs een ontrolleb the stte n plnne from the entre n forms of ulturl lfewere bse upon the vlues of stntve eolog or the enrepostwr pero up to ths er, therefore, t ws nequte smplto bpss these fferenes b smpl lssfng Hungr, s, orSpn, let lone n or North Kore, s ether perpherl orsemperpherl unts. The possblt tht most of Estern

Europe, t lest, of the oler ommunst sttes, mght beomeeonomll tthe to the ptlst worl mrket s newpossblt, not one of longstnng, s the Wllersten moel hsnsste

But espte these n other theoretl shortomngs, Wllersten pereve the nee to ntroue tegor, n between the smplebnr opposton between ore n perpher tht of semperpher the sgnfne of whh unerestmte t thetme Moreover, the moel hve ple for the nvul stte,whtever the restrtons upon ts utonom beuse of ts sub ornte poston n the worlsstem.

These moftons of the rnkn shem reflet evelopmentsn the rel worl whh erler genertons of theorsts on the efth eeme to be mpossble the nustrlzton of ThrWorl eonomes uner ptlsm.

Suh evelopment ws stll usull engrte, however, sdpdt evelopment merel new w n whh globl

ptl n the hertlns ws now penetrtng ever orner of theglobe, no longer n serh smpl for rw mterls, hep lbour, ormrkets for mnufture goos, but s brnh plnt subsres nwht ws now worlwe vson of poductiv lbour, mnpu



Worsle Mods of t Mod WordSystm 89

lte mstermne n ntte from the centre n the nterests ofthe centre Poneers of the theor of the New Interntonl Dsonof bour (Froebel et 98) for nstnce nsste tht wht

nustrl eelopment ws tkng plce ws onl n sectors ofobsolete technolog whch the West ws hpp to scr textlesespecll usng chep unsklle n ununonze n mnloung femle lbour

The mplntton of msse utomoble nustr n the ABCtrngle of Brzl ner So Pulo ws certnl the work of VoloMerceesBenz For n VW lke most other nustrl eelopment n Brzl whle een n Mexco where substntl sector hsbeen eelope b ntonl cptl twothrs of mnufcturng

nustr ws USowne n 198An n Hong Kong s Suun Wong ( 988) hs hown the frst

stge of tht ctstte s nustrlzton took plce uner Chnesenot Western uspces Shnghnese entrepreneurs fleeng theCommunst nce n Chn n 949 use the cptl the broughtto Hong Kong to eelop textle nustr whch ws one of themost nce n the worl . The sent ther sons not to Hrr orOxfor but to the best centres n the worl for textle technolog to

Bolton College of Technolog n the UK n to owell Insttute ofTechnolog n Msschusetts

The secon stge of growth the ntroucton of moern sem conuctor nustres ws nee the ong of foregn mnl USn Jpnese multntonls though een here omestc cptl seelopng ts shre of the mrket But s Jeffre Henerson ( 989)hs shown eelopment of new kns s tkng plce Hong Kong sno longer smpl centre for ssembl fnl testng of trnsstors

ssemble elsewhere n esgn opertons re turnng the ct nto regonl centreMultntonl nestors nee went there n the frst plce

becuse nustrlzton h lre strte. The were ttrcteb the lblt of msses of unsklle lbour though unskllelbour ws bunnt n other prts of Est As n elsewhere Butthe Stte n ths cse Brtsh colonl goernment lsoctel set out to ttrct nestment tx n other ncentes nthe proson of n equte nfrstructure. The stte lso

embrke upon n mbtous progrmme to turn out the techncns scentsts n engneers moern mcrochp n othernustr neee.

An s fr s the unsklle workforce s concerne the re no



9 Thory utur Socty

longer mong he mos reche of he erh Ther polcl ocln bsence of mln re unonsm s rce o muln onl nesors: n pr becuse of he scourgemen of unonz

on b he colonl uhores n pr becuse of polcl sonshn he Chnese lbour moemen n he mpngon of nenences o mlnc b represenes of Pekng Bu of cruclmpornce lso re he elfre polces of he Brsh colonlgoernmen he proson of ssem of elfre n counrhch ffeen ers go s noorous for he bsence of soclserces: locos housng (8 percen of he orkng clss house nhe orl' s lrges publc housng progrmme); unersl seconreucon n lrge err ecor; ssem of publc helh

serces n he proson of chep foo (s ell s nesmen njobproucng nusr) b Chn: subs o househol ncomeof he orer of 5 percen Ths sreg of eelopmenhen h one mgh cll uhorrn Welfresm s quefferen from he more brul pern n socees lke Souh Koren Tn hch Jon Hll escrbe n her forme peroof nusrlzon s semmlrze socees' hough n hesecounres oo emocrc s slol mkng sgnfcn he s

resu of populr sruesSuch fferences hoeer re psse oer n orlssem

heores n hch he ssem seems o procee ccorng o nmmnen logc hou reference o poerful cors ecson mkers or nsuons Wrers such s Ngel Hrrs hoeer usngTrosk's noo f se cplsm ' n mpresse b he eenc of he nerenons se e escrbe boe he sngleou he se s he cenrl genc of eelopmen hle he er

nsuon hch oes opere globll he mulnonlcorporon s smsse

Eooi gowh i h wy iialiig oi appa o b vywh

aoia wih h xpaio o h pbli o a h o o h a. ha

o b pi' o liaioal apial whih ha l h po

(Hai 1987 143

Usng from Brzl n Mexco n he Es Asn four lle

gers' Hrrs rgues h hese counres represen he fuure forhe enre Thr Worl To susn h rgumen he hs o gnoremos of he Thr Worl n prculr he uncomforble fc hhe erge rchorl c consumes roun $5 orh of foo



9 hor Cuur Soci

constructs. One coul rw the line nwhere one like to eterger or smler wors' n too n number o them . one wereto introuce poiticl n cuturl istintions the number opossible worls' beomes too lrge to be useul

et us tu rn no w to the ctors' perspetive or there is rellieThir Wor out there in prcticl lie with its own institutionsnotb the NonAligne Movement whih now embrces virtulthe entire unereveope worl To these people unereveopment remins reit rom which the re unlikel to escpe in thevisibe uture n the stil see tht the shre ommon ietewith other poor ountries. Given the number o countries thegrouping is inevitb ver heterogeneous which hs le some

observers o more Rapoitik turn o min to conclue withGenerl Hig tht the Thir Worl s onept is mth or withJenne Kirkptrick tht the NonAligne Movement is nineective n irrelevnt orgniztion whose members ought toce up to choosing between the ree' n the totlitrin'worls precisel wht the Thir Wor rejete in its beginningsn continues to chllenge.

On the et Rgis Debr hs sornull ismisse the Thir

Wor s mere n nnee' o the irst Mnuel Cstels rguestht moern tehnolog hs i to rest the ver notion o Thir Worl (though he goes on to use the term ree) Debris right when he rgues tht whtever unit the Thir Worl oespossess is untion o its ommon reltionship to imperilism. Theweker countries o the wor re stil isvntge on the worlmrket whih even the rihest o them suh s the OPEC sttesnnot ontro; n beuse worwie onronttion between theSuperpowers n their epenents n their ttempt to ben theworl to their interests stil persists

None o th e moels so r iscusse tke ulture into ount . Allo them re vrints o one kin or nother o politil economthough without the cultur imension it is impossible to mke senseo moern worl in whih ntonism religion n interethnichostiit hve been r more importnt thn interntionlism nseculrism Moes bse on poiticl eonom lone thereore requite inpbe o explining suh phenomen s the rise o

moern version o slm whih is wrongl lbe unment ism' or the ontrition between the lims o tht reigion tounivers communit n the relit o the hrnessing o Islm tothe interests o the ntionstte notbl uring the IrnIrq Wr



Worsle Mod of th Modn Wod-Sytm 93

The relte mpotence of the mjort of the worls popultonto control ts own lfefte s smbolze n the lmts upon theeffecteness of the NonAlgne Moement for ll ts power to wnotes t the UN n Mnhttn

But the selfconscousness n selfctt of the peoples of theThr Worl re not confne to the cttes of eltes t ntern tonl meetngs All cross the globe nongoernmentl populrorgnztons such s the Consumers Assocton of Penng or theKerl Populr Scence Moement (KSSP) or SEWA the orgnz ton set up b llterte Outcste women workers n Ahmebene membershp of mleomnte tre unons who went onto estblsh ther own bnk re constntl n n out

fghtng to chnge the worl n to mproe ther lfecrcum stnces ke ther contemporres n Estern Euope too thehe been fr more concerne wth the struggle to estblshemocrc: wth the rght to selfexpresson n selfetermnton:thn wth fferences of economc sstem

Unfortuntel one unntene bprouct of wellmotteWestern chrt orgnztons hs been tht the he to strconscences n the West b epctng the Thr Worl s sster

zone. The result s tht the stereotpe of the Thr Worl mostpeople he to s of strng Afrcn chl wth hs hns helout for foo Ths mge entrel omts the st trnsformton ofthe newlnustrlzng countres n of the shft from worlomnte b elnce on grculture to worl n whch themjort of humnt le n ctes. t lso omts the selfctt ofthe people themseles who re not wtng for Western technologor Western knowhow n re usng both the ngenous experenceof mllenn s well s moern technologes.

n the West the supeort of our scence n technolog s nolonger tken for grnte The mjort he little wreness of theknowleges n sk lls ccumulte n trnsmtte fom genertonto generton b other cultures But the o know tht we re llthretene b nucler extncton n b the ste estructon of theenronment n tht these thngs he been prt n prcel of theeelopment of Western scence n nustr

The ntte of the Soet Unon n tkng the crucl steps

towrs the wnown of the rmsrce n the subsequent trnsformto of Estern Europe once the Soet strnglehol wsloosene he howeer opene up new worl of possbltesNot ll of these re poste: the recruescence of xenophobc




ntonlsm nse the USSR tself s one obvous nger But we eenteng new epoch n movng ut of the pplling Ice Age of theCol W n of Superpower hegemony

All the moels we hve scusse even worlsystem theoypoxclly tke the ntonstte s ther unt of nlyss. Yet llof us belong to communtes whch re both smller n wer thnthe ntonstte Hence s one nthropologst hs put t s long sthee re ten thousn socetes nhbtng 1 ntonsttes whchrefuse to ecognze the cultul n poltcl ghts mnortypeoples wll contnue to struggle to run ther own ffs by foce ofrms f nee be

Conversely the moern worl hs been shpe by cultul

communtes fom the Ctholc Chuch n Islm to seculeologes n movements lke communsm whch tnscen thebounes of even the lrgest n most centlze stte

It s now possble tht by rerectng expentue on w we coulstrt on solvng the problem whch hs lwys been techncllypossble but hs so fr prove beyon humn cpblty; the elm nton of worl poverty Young people e wre of these possb ltes whee the elers re often ferful of chnge or nure by

experence to cyncsm n resgnton he young re lso moeconcerne wth the worl s whole hus the bggest event n thehstory of humn communctons the Bn A televson ockconcert orgnze by Bob Gelof ws proect to se moneyfor the Thr Worl Eventully the poltcns n the West wllbecome more responsve to these shfts n poltcl mgnton justs even the most conservtve of them now tkes pns t lest to tlkGeen

Note

An i vion of hi pp w pn Confn ogn by h

n f ghn Soifohng n n 199

Refeee

nk A.G. 969 La mea dedeeome o Reoo ? w Yok

Monhy Rvw

ob Hnh n Ky 90 Te ew Ieaoa Dso ojabo Cbig Cbg Unvy

Gohop 977 Te ooog oj e Td od Cbig Cbg

Univy

Hi ig (197 Te d oj e Td od: New dsaz os



Worse Mdes j he Mden WdSysem 9

and Dcin j an d Hondswoh ngn.

Hndson Jffy (1989 Gbaiain j Hi cn Prdcinci pac and micndcrs in Rsrcrin j Md WrdLondon Rodg

hyo Mo (1984 Dvpmn in risis nng Conss Assoon ofnng.

MCl Gn (1980 o Wolds of Expn nd Aon ird WrdQarr (3 36-45

ngh A W nd Hn hly ( 1986 Nn-Ainmn in an A j Ainmns.

London Zd Boos

Wsn n (1974 Md Wrdsm apias Aricrand Oriins j Wrd-apiiais cnm in in nr (

vols. w Yo Ad ss

Wsn n (1979 apiais Wrd-cnm Cbdg

Cbdg nvsy ssWn Bl ( 1980 mpriaism Pinr j apiaism. London Vso

Wofhlps Lsl (1987 Why hd Wold ird Wrd Qarr 9(4

1 3 1 1 - 7 .

Wong Ln (1988 miran nrprnrs anai ndsriaiss in HnKn Hong Kong Oxfod nvsy ss

Wrd Dvpmn Rpr ( 1 987 Oxfod Oxfod nvsy ss

Wosy ( 1 980 On Wold o h A C of h Woldsys hoy

of n Wsn pp 98-338 n R. M bnd nd . vll (ds

ciais Risr 0 London Mn ss

o s Emertus Professor of Socoog t the Unverstof Mnchester.



Teory ulure n Posnusrl Socey

Mget S. che

The humn beng n the socl gent re not entcl One sgn ofn equte socl theory s tht t performs he ntrouctonbetween them punctlously: efectve theores settle for reuctonof the one to the other Bsclly ntroucng them s necessrysnce to be humn s smultneously to be socl Eqully fun

mentlly reucng tem s mstken becuse humn beng smuch more thn socl gent None of ths s nullfe by ourwreness tht socety contns lrger regster of culturl menngsn bgger repostory of structurl resources thn cn ever berwn upon by one person nor ts corollry tht ll people necessrly o rw upon them t shoul be cknowlege wth the smelcrty tht wthout reference to people's bology n psychologyther nture n sprtulty ther Webern nonsocl' reltons to

both the phenomenl n noumenl worls we re left wth plstcmn' (Holl s 9) whose selectve permuttons on menngs nresources cn only be explne by n nfnte regress to pror socletermnton

Yet t s precsely ths selectve refectve metory n nno vtory cpcty of nvuls n groups whch s neee to explnthe consttuton n reformulton of the regster n the repostry n contrst Homo Sociooicus s ull fellow seemngly hsslvton from humno sttus les wth hs neluctble prouctonof unntene consequences but snce these re hnle n robotcrectonfnng n errorcorrectng fshon there s no rebrthof utonomous mn The relevnce of ths to theores of nustrlsocety s embee n ther tretment of culture tself ts subornton to structurl evelopments or ts engrton effectvelyeve us wth pre of humnos nustrl Mn ' Moern stc Mn' hs offsprng PostMoern Mn' n the nfntnformton Mn' Robertson's (988) concept of metculture s

r tr cit ( London wby d w Dhi Vo. 7

1 99 97 1 19



98 ery Cuture Sciety

pertnent here for the custer of nustr socet theorst hecome to shre pecur mpoershe one Metcutures

onsn onpons of l nly n s of dpood pl

sspons onnng lonshps bwn ps nd whols ndvds nd

sos sos nd h woldswhol Thy lso shp h dffn

wys n whh nd ndd h dg o whh sbsnv l wll b

nvokd nd ppld o pl on (Robson 198 8 1 4

Impoershment conssts prncp n the progresse subornton of cuture unt t becomes n epphenomenon of structure Itcn be further enue b ts trzton: for ne Be themoement from the en of eoog (Be 1 9) to the shmbesof moern cuture (Be 99 9) ws ownh the w

Ths subornton of cuture hs gthere momentum wthnnustr socet theor espec oer the st ece Ererqums or hopes bout es ctng s nepenent crtc orcontrctor fctors pper to he been stfe mongst both theoctes n the opponents of Informton Socet The conse quence s tht ths subornton of cuture robs mnkn of nnepenent mor ntge pont for the euton of post

nustr trens or for rtcutng technochoces (Bhm 98) tht s prncpes gung the uses to whch nformtontechnoog shou be put Corresponng n the broer contextof soc theor the mor probem of nkng structure n gencs shee once gn b et nother metcuture of the mronette

1 I Cvg The tretment of cuture from wthn nustr socet theor we ustrte b ookng t three phses n ts eeopment on nthe me one were the probems presente b cutur epphenom ensm n cutur monsm serous resse The test phsewtnesses the thr we nnuntng the cutur rem nsweepng before t n bete fufment of the Comten w ofThree Stges In exmnng these theores the focus w be uponther nequte tretment of cuture Ther structur efcenceshe re ttrcte crtcsm n mbnce whch tsef ss gret e bout the perseness of ther metcuture

erhps the ke book to retree n recce nneteenthcenturtheores of postsm for twentethcentur crcumstnces nconsumpton ws Crk Kerr et s Industriasm and Industria

Man ( 9) Its centr ssumptons crue s the were gru



Archer Tory, Cutur ad Pot-Idustria Socty 99

becme xomtc for lter theorzng. The core noton ws smpln extene celebrton of the mpct of nustrlton on socetn generl nustrlsm ws represente s prme mover newxl prncple of socl lfe whch stnrze socl structures bthe pure logc of the nustrlzton process (Kerr et . 96 33) Ths logc ws etermnstc n unverslstc rresstblexertng the tug of nustrlsm whtever . ntl fferences'(Kerr et 96 5) of sococulturl orgnzton t encountere.Consequentl t furthere worlwe convergence towrs snglestereotpe moern socet

Wht s crucl bout ths stereotpe s tht t bunle togetherstructurl chnges n culturl chnges s prt of the prcel tht ws

morn socet' Wth smultnet n complementrt chngesn the structurl omn (the tug towrs urbnzton plurlsmn bureucrtzton) were rectl prllele b congruentchnges n the culturl relm (the pull towrs nstrumentl eucton the nucler fml rtonlzton n seculrzton nclu ng nustrl Mn hmself the plstc prouct of homogeneousprocess) Questons of culturl ncomptblt contrcton orresstnce not rse: the pure logc' ws so purel rresstble tht

een the noton of culturl lg coul be bnone fter the ntlstge Eerone woul rpl conerge wth the Unte SttesCulturl fferences woul be rone out to the extent tht nustrl mn s selom fce wth rel eologcl lterntveswthn hs socet (Kerr et l 96 83)

The nustrl conergence thess ws subect to tellng crtcsmb Golthorpe ( 964 9 ) Archer n Gner ( 9 ) Westergr( 9) Mnn (9) n Bottomore (93) mong mn othersWht s nterestng s tht espte ther own substntl fferencesll the opponents of the thess home n on ts structu efcenceswhen qute rghtl ttckng ts nbult technologcl etermnsmeolutonsm functonlsm n unerslsm Sgnfcntl t wsnot subecte to sustne cutura crtque Certnl Golthorpeproperl conemne the exggerton of the egree of etermnsmwhch s exercse upon socl structures b "mterl exgences( 964: ) n most of the boe woul concur Neertheless whtws remrkble for ts bsence ws n extene scusson of

culture s n nepenent vrble n the moernzton process orthe relte utonom of culture to rect nustrl socetes nfferent ws not ust t the begnnng but n perpetut.

It s temptng n ressurng to suppose tht the crtcs of the



heory Cuture Society

orgl usrl covergece hess regre her srucurlobecos s so evsg s o me pcg over he cuurlrus poless exercse. rerospec hs s o covcg o hecorr chlegg he srucurl premses of he hess mosere mg h he s s s weake f. No ol s hereevece of grog geerlze eorseme of he prmeposues of he meculure rolzo seculrzobu hs s lso he me he Peer Berger roe h hesecurzg poec of cplscusrl rolzo s oo selfperpeug bu sefggrzg ( 1 969 1 26). Evemore sgfcl hose crcs sressg eglr els opposo o merocrc oes o rsce he usrl

soce perspecve se he focuse o upo hose lmeorms of eglrsm ssoce h exeg eucolopporu grog occupo mobl cresg poclpursm Efecve he he eorse he culurl creo of heusrl covergece hess b lmg her crque o hecofes of s prmeers

dilm

If he 96s verso of usr soce heor h lloe forsome l cuurl vers hch s roe ou s moerghere momeum he sor coul e h srucure culurebue ogeher bou b he fucol ces of usrsm self. A he ver mos ecous culurl ffereces ere hme Jpese usrlsm jus le ffere The 19sversos of he posusr hes s of hch here ere pe lorke he oher rou commo he beg h bo

ucompromsg semes bou hecofatio

of srucure cuure The o ere o loger rough bule bu recproclcosuve of posusrl soce.

The folog seme of Eres Geler's hought adChage s he srg po for he posusr cofossMoer scece s cocevble ouse usr soce bumoer usr s equll cocevble hou moer scece.Rough sciece is the mode of cogitio of idustria society adidustry is the ecoogy of sciece (192 9 m lcs). Such

coo becme he e meculure of oppoes vocesof posusrlsm e boh pursue releless. Whhle hem s he relzo h he ere heg srgho cuur mosm Boh ere equl re h hs ere



Archer Thory Cutur ad ost-Idustria Socity 1 1

enorse for the entre poputon they wou eprve themseves ofny nepenent vntge pont for evutng postnustrsm(whether postvey or negtvey) n wou rener mor ebte onthe Goo fe nert wthn moern socety. As conftonsm begnto oo e hnng mor bn cheue to postnustsm thequeston becme ws t too te to sentnge themseves from thepowerfu metcuture they h hepe to spn Much moremportnty cou Moernst Mn be mory emncpte (nny cutur sauv qui put the nteectus wys me t to theet how ese cou genertons of theorsts hve enorseretvsm wth mpunty n sefmmunty)

Theorsts of postnustrsm re numerous n ffuse. n

orer to get to the hert of the bove ssues w concentrte on twoof the most mutuy ntgonstc to see how they bth entere nthen tre to etrcte themseves from the sme (form) metcutur mpsse On the on hn there s the neoDurhemn DneBe whose boos n the 19s were n ttempt to rewrte the stchpter of Th Divisio of Labour wth hppy enng (Be 1961 99) On the other hn there s rgen Hberms contnung theFrnfurt schoo s revsonsm who rewrote Mrs economcs s f

Gbrth were t hs shouer but wnte to retn Mrs emncptory vson As I hve mentone structur consertons renot the nterest of ths pper n s fr s these two theorsts reconcerne they re not very nterestng for they merey pre theorthooy of the ery 1 97s economc growth the ppctonof scence to proucton ncrese wefre ecrese confctmnshe potczton etc. Vsty more ntrgung re ther smrtes n fferences n the tretment of cuture.

et us begn wth Be who n the begnnng vnce much thesme cutur messge s Aron pset Shs n too mny others.The messge ws smpcty tsef Th d of Idoogy (Be1962) the mechnsm ws confton. Wth the rse of the servcecss ths unpreceente mount of co\ectve mobty ncorporte the mjorty nto nustr socety enowe them wth vestemter nterests prtcury n ncrese consumpton n cor responngy reuce ther eoogc vsons or utopn esgnsFor s pset rgue now the funment probems of the nus

tr revouton hve been sove ( 1 969 46). Yet conftonnvove much more thn the ssumpton tht vnces n nustrzton consttute progress nmey tht peope n gener nowthought tht ws wht progress ws Thus the postpotc n



hory Cutur Socity

posteologcl ge lso herle the rrvl of new technortonlty n culture whch relegte the remnng socopolclprobems to the sttus of technc questons for whch techncl sol utons woul be forthcomng. Thus n Arons wors

Bynd a ran ag n dvpn nda y f

wdn h ang f pb fab nf anan and ang h

f h a ngn vn f wnhp and hd f gan

whh wr h b f dna dga nv dng h pa

nry bng h a f hngy 67 1 645

Yet from then on both Bell ( 96) n Aron ( 92) rw bck from

the monsm tht such metculture woul mply sressng theurblty of nvusm n egltrnsm s culturl vluesntpthetc to vnce nustrl socetes An the further Belexplore (99) the substnce of ths nvulsm the more hecme to see tht one hunre yers of nustrlsm h fthere cutur monstrosty The structurl combnton of fst communctons me hgh lvng stnrs n mss consumptonmrket h generte heonstc culturl ethos whch s progl

romscuous omnte b n nttonl ntntelletultemper n whch the self s tken s the touchstone of culturlugements n the effect on the self s the mesure of the esthetcworth of experence ( 99: 3) Ths trvl selfexpressonsm wsengufng: lrey t h brought bout Deth of the BourgeosWorl Vew wth ts rtonlsm sobrety n eferre grtfc ton for whch postmoernsm now substtute enslvement tonstnctul grtfcton s mpulse n plesure one re rel nfeffrmng: ll else s neuross n eth ( 99: 5 )

Why however oes ths represent subornton of culture?Bscly becuse of ts nture t hs no cpcty to rect socetyetonlly: snce t cnnot rtcute prncples of structurchnge t remns prstc upon exstng structures Junk culture sthe spolt brt of ffluence but n ts ceeess cts of profntonn unprncpe celebrtons of novelty t so enes the poss blty of ny ebte on the Goo Socety precte s tht must beon enurng f conteste prncples n on rtonl scourse for

ther contestton he culture of moernsm s subornte becuseof ts mpotence t cn nether sustn nor crtcze nor rerectpostnustrl socety

As the concelebrnts of spontnety grow the restless quest for



Archer Thory, Cutur ad PostIdustria Socity 3

novel mens no avat gard c r fs enogh o s o fron nd excesses of profn become he m ole. Bceseless deecro s no modus vivdi o he corr ledsv hlsm o enrop. Coseqel Bell oo hs o ddress heqeson of clrl emncpo of Modersc M oresore hs movo d of Posdsrl Soce o esre smorl reglo. Bell hs come bc llcrcle o Drem'sproblem he end of Th Divisio of Labour where s he newsococlrl ceme o be fod

Drkhem's swer of corse ws o ve ew form ofseclr cvc morls necessr n hs vew sce e demse ofrelgo ws lso he loss of socl bdg power. Bell' repl s

precsel he oppose rer o relgon consed cotaDrhem s resdg pschologcl no socologcl eedhogh servcng he ler

Dsp h shambls of mon cl om lgos answ wll ly b

fohcomng fo lgon s no (o no long popy of socy n h

Dhman sns. s a consv pa of mans conscosnss h cognv

sach fo h pan of h gnal o of xsnc h affcv n o

sablsh als an o ma sch concpons sac h pmoal n fo

lanss o som ohs o a s of manngs whch wll sablsh a anscnn spons o h slf an h xsnal n o confon h fnals of

sffng an ah. (Bll 1979 169

The dffcles of hs emcporcmreglor response seemboh heologcl d socologcl. On he one hnd Bell smplreedorses he Drkhemn defnon of relgon e h whchmnns dscon beween he scred nd he profne d he

wns r ensed . . . .

f h s no spaaon of alms f h sac s soy hn w a lf wh

h shambls of app an slfns an h scon of h moal ccl

whch ngs mann. Can w ms w no sablsh ha whch s

sac an ha whch s pofan? (Bll 979 171

The dffcl s h whls he Chrsn hs o dffcl whkg emcpon nd reglon ( Th servce s perfec

freedom') Be ( 99: ) s lookng for some new re ofncorporo: o exsng verson wll do sce he beg heqeson of who s God nd who s he Devl' (Bell 99 69) Bhe robe wh new res' s h he hve o be wren b



4 eory, Cuture Soiety

someone hey o no jus surfe from some gener regousonsousness n one wren emboyng h uhors esgnon of he sre hen mpose for f so onsensus exse wou no hve neee wrng n beuse mpose he seurreonshp beween reguon n emnpon resurfes s nnnomy Be hus seems o wn he benefs of regon for henvu whou he buren of Reveon n s bessngs onsoey whou he Churh o pronoune he beneon: n oherwors he wns somehng very smr o wh Durhem wnen ppers jus s uney o ge

Hberms on he onrry sees horoughy seur souon owh he vews s horoughgong seur probem. The smry s

h he oo begns wh onfon of he sruur n he uurn whh he er s he suborne prner n h oo ens whn emp he uur emnpon of he humn re. Bs y eonom revsonsm s he soure of uur onfonSenfehn progress hs beome n nepenen soureof surpus vue' ( 968 4) s effes re he en of sry nss srugge now h he Bb urse of neessry bour sbroken ehnoogy ( 972 58) bu so new form of egm

on sne hs n no onger ome from ss eonom noonsof us exhnge n free mre Mre eonoms re fnsheeven s es n sne he nsuonzon of sene nehnoogy nvoves ronzon whh s eh o ronwhere s he egmon of vne nusr soey o omefrom The nswer s by hvng ehnoogy n sene aso e onhe roe of n eoogy ( 968 4). Bu hs ens no mysforymposon of one sss vues upon noher bu rher heunvers spreng of ehnor onsousness' ervngfrom he omnon of he emprny senes whoseppon o prouon ws he soure of sefpropeng eo nom growh

Tehnor onsousness resus n epozon n husrepresens noher verson of The En of Ieoogy hess nnoher form of uur onfon. The fferene s h seneoo s eoog no n he o sense of resng upon msrepresenon n mnpuon bu beuse soses nowege subje o

n neres n seurng n exenng onro over he obje worwhs oher neress re smuneousy represse Thus s herefe moes of he senes mgre no he soouur fe wor ( 968: ) hey beome repressve of he humn re 's



Archer hy Cutu ad PstIdustia Sity 5

emncptor nterest becuse people nd humn reltons relso treted s objectfed proceses oer whch techncl control sto be gned

The essence of modern scentfc deolog les n mspplctonrther thn mendct. As t embrces the socl scences then theknowng subject mn who cn refect upon nd chnge hsctons s lost to socolog nd hmself Thus n the socl sc ences obsered regulrtes (lke the connecton between mesuredntellgence nd school cheement or the persstence of genderroles) re tken s nrnt wth no reflecton bout whether themerel express forms of socl domnton Equll n personllfe selfunderstndng shdows scentfc progress (we thnk of

ourseles s extroerts lte deelopers or hpercte): weew ourseles s determned nd objectfed entts wthout self mster t the merc of mternl deprton depresson orhormonl mblnce nd to sole our problems we swllow pllsHumn communcton s dstorted becuse people thnk nd tlkbout themseles n terms of scentfc objectt nd mke decsons bout wht re seen s purel techncl problems thus gnrenderng morl debte nert (Archer 1988: 2f)

In order to od poststc monsm nd to oercome culturlsubordnton Hberms hd to locte n lternte source ofemncptor lues nd mens of cheng them After bref butdspponted hopes n the student moement of the lte 1 9s hsefforts n the 19s were deoted to elbortng upon the delspeech stuton where communcton free from restrnt couldfoster crtcl reflecton promote of emncpton The dffcultesof ths soluton he been well rehersed wht s sgnfcnt s tht tws stutua obstcles whch were sngled out. rst cme thechrge of crculrt how could undstorted communctonproduce emncpton snce t depended upon eqult of oppor tunt to prtcpte n the dlogue whch presumed tht emnc pted spekers lred ested. Ths Hberms took on bordgreeng tht

ony in n nip oy who b onoy n sponibily

hv bn li wol onon hv vlop no h nonho

in n nivsly pis og To h xn h h of n b on nipng h goo f (97 34)

To tht extent howeer crtcl reflecton remned n



heoy, Cuue Sociey

(ntellectul) speclty outse publc consousness whle eer thepostst hertge hel swy Then followe the obous objectonof potentl collpse nto ntellectul uthortrnsm The rposte

tht ths form of cemc scourse consttute moel towrswhch the unerstes mght le socety s whole met thecounterchrge tht t ws not trnsferble to other structurlsettngs prtculrly the most negltrn such s workers nmngement where there woul be recprocl resstnce to openlogue The psychonlytcl nlogue upon whch the elspeech stuton h rwn hely ssume common ther peutc purpose of the prtes nole whch ws utterly lckng n strtfe socety

All of ths s pretty strghtforwr the nterestng twsts nturns re ssocte wth the Frnkfurt School s culturl ttempts toreestblsh metphyscs n refecton n the relm of rtonlscourse whch poststc phlosophers h restrcte to thephenomenl worl of fct obserton n experence Crtclreflecton ws ntene to prouce humn emncpton: exercsen the el speech stuton t woul generte the consensul truthswhch set men free. The ltter requres some nepenent crteron

of truth n the former moel of emncpte mn rtcs ergue tht both were lckng

On the one hn consensulty or collecte certtue recertnly nequte crter for ltng truth clms Yet fnothng but ths rbtrtes on crtcl scourse wht protectsgnst the pretence tht eep sete prejuces were heensentntutons (Kolkowsk 1978 789). An wth fnl turn of thescrew f the prtcpnts themseles re the fnl rbters (s npsychonlyss) wht preents escent nto tht ery selfexpressesynrome whch Bell eteste for unermnng epstemologcl nethcl fountons On the other hn (gn s n psychonlyss)t s l n necessry to sk how we woul recogize n emncpte person; the queston s ot how o they /ee Yet here tpere tht no nonemprcl moel of mn ws forthcomngwhch ment tht emncpton recee negte efnton. Itws lwys stte of beng free socl constrnts y n zbut wthout some concepton of the fnl gol how cou one know

tht the stte h been chee n the lst of stortng fctorsexhuste

One cn he the gretest respect for the tsk Hberms sethmself the efence of metphyss n the rehbltton of



8 ey Cuue Sciey

eerthng socal from omestc lfe to nternatonal relatonsthrough lesure acttes to nustral relatons no sphere was leftuntouche b nformatcs (on 1988) Ths onemensonaltheor of socal change presume the emergence of a monstc set ofalues whch operate as objecte an neutral gues for actonAgan t s ths on whch I want to concentrate rather than upon thestructural efcences of the thess though the two hae anmportant nterrelatonshp Structural obectons hae wreakehaoc wth the smplstc noton of a march through the sectors' agreat trek whch ha supposel ene wth nformaton workers'n the majort throughout the OECD countres Thus Gershunan Mles (983; 986) emonstrate the msleang character

zaton of economc hstor as a stea an sstematc moementfrom socetes beng manl agrcultural then manl nustral anfnall manl serceorente ke the serce class' of post nustral theor the nformaton sector' s a heterogeneouscategor a statstcal artfact prouce b lumpng together as twere the telecommuncatons expert an the TV repar manHoweer precsel because emprcal ata on the structural const tuton of an nformaton sector' o not hol up so the thess about

the awn of Informaton Socet ultmatel epens on theargument about ts new cultural axal prncple beng uphelThs prncple s reall nothng more than Comte's Thr Stage

fowerng late; what coul be calle postsm wth perpheralsPoste scence rules n publc an prate lfe wth the bounarbetween the two ssolng as nformaton technolog naes thehome an t s clame rules supreme It rules through ts self eentl benefcal effects userfrenl technolog has thusbecome lke health obousl a goo thng Htech hopefuls neerlook to the reersal of prortes Marx saw n the factor wherebthe ea (machnes) omnate the lng (workers) s extene b thecomputer nto the realm of knowlege' (Poster 1 984: 1 66) Insteathe mage s of man an machnes together becomng able to subueman perhaps n tme most of the worl's afflctons' (Mche anJohnson 985 2). To see such unersal benefcence neesstrenuous tunnel son whch sghts the welfare benefts ofcomputerassste mecal agnoss an aerts the ees from the

warfare potental of computergue mssle sstems.It rules to the excluson of other moes of thought an thus

wthout opposton Metaphscs are ea: moral phlosoph hasbeen put out of busness What remans s not een the phlosoph



Archer hory, Ctr ad Post-Idstria Socity 9

of scence (whch sometmes used to demrcte metphscldomn whose tlk ws not mennless) but phlosoph forscence servle subject whch clens up the detonlenvronment It clrfes the nture of scentfc knowlededemonstrtes ts proressve nd dvnteous chrcter ndbove ll revels the bsurdt of lterntve phlosophes whch renot ble to stnd up to wht Popper once clled the strn of cvl zton It thus rules out n stnce cpble of nvertn thequeston nd skn whether cvlzton cn stnd the strn ofrmpnt technolo

nll t rules b chnn our model of Mn throuh reversnthe w n whch Mn s modelled The noton of the computer

s the extenson of humn (computtonl crossreferencnretrevl) cpctes hs been turned round to eld the concept ofsuperor rtfcl ntellence Whether ths s presented s trhtforwrd process n whch men remke themselves n theme of technolo (Bolter 1 984) or s more subtle form of tech nolocl defnton of dentt e we know exctl wht we reonce we hve modelled t nd wht we do not et know boutourselves n tht w s n exct specfcton of the future

modelln prormme for AI (Mefford 1 98) the result s thesme computer domnted selfknowlede Moreover t wll be nncresnl denrtor one whch tells us how we fll short; ndnot ust tht we re no mtch n computn the best known prmenumber Yet the noton of the sprior cpct of computers hs lot more to do wth reconceptulzn wht t s to be humn thnwth mchnes hvn cptured the essence of the humn mnd orwht hs been downrded f not excluded from the ltter conceptre humn bltes for exercsn wsdom judement empth

smpth dsc�rnment responsblt ccountblt nd selfscrfce. Dvd Bolter (984) would not wnt me to dd mnton to tht lst for Turns Mn s ndeed one whose mntonhs been cptured nd cptvted b the mchne

In other words f the whole culturl relm becomes subordnteto nformton technolo then there s no other bss thn thenstrumentl rtonlt whch t fosters on whch to crtcze tevlute t decde how to depo t or when to restrct t We re left

wth wht Wezenbum clled the mperlsm of nstrumentlreson' (9) Depressnl the crtcs of Informton Socetndeed pper to hve been culturll colonzed Crtcl emphss sexclusvel strctra nd s plced on how we cn obtn better



1 hory Cutur Socity

technologcl mx or fx Schumchers ntermete technology (98) Roszks selectve nustrlzton (193) Illch'sconvvl proucton (195) or Dcksons lterntvetechnology ( 1 94)

A culturl technque s glrngly bsent even mongst those whothnk they re totll hostle Temperte hostlty settles for qunt ttve reucton (smll s beutful but t s only smller verson ofthe sme thng so beuty s lke slmmng) Immoerte hostltymens ute response'; kckng t the brs of wht Dvyon clls the new electronc cge (1988 14) Yet f selfconfesse utes such s Mchel Shlls (1984) confront self ugmentng process (n Jques Elluls terms 198) or hve come

to thnk tht they o the ther ctons re mpotent protests lkesmshng the frst looms

If culture s nee subornte then rectons to nformtontechnology become mtters of tste one goes n to technophl ortechnophob The technophlc wth nstrumentl reson on hsse cn t lest gve grouns for hs optmsm every technclproblem cn hve techncl solut on The technophobc wthout culturl crtque to cll upon just emntes pure hte In ether cse

the process rolls on wth the people reuce to specttors who mkether pprovng or spprovng noses wthout beng ble to ffectther precment Yet ths pssvty only rses f culture genunelys subornte. f t s not then nether re we confne to techno phl or technophob but re confronte wth technochocesW e the people workng through our contemporry ecsonmkng structures hve to choose between for exmple rectngscence n technology to mxmze proucton or ecrese worknghours for prtcptory poltcs or the survellnce stte for

mltry expnson or welfre extenso n to protect the envronmentor to ncrese commotes (B hm 1 986) Such choces epenupon els n vlue confct n ethcl ebte Howevernustrl socety theorsts beong to tht prt of the socologcltrton whch hs severe ts lnks wth morl phlosophy nwhch therefore ens up socologzng morls n ther csesuborntng them to the ctegorcl mpertve of technologyThs kn of socology

n sof s hs bn b o poe gn npions of h onpoy

wo hs on so wh o o onvon Th onpons h hv

poin sn h 950s oy b wnss o h Thy piy

py of o vson h ss soy h nus soy h pos



Archer hory, Ctr ad PostIdstria Socity

indsi soy nd h nws ndid in hi s sssion h infoon

soiy ' i hs ssion Th h hr r hr opms orpssmsvrsos h o hs o pios dos o m h h r wgrodd i mor phosoph. (Gin 1987 79 y s

In order o ce echnochoces' hs groundng needs o bereesbshed bu o do h mens chllengng he cenr heore cl nd emprcl premses of ndusr soce heor we he o gofor boh s ugulr nd s gre or o reese cuure from sub ordnon o resore s ree uonom nd reree s morpoenc

oIndl nd Mol loopI wl begn b chrgng ndusrl soce heorss (wh heexcepons noed under Phse ) gul of he lc of AmorObjec s Gner (98 ermed he chrge s consprc omke ehcs superfuous o reduce mor o mere bproduc ofsocl forces n hs cse he powerful consrns of echnoogcchnge nd herefore o promoe morl gnoscsm whn hesoc scence commun he chrge shee could red morebrefl he re held gu of culpbe scensm

In her cse he lc of Amorl Objec rses fromhe ew h s possbe o sdesep n ruck wh mor ph losoph when ssessng he progresseness' of soc rrnge mens Bsc posndusr heorss o hs by rgung hechnolog prodes he mens whch enble mnknd o chee sdesres hus he chnges kng pce n response o desre reprogresse for hose noled nd onl requre mor obecemonorng on he pr of he nesgor The ormul s rel:

desre + nsrumenl ronl + echnolog = progress nd sone whch supposedl lees he heorss preenng hemsees onher ehcl neurl' owrds hese gongson. Howeer herere mjor problems wh ech erm nd connecon n he formulnd becus of hs proper ehcl neurl' degeneres nomorl objecsm

To begn w h desres re posuled whou n generl heorof humn (whch hs he ob itr aia of dsngushng beween

propenses nd conduc n such erms s good/el rue/cegrce/sn ronl/rron free/deermned ec) Snce ourheorss urn her bcks on hs job e wn o mke oher people'sdesres crr he mor burden hen he smpe c of wnng somehng hs o be seen s ronl desrble on hs ew oherwse



1 1 2 Te e Scie

the bak ethca cheque caot be ssue I other wors ooreaso s presume to be forthcom from aoe who esresath: the o wa of mak ethca checkouts reuathe such actors haress ther wats to Zweckainai thesure the techooca meas aaabe a the e resut subbe proresse for mak as a whoe Yet strumetaratoat s smp expeet to those who hae the reatestresources to achee ther esres As Weber ote subjecte watseera et arrae o a scae of urec b power To j ue theoutcome e the esu techooca chaes as a uearprocess of genea huma aacemet s to affrm that mht srht whateer the specfc costs partcuar techooes mpose o

efte sectos of the popuato I other wors whateer resutss proress the absece too of a oto of the Goo Socetecause of ts absece what resuts ca eer be ewe as theutee a uesrabe cosequece of soca teracto Oths accout postustra socetes ca eer take a form whch sserous mca to parts of the popuato or ca ts theorstseterta the rea possbt that the structure of a ustrasocet (ke a other) ca ee be what nb wats

I short the attempt to ao mora phosophca cocers bmak techoo the meas to achee maks esres caoteem a a a outcomes to be proress a thus caot spesewth a coserato of the Goo Socet As Horkhemer aAoro oce put t strumeta reaso aoe es us ratoatwth referece to meas a rratoat wth efereces to humaexstece' 192; 1 2 Cosequet t must be a cetra cocerto theorsts as to fferet sectos of the popuato to efe ajustf whch forms of techooca eeopmet are socaproresse a aataeous a for ths the Weainahas to come to pa for the Zweckaina caot o that job

Of course ths coemato of the ustra socet theorstsformua ca o appea to efeers of Autoomous Ma aastHm Scigics Insiais of the huma be aast thehumao of actors aast aets or we hae to foow some th ke the scearo sketche out b Hos 19

Wh ss s sh fo v ol of s fs o n fo

ions whih sf·xplnoy bs fly io h o on of

ionliy in s of l ss, h n o hs n fily o h n

pobl bo h of h Goo Soiy Yt t soud com s no surprs

tt qustons n tcs nd potcs soud ttnd n nss oj umn ntur



Ache Thery Cltre an PstInstrial Sciety 1 3

We annot know wat ational wtot dedng wat is est (Hol

1977 137, y a

Those who o the opposite cn of couse enow thei humnoi

with ppopitel pepogmme esies mol eteminismb societ ws the min w in which sociolog coul pt compnwith mol philosoph in the fist plce n continue to o so oexmple

alfnonal ng a an hgon Paonan pn

aon lf no oo o a phoopha hoy of oay Man oa ho

ba la of aon who olon on ponay u

whhw n n unpnn by a nan an oaaon

po (Gn 97 73

This is pecisel the souce of the Amol Objectivit llc theInfllibilit of Societ

Obviousl it begs the question of how it cn be voie of thepope eltionship between the stu of vnce inustil (o nothe kin o f) societ n mol philosoph. wi ll confine mself tothee points the fist of which concens the necessit of eltionship Socil theo must p its el espects to the molitof ctos s geneic pt of its moel of mn This mens moethn simple cknowlegement tht people think n (to somexn) a n rm of ha goo rgh and o, for o do

the moll etemine humnoi t entils both espect fomol iffeences an the humn cpcit to enose iffeentmols The e not socill pepogmme (thee is no moleteminism though thee m be ethicl conitioning) n b

ntue the cn chnge thei mins in mol mttes efining thegoo the ight o the pope othewise Socil theo thus hs totngle with the mol elm but simultneousl must concee itsome utonom. Although thee m well be contibuto socilfctos in ccounts of iniviul o collective molit the e notsufficient to ccount fo the convesion of Sul into Pul.Hence we must shun the nineteenthcentu pting of the wsbetween socil theo n mol philosoph which ws bse on

the pogmme of sociologizing' mn's mols The egenetive phse of this pogmme ws the ttempt to pschologize'tht which coul not be successful sociologize' ismllsubstituting the unstble pesonlit' fo the execise of molutonom f we gnt eltive mol utonom then when we



Te le Scie

procee to construct our moels of mn t wol be foolsh to forgon nterchnge between the socologcl mgnton n the phlo sophcl n theologcl mgntons An nterchnge bout whtshoul be for humnt n relton to wht coul be for socet

A secon pont stems from Webers just concton tht ethclsstems mke clms to substnte rtonlt whch socologcnnot jucte between Snce t cnnot be our job to rbtrte onmetphscl mtters cn we o more thn unerstn thermenngs for those holng thm (wth s much hermeneutcngenut s possble) plus explctng ther reltonshp to ctonn explorng the socl consequences of ther beng hel? I wnt torgue tht we cn n tht there s prtculr re of collborte

eneourAn ethcl sstem nclung those nce b engag socl

theorsts fces shre problem Nmel there s gp betweenthe ethcl conspectus tself n ts emboment n concept of theGoo Socet Ths gp s nescpble snce the concrete contours ofthe Goo Socet whch s goo becuse t expresses the relztonof the morl precepts n queston s neer rectl erble fromthem Ths s most obous when n ol ethcl sstem confronts

chnge socl crcmstnces n when new ethcl sstem fcesup for the frst tme to wht socl chnges woul consttute tsctulzton Formll the problem s entcl for relgous belefsn seculr ethcs n formll socl theor cn mke the smecontrbuton

Metphorcll when trng to conceptulze the kngom ofheen on erth morl octes ten to be prett b socologsts n ths s equll true of our engag collegues who he go

Ths omment nees temperng wth chrt for wht the rettemptng s n exercse n mentl precton wthout the protectonof the ceeis paibs cluse snce other thngs neer re equl n therel worl The prectons consst n jugng wht prctcl soclrrngements wll encpsulte ther precepts such ju gements mbe npproprte (or conteste) n the re lws t the merc ofthe unforeseen n the unntene Ths s equll the cse for theCtholc Church wth ts sstemtc socl octrne strtng wthRem Nam for the Englsh Utltrns seekng the nst

tutonl rrngements comptble wth the plesure prncple formoern femnsts serchng for socl frmework fosterng genereqult n for nel Bell whose soclsm n economcslberlsm n poltcs n consertsm n culture re trune postons



Teo e Socie

or themseves n unvebe for mny others by trnsformngeth onerns nto (m)purey so ones.

The thr n st pont s one of ontrst wth n rtsm ofnustr soety theorsts n ther tretment of uture. hvebeen weng upon the neessty of ogue between sooogy nmor phosophy n ont enterprse of rfyng whh tehnohoes shou be me to ttn the forms of so eveopmenttht erent eth ommuntes wou eem progressve. n soong hve ssume tht the Weaionai s not n shortsuppy n beeve the ssumpton orret. However etmotf ofnustr soety theory s utur monsm the probem of thePhse 2 theorsts ws how f possbe to vert t given the En of

eoogy proper. Prt then of ther subornton of the uturomn ws ts epoputon n ths they re gn true hers ofComte; they hve tken on bor hs zerosum formu forregous metphys postvst es n gone overborbout the hegemony of the tter n postnustr soety yngbehn ths s beeve nother mor fy whose efenesompement the y of Amor betvsm to sstrous effetThs s the Myth of Cutur ntegrton (Arher 985; 988) Ths

Mh mbods on o mos dp sd cs n socsene . . the . . . ssumpton of hgh egree of onssteny nthe nterprettons proue by soet unts (Etzon 98 )Yet t proete n mge of uture so powerfu tht t sore theretn evng perpetu ftermge whh storte subsequentperepton

ts more stnt orgns e n Comte n Germn hstorsmHisoisms) ts more proxmte ones re the hertge of

nthropoogy Despte efnton wrngngs over the termuture there ws substnt or mongst nthropoogstsbout ts mn property strong n oherent ptternng Thsentr noton of uture s monst ntegrte whoe ehoes ownthe ees. Mnowsks onept of n nvu uture s oherent whoe 9) Ruth Benets utur ptterns 9 ) Kroebers ethos of tot uture 93) resurfe n MryDougss noton of one snge symboy onsstent unverse9) to be enshrne n the Prsonn entr vuesystem n togn monument renforement b ts opton nto WesternMrxsm s hegemon uture n ts offsprng the omnnteoogy Wht we see n nustr soety theorsts s smpy thetest generton he n thr by t



8 Te e Sie

Ah Mg S nd Gn Slvdo ds ( 19 1 ) Contemorar Eroe: ClssStats and ower London Wdneld nd oson

Aon Rond ( 1 967) he Indstral Socet London Wdnd nd oson

Aon Rond ( 1972) rogress and Dsllson: he Dalectcs oj Mode Socet

Hondswoh ngnBdh Rhd (1984) Th Sooog o nd nd osndsl Sos

Crrent Socolog 32( 1 ) .Bdh Rhd ( 1 986) heores oj Indstral Socet Bnh Coo H

Bl Dnl ( 1 962) he End oj Ideolog w Yo Cl.

Bl Dnl ( 1976) he Comng oj ost-Indstral Socet ew Yo Col

Bll Dnl ( 1 979) he Cltral Contradctons oj Catalism Hondswoh

ngn

Bll Dnl (198) Th Sol wo o noon So n M.

Doos nd Moss (ds he Comter ge: a went Year Vew.

Cbdg MA MT. ss.Bnd Rh ( 1 961 ) attes oj Cltre London Rodg nd Kgn l.

Bg ( 1 969) he Socal Realt oj Religon London b nd b

Bol Dvd ( 1 984) rng 's Man Weste Cltre n the Comter ge London

Dwoh

Boo T B ( 1 973) Socolog Gde to the rolems and Lteratre. London

Alln nd nwn

Dson Dvd ( 1 974) lteatve echnolog he oltcs oj echncal Change

Glsgow onn/Colns

Dogls M (1966) rt and Danger Lon don Roldg nd Kgn

lll s ( 198) he echnologcal Sstem w Yo Conn on A ( 1968) he ctve Socet London ss

Glln ns (1972) hoght and Change London Wdnld nd olson

Gshn onhn nd Mls n (1983) he New Servce Econom London

ns n

Gn Slvdo (1987) Sooog nd Mol hlosoph Inteatonal Revew ojSocolo nw ss no 3 .

Goldhop ohn (1964) Sol Son n ndsl So n Hos

(d he Develoment oj Indstral Socetes. Soologl Rvw Monogph

o 8 Kl nvs

Goldhop ohn ( 1971) Thos o ndsl So Eroean Joal ojSocolo 1 2(2).

bs Jgn ( 1 968) oward a Ratonal Socet. London Hnnn

Hbs gn ( 1 972) Knowledge and Hman Interests London Hnnn

Holls Mn ( 1 977) Models oj Man hlosohcal hoghts on Socal cton.Cbdg Cbdg Unvs ss

Hoh Mx nd Adono Thodo ( 1 972) he Dalectc oj Enlightenmentw Yo Hd nd Hd.

lh vn D ( 1 975 ) ools or Convvalt Gsgow onn

K Cl l ( 1 962) Indstralism and Indstral Man. London Hnnn

Kolows Ls ( 1 978) Man Crrents oj Marsm Vol. 2 Oxod Clndonss

Kob A.L ( 1 963) nthroolog Cltre atterns and rocesses w Yo

Ho B

Lps SM ( 1 969) olitcal Man London Hnnn



Archer Ter, re an Ps-Insria Scie 9

yon Dvid 88 e Iformtio oiety Isses d Isios. Cbidg

oly ss

Mlinowski B 44 ieti eory of tre Chpl Hil Univsiy of

oh Colin ss

Mnn Mihl 7 h Soil Cohsion of ib Doy merioiooi Review 383)Mfod Dwin 87 Anlogil Rsoning nd h Dfiniion of h Siion

Bk o Snyd fo Conps nd owd o Arifiil nllign fo Mhod

i n C Hn C W gly nd J Ron (ds New Diretios i te tdyof Forei oiy Boson Alln nd Unwin

Mqior J G 7 e Vei d te Msk ondon Roldg nd gn l

Mihi Donld nd ohnson Roy \85 e Kowede Mie: rtii

Iteiee d te Ftre of M w Yok Morow

Mils n nd Gshny onhn 86 Th Soil onois of nfoion

Thnology in Mjoi gson (d New ommitio eooies dte bi Iterest ondon nd Bvy Hi s Sg

os Mk 84 Fot Mrism d History. Cbidg oliy ss

Rerm Novrm 8 e oditio of bor Vin olygo ss

Robson Rond 88 Th Soiologil Signifin of Cl So Gnl

Considions eory tre oiety 5 Rosk Thodo 73 Were te Wsted Eds: oiti d rsedee i

te ostIdstri oiety. ondon b nd bShh 78 m is Betif tdy of Eoomi s eoe Rey

Mttered. ondon Abs

Shllis Mihl 84 e iio Ido Oxfod Oxfod Univsiy ssTof Avin 75 Ftre ok ondon n

Toffl Alvin 8 e ird Wve ondon n

Winb osph 76 omter ower d Hm Reso. w Yok WH

rn nd Co

Wsgd John H 72 Th Myh of Clsslssnss in Robin Blkbn d

Ideooy i oi iee ondon onn/Collins

Mg A is Professor of Socioog t he Uniersit of

Wrick er most recent book is re an gen (PoiPress)



Tey e Sciey

rdc groupngs such s he enags or ler he followers ofrnos Bbeuf S l less ws queson of creng democrcwhch would represen opposng neress nd frme he nego ons beween hem whn he lms of he lw ws queson ofcreng nd defendng he un of he non denfed wh heunersl prncpes of reson lber nd equl gns l snernl nd exernl enemes The rdclzon of he reou onr process dd no resul from n ggron of socl conflc bu on he conrr from he sronger nd sronger hold of logcnernl o he denuncon nd expurgon of ncresng weknd dsn populs moblzons Ths s Jcobnsm he con ofhe Jcobn club nd s he her of he reoluon: s non

eeced power whch ws o be Robesperre s fer Sepember 9repcng h of he Conenon nd self ncresng dspcedb he Commee of Pubc Sfe nd he Commee of GenerSecur he doube polburo of he reoluon

Mt ougt

The de of reoluon s nseprble from he domnon of pol cl con nd een of properl pocl gen oer soc

con Ths ffrmon m seem rdoxcl nd we cn mmedel se Mrxs hough gns boe ll hs ncessndenuncons of he polcl l luson begnnng wh hs iiqe fHeges Pispy f Rig nd Te Ecnmic an PispicaManscips of 8 nd on o hs hsorcl nlses of he 88Reoluon nd hs wrngs on he Prs Commune nd een o hs( 85) iiqe f e Ga Pgamme. s no Mrx whoppes o cl soce nd o he prolern reoluon gns hedngerous nd groesque llusons of he Mongnrds of 89gns he mjor of he Commune n 8 nd gns slle n85 Howeer beond hs essenl crque of polcl llusonnd reoluonr rheorc Mrx remns enrel fhful o hereouonr spr h s o s o he crque of prculr neress n he nme of ol o h whch he oung Hegel clledscne Tai The er menng of hsorcl merlsm s heemnon of eer nlss couched n erms of socl corsWh mde mor hsorcl force s h proclms he reolu

onr cpc of neg of he lened proler Nohngs more foregn o Mrx nd Mrxsm hn he de of he workersmoemen n h sense ws Alhusser who ws rgh gns hedefenders ofen Chrsns of Mrxs humnsm Mrx s no he



26 Thory Cutur Soty

tweteth etu ha ee MaxmLem whh to a teuo o the poletaa evoluto wth a atmpealt adatoloal atoal lbeato h ottute a double uptuewhh damatall eoe the abolute powe o the leade othe evoluto who eue a autoom to patula oal ato he loe oe get to the bug oe o evoluto the moe wed oal ato oumed t lame ad the mo the og opat ad evolutoa tate peval ove that o oal ato wththe teelato ad the olt.

pst Routon

t ot a ea alt hough eea to how that the lbeal oep

to o oal hage loe to the evolutoa model omodezato Wa ot al Pola ght to am that the kethg about the geat taomato o the Wet wa that tadall epaated the wold domatd b tumetal atoaltom the et o the oal ogaato wth t poltal ompome ultual tadto atoal haate elgou pateall o whh ottuted o ma oe o agmetato equlbum ad etae aed wth the tul evolutoa powe o

eao taomed to teholog admtatve ogaatoalulato teet ad maetbeal have ommo wth the othe evolutoae that the

elmate oal ato ad the elato ad ubume the whole ooal le ude a etal uveal pple whh th ae awell deed a atoal ad atual a Max thought beudetood we do ot ee t t o all a a tque o poltaleoom whh to a a etepetato o the thought o thegeat glh eoomt o tha vo theeoe whh edued

huma beg to pee o mehade o the ell ot the laboubut the labou powe o the pe o the bologal epoduto

he butalt o uopea dutalato ele upo the egato o all oal ato Poltal ato a weld luee ol the ae qute pee wth egad to the teet that the eve adol the ae well wae o he eoom log whh mut ahothe ato o o the ota the tevee deee o theoe o etae to modezato. aptalm met the

adjetve rouoay whh Max gave t. What Webe aaled ot the omato o the mode atoaled eoom ad oetbut moe peel the bth o the aptalt pt t tuet ee othe wod the plttg apat o eoom aget om the



8 Te e Scie

perhps prt uner the nfuene of Thoms Muntzer but whhnevertheess re n the sme ne s uther who some weeks ter n sp of refu vousness e upon the Germn prnes tobuther these pesnt revoutonres A pesnt or n urbnoetvt s ke hurh; t hs to respon to the emns of tsprests t hs vne rght The pesnt nsurreton s b vnerght just s muh s s the power of the prnes s not ths theme ofthe peope of Go foun ross the entures wth the smu tneous revoutonr n funmentst sprt of those tnAmern ommuntes nmte b berton theoog Agntherefore we see revoutonr movement forme n onsene ofthe orer of the wor n the menng of hstor The emns of

the pesnts whh were not new n whh over the ourse of entur gve rse to n uprsng ever three ers beme revou tonr through ths ppe to the vne w to prnpe s bsoute s tht of reson Revouton ws respons to the mpertveof w punshng ts versres wth the sme fore s the sworof juste

A ut Atrs

or tors to beome revoutonr the must bnon themsevesto w of nture whh m so be w of Go Hene the revou ton emns srfes n the nme o tht bb mpertve torepensh the erth t so foows tht revouton s egtrnRevoutons re often ssote wth gener rses o soet nprtur wth mtr ssters s t not the se tht Germn n 9 8 n Russ n 95 n 9 8 emonstrte the fore o th e nksbetween wr efet n revouton Repro wr stmutesrevoutonr energes s the renh n Sovet ses hve shownBut n mkng these ponts one efnes on the negtve ontonsof revouton rses of so ontros n o nsttutons nmore profoun the eomposton o so tors Revoutonhowever oes not our f the ssouton of tors s not ompne b the formton o ommnng ee who n ppe tothe truths of nture n hstor or reouton even n the fe ofthose tors n the rses tht hve broken them prt.

No soet hs been more fvourbe to the formton o revou

tonr tons thn ptst soet beuse t s not on post vst n sentf t hs so estroe ouptons n gusMrx refuse to reognze tht ske workers hve prtur roeespte the ft tht n hs tme the forme the frst unons He



Tourane Te Iea f Revluin 1 29

saw klle work as a ombnaton of smple tasks somethn whhwas essental to hs ntenton to reue the workn lass to thatproletaran onton whh representn an absolute alenatonwoul trer off the total l beraton of humanty

The nneteenthentury European at one aptalst an reolu tonary ha a ynam onepton of soety. LStrauss wasrht to see the steamenne as the symbol of a soal mehansmfuntonn between poles of heat an ol between the aptalstentrepreneurs an proletaranze workers.

he entral feature of ths soety s ts elmnaton of eeryreferene to soal ators . We speak of aptalsts an workers butthe nneteenth entury referre oerwhelmnly to nustry aptal

work an the soal queston. As to the worl of the worker no onesaw ths worl as pron a major soal subjet Mar lke Smthan Raro thouht n system terms about the ontratonsbetween the aptalst system an nature. He not thnk that twoul be the aton of the workers whh woul reerse aptalsmbut rather that t woul be the eelopn ontraton between thefores an relatons of prouton; an he saw ommunst soetyertanly not as a workers soety but as a soety of natural nees

as a return to usealue as aanst the ren of the ommoty annterest. Soety here s onee lke a mahne or lke an oransmfuntonn n aorane wth a bas lo of unersal sope Fora lon tme the representaton of soety left only a marnalresual plae to polts an the Marsts lke the lberalsreame of the wthern away of the state. Polts s here entfewth the funtonn of the aptalst system. t s not about themanaement of hane or the elaboraton of reforms t s aprnple of orer Ths s why poltal aton funtons n terms ofall or nothn. f the noton of lass has been so mportant n thstype of soety t s beause t efnes the soal or poltal ator byts plae wthn a system of prouton wthn the soal mahneor oransm Sne an een more astes are efne by aprnple whether relous or mltary whh s nether funtonalnor really soal only the thr estate ben efne althouh erywely n eonom terms Classes on the ontrary hae a efnton whh s purely funtonal an whh oes not refer to any other

trat of behaour nether to suh prnples as honour or belef norto suh ams as lberty juste or the oo lfe t s not by hanethat the noton of lass s so auely efne n Mar an that thetet eote to ts efnton s not merely nomplete but rtually



30 Thoy Cultu Soty

mp. h hg s ha Maxs aass s h ms ass b ms as b asss b s ms h apas ssm Wha s a hg apasm s h v h vsa hmaa spsbg a h p a vka

Rv a sa mvm a ma mpabs. hs sam ma sh v saa sh s hx hh h pa a has haba h h h h a as has s hm as s assa v a sa mvm b as h pa a has h ga xpss a sa a

hs bvs a h sa a ss a ams a h v vsm g a hs g sha s ms mpa h mag mas g ah h h am h ppsg ss b shag h sam a m sh ha ah a s gav b h gh a avsa and psvb h b h ag aa a ms s as h sass a h s mvm ghg h

avsa a amg h mss as ags gss a hsam m g hmsvs h k p gh h s h a as a s p a hg hs vs has sp h ahsa sas as s h a sh sas mvms h bk h s W Wa h as as ha Sam Gmps h Ama a ab hh ms hgh mgh hav b s h a a mps a agasN hs ass hh h as a ma aahs sa mvms a s h p vpp s bh bas h gv p h akg p v h asma h s a abva bas h va a s ab ssm a a ha sa mvms s h ms as as. h ppa ah h art of Amn v Ghs pvs a a a h g a

a sasm bas a has g s ahvma s s h sa 0 s sasm a vs ass sgg h havg s hh asma h sa ha has b aa a S



1 3 Theoy Cultu Soty

esablshes s hld ve a lg ped ma sel me egze as he psevla Sve egme s dg da sabl maage he em appeae he eeds hepeple ad ess he abses beaa. evls ae he ae agh p a spal adalza ad sggleagas sessve mes a spa hh asms he pehh speaks he ame he maj ha a mhe a la ad all pesal pe.

In Repl o a Lmied hess

he aalses abve ae s a m he ms e epea evl ha e ms ask h hs ep has bee

sed p hs p . Wha exal s s ha sal demads ae hemselves evla b ha he beme s he plal ss ae apable espdg hem adapg hem ad egag hem he ssems ms ad ms gaza e. a d s a mae aalsgevl b qesg he s al espses he ae ea sal demads he e hs epea s ha shs h he sam sal demads example sala lams ma

r y n bc vnry pnn h nnabl he vas eepses ad he sae he d emaslsed he e kks s empg kk pe hesmpl hs a s sedve b s exemel dee. a be desd ha sal bs a pvkevlee esga b h a ev ms be admedha he ae demads s sh ha he plal ssem ssal advesaes absle a espd hem all psvel.

hs ld ake s a aalss he demads ad meel a aalss he plal espse Whle s empg sa hahe me ha peses ae vle he mehds ad glbal he aspas he me he ll all eje he esablshedde dma vae ssem ad he me egaged a llbeme evla hs expla sks beg alga.H a e be se ha a esa s a b s eva me B ha hs hes abve all s adedb bsevas abve a b ma hes s ha evla

sas ae ms ea hse hee as lasses he sa gps eah he del. Sh saslead mabe a mabe ega evla sasae he a hse hee as ae he ms abse hee a



Ture Th Ida of voluton 1 35

cmmg ele pwer r pp cl cecl frce bu url r hrcl w ecey rherh wll fr he prpery f reury c h uerke he me f cr wh re be r le wheherhey re cer be exple lee r clze. A we re wh chem f cl em plcl repewe re lger relury u grece ccup pckeg he e e reuce lcku he her re eleme f relury cer bu remerely le frm f h e whch eprble frmeg wh emplyer r he exer f preure he e.The lece whch re u f he bece f eque u

l repe l l belg he refrm rcl mef cl chge fr he frer f wh ccepble re hereplce cully que emcrcy c fuclely by ceu r ee by cmprme; eery u h le pec Relu belg her c e where ly he prer ege bu where here re prer ce ul rule where eeryhg keplce bewee g el bewee he he freg

bewee lfe eh.Relu e cme frm kckg w he r ery he ery bulg whch ee bruc rwhch le mewhere ele The m f relu whch bey h f lece eere whe he cl meme replce by ppe by wh he clle cl meme whch cr re lger efe by her cflcul rel wh her cr bu by her rupure frm ech by heeg f her exece cr h eery errybecme eemy r rr where he bjece hecre f plurly bu f hmgeey ee pury Therelury wrl wrl f eece f chge wrl fwr f plc

T ffrm h he egree whch u re pe rcle whch mke c em relury r ely belee he l pwer f u f cey were ly mrke f emcrcy h ume pwer f ere

Reu beg wh he eg f he her e wh helu r eruc f he wh prclme h eg c ly be flwe by ch r by bue pwer.



3 Te e Scie

n Rl o n Ood

he ep whch hve jus me cn e o o consngconcepon bu one whch s oppose o evehng n he nses hve pesene hee. Ae no he mos ecen evouon su ons ve ffeen fom he ones h hve escbe Woun'we hee he en o f h e weneh cenu sponneous enfevouon s movemen of non beon mobze gnshe economc n poc peneon of he Wes Ae no evouons moe nmpes hn ncps n s no hsmuon whch sngushes Mxsmennsm o he enn smMosm fom he Euopen Mxsm po o he Russnevouon n bef m no he cpve of n mge of evouon

whch s boh chc hvng s pope pce n he nneeenhcenu n Euocenc

Obvous one cn ece o use wo o esgne one pe oohe of soc phenomen whou beng me psone of heoes ons bu ough es o be ecognze h mn ofhe poc uphevs whch hve been ce evouons hvenohng n common wh he Euopen expeence of evouonn e even he ve oppose of s fo hs eson h efe o

hem s an-revn whch s no o en en eouonspecs h m be foun n hem

The fs of hem hsoc spekng es fom mong hemos mpon poc nsfomons ws he Mexcn Revou on 9 2. Whe he ench evouon combne he esuconof n ancien gime wh beef n pogess n he fomon of non foune upon unves pncpes he Mexcn evouoneece cps eveopmen whch h been e b he secun posvsc ienics vses o Pesen Pofo Dz nwhch h been conuce ge o he pof of foegn cpn exe he e of he raza Mexco's own unon of Mexcnn Spnsh n s fn phse n ung he 92s he evouonws nfluence b he Russn evouon wh lueng e lgs common sgh he sme me s n negous n nceccon ws eveopng whch ene b ggeng off vebeVene Bu hs evouon espe s Euopen specs ws moepcus hn unves moe popus n nons hn

ons n s mos cve soc componen ws he smpesn of Moeos mobze b Zp gns he spengexpoon of he cps sug nus.

A he ohe en of he cenu s no he nn evouon hee



Tourne Te Iea f Rein 3

so recte gnst the whte revouton of Phev n gnst thepenetrton of foregn cpt It epens upon the uproote urbnmsses t the sme tme s upon the ntWesternsm of the nte ectus moue b Chrt n other Ismc thnkers In bothcses the ppe to Vk ong Germn nes s the opposte ofthe rench or Sovet ppe to the nton n to the proetrt nthe resstnce to mpersm s the opposte of the progressvsm ofthe cobns or the Mrxsts The constructon or rebrth of nton entt s efence gnst foregn penetrton nmpersm rther thn s n expresson of confence n theeveopment of the fores of proucton the roe of the stte s ngent of ntegrton rther thn of moernzton these re so mn

chrcterstcs whch stngush these ntrevoutons from revou tons proper so ce or f one obects to ths vocbur whchunerne the fference n nture between revoutons of the renchor Sovet tpe n those of the Mexcn or Irnn tpe.

In the mmense spce whch seprtes revoutons from ntrevoutons the overthrowng of ncent regmes n the nme ofprogress from the reconstructon of stoen enttes we fn thosemxe compex n confuse cses whch mnge Mrxsm n

popusm beef n the future wth the cut of the pst Nssersrevouton n Egpt ws mrke cross ts whoe rnge b thecombnton n confct of Arb ntonsm n Mrxst unverssm he tnAmercn revoutonres hve been ess constntn ssoctng popusm n ntmpersm vctng contnu between guer movements whch re fr from revoutonr snce there s no queston of mss mobzton n gretpopust nces such s the one tht the Brzn CommunstPrt ccepte n 945 whch ccore prort to the cmpgn forthe return of Getuo Vrgs over the css strugge. But cn weunerstn these revoutons whc ke Jnus ook out n twoopposte rectons wthout frst referrng them to the nsurmountbe opposton between those revoutons whch submt tothe ws of hstor n those whch ben hstor to ther nee forentt

10 Af Rvoluos

We hve eft behn the er of revoutons s nogous efne bthe Mrxst Erc Hobsbwm n the ber rncos uret Butthe mutpct of ext routes shou mke us better unerstn therevoutonr phenomenon n ts hstorc ret. or there re t



Toua Th Ida of vouton 3

ados whou osg h h o hs has o ay bh oduo o ody bu s pphaao as sohg whh has aways sd og

Th hsoy o h wh uy has b doad byaps o aod ouo ad by h o usa o hWs od o h tabua rasa By duy hs apssd o ha sudd das o odao ad dophad shad o a housad ps wh aoass baghss o h ooa sys ah sahg o h popso o a ody whh s ywh d Bu h uyos o a d o h us o hs os A h o wha soass a oug h hops ad wh h aoa ss

a hog o h usas hausd h a o h pow oh a oos, ss ha oy o od o odao has oud h wod h Ws od A w wssg h, h uph o h apas ouo uh apsso woud b sa o h ouoay, aoasod s as hausd as h aoas ad uuas ods odop W ha o ou houghou a ps o hwod, h da ha o uu pp s ough o o a

soy whh ha pp s aoas o aoas, aas o ouas o dop s aways a obao o husa s o aso ad h pauas o a hsoa od oob ao o oo ad soa sous h Ws bd h oa pow o aso ad h ouoas shad ha bad uso wh h bas Eswh popuss ad aoasshd ha h o w ad h obao o a uu woudpod y o h oy o ody h o was hs o ha o h Ws, bu was s dp o a ha oWs aoas pdd h oao o soa aos ouua ssa, ad o h po a poss o a ss haous o hd od ouas s s agas hus o aoa y h ps o h a o ouo h ha o h s aoas od s o sb ad o ha h ps o os o ha oay o aagd by ogs h o o ouasgs

h obao o sua aso ad aoa aduua obao s ywh dspsab ad ywhdu s a h po ha h s asd o obuua y a h o wh Egh aoas had wo



Tourane Te Iea j Retin 4

Toa s no possbe us o be revoluonar o r lberal or evennaonas We mus earn o reuce he sance beween heseapparen conracor bu acual complemenar elemens ofeveopmen

No

is pp ws is psnd Alfi i fo Eopn Soioogy nd Soi

Sin Confn Alfi My 8 t wih Sg Mosovii ws wdd th

pi hs bn tnsld by Roy Boyn

ou s recor of he Cenre Anase e InervenonSocologques Pars



Modernity and Ambivalence

Zgmunt Bauman

Thee e ens n enemes. An hee e tangens n enemes sn n n opposon o eh ohe The

s e wh he seon e no n ve ves Whh oes no

howeve es o he equ sus. Le mos ohe opposonswhh oe smuneous he wo n whh we ve n ou e nhe wo hs one s von o e mseopposon beweenhe nse n he ouse The ouse s negv o he nsesposv The ouse s wh he nse s no . The enemes e henegv o he ens posv. The enemes e wh he ense no. The enemes e we ens; he e he weesswhh voes ens homeness he bsene whh s en o

ens pesene. The epugnn n ghenng ou hee o heenemes s s De wou s suppemen boh he ono n spemen o he os n omong n hee o heens On b szng n song wh he e no owh he o no wsh o be o wh he wou no s he e nohe ounemge o he enemes m he ens sse wh hee wh he wn o be n wh he wn o be hough s beng.

Appen hee s smme hee wou be no enemes weehee no ens n hee wou be no ens uness o he wn

ng bss o enm ouse. Smme howeve s n uson. she ens who ene he enemes. s he ens who ono hesson n he ssgnmen. The opposon s n hevemenn sesseon o he ens. s he pou n he onono ens nve omnon o he ens nve s heomnon.

The f beween ens n enemes mes vta ontmlatvan vta atva no mo eeons o eh ohe Moe mpo

n gunees he oonon. Subee o he mepnpe o suuon nowege n on hme n unson

eory lre & oey ( Lodo ewb Pa a w eh 7( 436



Bum Modrnt and Ambvaln 45

ut. ot or the eeme there woul be o re . Wthout thepoblt o erece Derr ( 974 43) the ere opeece uch woul ot t breth pce Tht me bthe me toke tht the ere crre tel the et o t otcto Derece prouce wht t ob m poblethe ver th tht t mke mpoble

At th co tom th colcttor colluo ore eeme the trer rebel. The thret e ce more weome th tht whch oe c er rom the eem. Thetre threte the octo tel the ve poblt oocto He cll the blu o the oppoto betwee re eeme the complete mpp mu the eece whch

coume ll erece hece leve oth oute tel. Atht oppoto the outo o whch ll ocl le ll eece whch ptch hol t toethe et the tre pocl le tel A ll th becue the tre ether eor eem; becue he m be both A becue we o otkow hve o w o kow whch the ce.

The trer oe (perhp the m oe the rchetpl oe)member o the ml o uecble thoe bl et ubqu

tou ute tht Derr ( 98 7 ) wor c oloer be clue wth phloophcl (br) oppotoret oz t wthout ever cottut th temwthout ever lev oom or oluto the orm o pecultvelectc. Here re ew exmple o uecble cue berr

The pharmaon the Greek eerc term whch clue bohremee poo ue Plto hadrus mle o

wrt or th reo rectl repoble throuh tetrlto whch me t echew t heret mbut orthe recto tke b the potPlto Weter metphc.harmaon t wee the reulr oere polem thth throuh kew etermto or overetermto butwthout mtrlto permtte the eer o the me worb "reme "ecpe "poo "ru "lter etc.'(Derr 98 99) Becue o th cpct pharmaon rt oremot powerul becue mbvlet mbvlet

becue powerul t prte o both oo ll o the eeble reeble (Der 98 b 99). harmaon ter ll ether reme or poo ethe oo o evl ethe the eor the oute

The hymn Gee wor t or oth memb



48 Te lte Scie

wth ther l rrelevnce The lso gur though oblquelthe secure homelness of own terrtor Contrr to wespreopnon the vent of televson ths huge n esl ccessble

peephole through whch the unfmlr ws m be routnelglmpse hs nether elmnte the nsttuton seprton normnshe ts effectvt Mcuhns globl vllge hs fle tomterlze The frme of cnem or TV screen stves off thenger of spllge more effectvel stll thn tourst hotels nfence off cmpng stes; the oneseness of communctofurther entrenches the unfmlrs on the screen s essentllncommunco The most recent nventon of themtc shoppngmlls wth Crrben vllges nn reserves n Polnesn

shrnes closel pcke together uner one roof hs brought the oltechnque of nsttutonl seprton to the level of perfectonreche n the pst onl b the zoo

The phenomenon of strngehoo cnnot be however reuce tothe generton of however vexng hermeneutc problemsnsolvenc of the lerne clssfcton s upsettng enough et per ceve s somethng less thn sster s long s t cn be referreto mssng knowlege f onl lerne tht lnguge f onl

stue those strnge customs B themselves hermeneutcproblems o not unermne the trust n knowlege n ttnbltof behvourl certnt f nthng the renforce both The wn whch the efne the reme s lernng nother metho ofclssfcton nother set of oppostons n menngs of notherset of smptoms onl corrobortes the fth n essentl orerlnessof the worl n prtculrl n the orerng cpct of knowlegeA ose of puzzlement s plesurble s t resolves n the comfort of

ressurnce Ths s n tourst knows s mor prt of thettrcton hel b foregn trps the more exotc the better The fference s somethng one cn lve wth The fferent s not rell f ferent There' s lke here just nother orerl worl nhbteb ether frens or enemes wth no hbrs to stort the pcturen perplex the cton

The strngers re not however the setunece ; the ren prncple unecbles The re tht thr element whchshoul not be The true hbrs the monsters: not just unclssfebut unclssfble The therefore o not queston ths one oppos ton here n now: the queston oppostons s such the verprncple of the opposton the plusblt of chotom t suggestsThe unmsk the brttle rtfclt of vson the estro the



Bumn Modenty and Ambvalene 1 49

worl The stretch the temporr nconvenence of not knownghow to go on' nto termnl prlss The must be tbooesrme suppresse exle phscll or mentll or the worlm persh

Terrtorl n functonl seprton cese to uffce once themere unfmlr turns to be the strnger ptl escrbe b Smmel 1 97 1 43 ) s the mn who comes to n sts tomorrow Thestrnger s nee someone who refuses to st n the fr w'ln or go w n hence pror efes the e expeent ofsptl or temporl segregton The strnger comes nto the lfeworl n settles here n so unlke n the cse of mereunfmlrs' t becomes relevnt whether he s fren or foe He

me hs w nto the lfeworl unnvte thereb cstng me onthe recevng se of hs nttve mkng me nto the object ofcton of whch he s the subect ll ths beng notorous mrk ofthe enem Yet unlke other strghtforwr enemes he s notkept t secure stnce not on the other se of the bttle lneWorse stll he clms rght to be n object of responsblt thewell known ttrbute of the fren f we press upon hm thefren/enem opposton he' come out smultneousl uner n

overetermne An thus b prox he' expose the lng of theopposton tself He s constnt thret to the worl orer

Not for ths reson onl though There re more or nstncethe unforgettble n hence unforgvble orgnl sn of the lteentr the fct tht he h entere the relm of the lfeworl t pont of tme whch cn be exctl etermne He not belongntll orgnll' from the ver strt' snce tme mmemorl The memor of the event of hs comng mkes of hs verpresence n event n hstor rther thn fct of nture Hspssge from the frst to the secon woul nfrnge on n mportntboun n the mp of exstence n s ll the more mpossble forbeng resolutel resste; such pssge woul mount fter ll tothe msson tht nture s tself n event n hstor n tht there fore the ppels to nturl orer or nturl rghts eserve no preferentl tretment Beng n event n hstor hvng begnnngthe presence of the strnger lws crres the potentl of n enThe strnger hs freeom to go He m be lso force to go or

t lest forcng hm to go m be contemplte wthout voltng theorer of thngs However protrcte the st of the strnger stemporr nother nfrngement on the vson whch ought tobe kept ntct n preserve n the nme of secure orerl exstence



50 Theoy utue Soet

Even here however the treaheous inonguity o the stanger

does not end The stange unemines the spatial ordeing o the

wold: the oughtate oordination between moral and topo

gaphial losenes the stayingtogether o iends and the eote

ness o eemies The strange isu bs th e resonane between physi

al an psyhial istane he is physially near while emain ing

spiitually emote He bings into the inne irle o proximity the

kind o dierene an otheness that are antiipate and toleate

nly at a distane where they an be either ismi ssed as irelevant

or epelle as inimial The strange epesents an inongruous and

hene resente synthesis o nearness and remoteness' (Simmel

97 1 : 45) ) His presene is a hallenge to the reliability o orthodox

orentation points an the universal tools o odemaking His

poximity (as all proximity aoing to Levinas [ 1 982 95 1 0 1 ] )

suggests a moral relationship while his emote

ess (as all remoteness aoring to Easmus 1 974: 74 87] )

pemits solely a ontratual one: anothe ipotant opposition

ompromised

As always the patial inongruity ollows the oneptual one

The stanger who reuses t go gadually transoms h is te porary

bode into a home eito y all the moe so as hs othe o iginal 'home reedes in the past an perhap vanishes altogethe On the

othe han howeve he retains (i only in theoy) his eedom to go

and so is able to view loal onitions with an equanimity the native

resients an hardly aor Hene another inongruous synthesis

this time between involvement an i ndi erene patisan ship and

neutrality detahment an patiipation The omitment the

strange delares annot be tuste as it omes omplete with a

saety valve o easy esape whi h mo natives oten envy yet seldom

possess

The stanger 's u nreeemable sin is thereore t he inopatibi ty

between his pesene and other presenes unamental to the wold

oder h is si ultaneous assault on seveal ruial ppositio ns instr u

mental in the inessant eot o oeing It is this sin whih

ebouns in the onstitution o the stange as the beare and

embodiment o inongruity inee the stang is a peson

alited with inuable sikness o ultiple inongruity He may

well seve as the ahetypal exape o ate's u or May

Douglas' s the slimy an entt sitting astride an embattled bari

ade o ather a substane spi lle ove the top o it an making it

slippery both ways) bluring a bounay line vital to the on



·Bauman od d mbl 1 5 1

suon o f a paua soa o o a paua fwo No

b nay asfaon poy n h onsuon of o an fuy

oap wh snay non onnuou pn of

ay Th oppoon on of h hoo of ambguy boms

man sou of amban Th nfomn of any ass

faon mans naby pouon of anoma (hs phno

mna whh a p as anomaou ony as fa a hy pan

h ago who sayng apa h manng of h o) Thu s

any gn uu mu onfon ns whh m o fy s

assumpons anno gno h anomas whh s hm

pous xp a sk of fofng onfn (Dougas 1966

39) Th s hay an anomay mo anomaou hn h s ang.

H san bwn fn an nmy o an haos h nsan h ou s H sans fo h ahousns o ns fo h

unnng of nms fo fay of o pnay of h

Fihin Indeerminacy

Of h pmn smaa ommuns whh fo mo of s

mms w uns n wh h h who of h fwo was

nsb on sa a hy ha bn mak y ns soaby Ths ha s how aousy np Mos

ommony n oay s msnp as a Tonnsy

n may s p ua onan n n oopaon n ohwos as fnshp wh no o h suppss nmy n

shp how no h ny fom f oaon nmy pfom

h funon a w n nshp an nmy onsu

ogh ha famwok n whh h soaon om

ps an oms aou Th ns soa y of h pas s ksus n osp a fom ou own onon no aus onan mo fnshp han w n o pn n ou own

wo bu baus wo wa gh y an mos mp y f

wh fns an nm an fns an nm ony L

oom an f any hn a magna oom ony was f n h f

o fo h pooy fn angs Thus h sman an

bhaoua pobm h fn/nms oppoon anno u

gna aos u om an w a wh uy an ff

ny n h uay of way h opposon gmz om

muny ffy fn ns soaby y pompy

asfyng h fw angs omng oasonay no ob

a h fn o nm Osnsy a mpoay saon



52 Te te Sciet

strngehoo not presen serous hllenge o he ne n solut o the wor

A suprnvu groupngs re rst n oremos proesses ooevzton o rens n enemes The lnes vng rensrom enemes re oorne so h mn nvuls shre herrens n ther enemes More exl nvuls shrng ommon group or egor o enemes re eh oher s rensFor ommuntes hrterze b ense sobl hs ws thewhoe sor or lmost whole sor An hs oul remn hewhoe sor s long s relssng strngers nto one o he woopposte tegores o eher rens or enemes ws es n whnthe ommunt power

The s onon s not however me n moern urbn envronment The ltter s mrke b he vore between phsl enstn ense soblt Aens pper nse the onnes o the l ewor n reuse o go w (hough one n hope h he wl nthe en) Ths new suon oes no sem neessrl rom henrese restlessness n mob As mer o s hemobl tse whh rses rom the seenore unormono vs spes muh too rge or beng ssmle n omes

ced b old meod o mppn nd ordn doyed bynvuls The new ens re not vsors hose sns o obsuron the trnsprent sure o l ret whh one n ber whs ong s one hopes h he wll be wshe o omorrow (houghone n sl be empte to o hs rgh w) The o no werswors nor o the seem o he ggers n her oks (though onenno be sure) The re no lke he enemes one knows o Or tes tht s wh he preen However he re no lke herens ether

One meets rens he oher se o ones responsbl Onemeets enemes ( l) he pon o the swor There s no errue bout meeng he strngers. nerourse wh he srngers sws n nongru stns or he nomptblt o he rulesthe onfuse sttus o the srnger nvokes s bes no o meetstrngers l Now when one nno rel vo he spe heoup or shre he nex bes soluon s he meetng whh s noqute meeng meeng preenng no be one (o borrow

Bubers erm) msmeeng egegnung s sn rom meetngBegegnung) The r o msmeeng s rs n oremos se otehnques o eehlzng he relonshp wh he oher tsoverl ee s enl o he strnger s morl obe n mor



Bumn Modernty and Ambvalene 53

subjec Or rher excluson of such suons s cn ccor hesrnger morl sgnfcnce. Ths however s poor subsue forhe el perhps los bu n re now unnble when he

opposon beween frens n enemes s no chllenge ll nhus he negr of he l feworl cn be susn wh he smplesemnc n behvourl choomes opere meroffcl bcommun members.

ke ll he oher selfperpeung socl groupngs boh err orl n nonerrorl he nonl ses collecvze frens nenemes. In on o hs unversl funcon however he lsoelmne he srngers or les he emp o o so Nonlseolog ss John Breull ( 982: 343) s neher n

expresson of nonl en ( les here s no ronl w ofshowng h o be he cse) nor he rbrr nvenon ofnonlss for polcl purposes. I rses ou of he nee o mkesense of omplex socl n polcl rrngemens. Wh hs o beme sense of n he frs plce n hus become lvble wh s suon n whch he ronl ese choom of frens nenemes cnno be pple meroffcl n hs been hereforecompromse s poor gue o he r of lvng . The natonal

state desgned rmarly to deal wth the roblem of strangers notenmes. I s precsel hs feure h ses pr from ohersuprnvul socl rrngemens

Unlke rbes he nonse exens s rule over errorbefore clms he obeence of people. If he rbes cn ssure heneee collecvzon of frens n enemes hrough he wn pro cesses of rcon n repulson selfselecon n selfsegreg on errorl nonl ses mus enforce he frenshp where

oes no come bou b self Nonl ses mus rfcllrecf he flures of nure o cree b esgn wh nure fleo cheve b eful). n he cse of he nonl se collecvzon of frenshp requres conscous effor n force. Among heler he moblzon of solr wh n mgne commun(he p erm propose b Benec Anerson 983] ) n heunverslzon of cognve/behvourl perns ssoce whfrenshp nse of he bounres of he relm occup he pre ofplce The nonl se reefnes frens s nves; commns o

exen he rghs scrbe o he frens onl o ll he fmlrs much s he unfmlr resens of he rule error. Anvce vers grns he resenl rghs onl f such n exenson offrenshp rghs s esrble (hough esrbl s ofen sguse



5 Te e Scie

n t l tmes fferences between the ws humn bengs behveten to spper or t lest blur; th whenever n whereverhumn bengs of stnct hbts ve cose to ech other the woulten wth the pssge of tme to become more lke ech ohersome hbts woul grul gve w to others so tht moreunformt wl result Ths unersnng stoo n strk contr cton to the qute recen n prevous unquestone but nowrp suppresse n forcbl forgoten premoern prctcewhch ccepte the permnence of fferentton conserestckng to ones kn vrtue penze emulton n bounr crossng n on the whole vewe the fferences wthequnmt s fc of lfe cng for no more remel ct on thn

sprng storms or wner snowsIf the metphorc orgn of the term culture hs been mp

ocumente the sme s not true of the concept of ssmtonThs s regrettble s the begnnngs of moern uses of ssm ton prove unque ke o the socologc hermeneutcs of theterm e to he scosure of such strteges of socl cton sorgn sough expresson n the borrowe trope on to heter behn ts new nturlze nerpretons; n of such

specs of hose srees s me he borrowe erm f n hefrs plce We ern from he OED h he eres recore use ofthe term ssmon whch precee he er metphorc pp ctons b cenur ws boogcl In he bologcl nrrtve ofthe sxeenh cenur (OED recors 158 s he e of the frstocumene use) he erm ssmlon referre o the cs ofbsorpon n ncorporon performe b lvng orgnsmsUnmbguous ssmlon soo for converson no selfmnstere chnge; n cton performe b vng orgnsm on tspssve envronmen I men o convert nto substnce of tsown nure he converson b n nml or pln of extrneousmterl no flus n ssues enc wh s own rst nchoemetphorc uses of the erm e from 12 bu t ws not beforethe mle of he egheenh centur ht the menng wsgenerlze nto n unspecfc mkng ke. The conemporruse n whch the onus s shfe owrs he bsorbe mterl nw from he converng orgnsm o be or become lke to . )

cme st n becme common currenc onl bou 83It seems th wh me he esblshe erm ttrctve to hose

who sought nme for new socl prcces ws precse thesmmet t mple; the unmbguous unrectont of the



Bumn Meiy an mbiaence 5

process As prt of biologicl nrrtive ssimiltion stoo for thectivity of the forging orgnism tht suborinte prts of theenvironment to its own nees n i it by trnsforming them sotht they become ienticl with its own fuis n tissues (theorgnism s simultnously casaJinais casaJmais n casaeJJiciens of the process n its outcome). The imgery tht theconcept evoke ws one of living ctive boy bestowing orimpressing its own form n qulity upon something ifferent fromitself n oing it on its own init itive n for its own purpose; of process in the course of which the form n qulity of the otherentity went through ricl chnge while the ientity of ssimilting boy ws mintine n inee kept constnt in the only

wy it coul t ws this imgery tht me the biologicl concepteminently suitble for its new socil semntic function.

The metphoricl function of the concept cpture the novelrive to uniformity expresse in the comprehensive culturl cruseon which the new moern ntionstte h embrke The riverefecte n ugure the coming intolernce to ifference

Moern stte power ment isempowerment of communl self mngement n locl or corportive mechnisms of selfperpetut

ion; it ment therefore spping the socil fountions ofcommunl n corportive tritions n forms of life This intu rn broke th e unthinking utomticism n the mtteroffctness with which the ptterns of humn behviour use to be reprouce n mintine Humn conuct lost its ppernce ofnturlness lost s well ws the expecttion tht nture woul tkeits course even if (or prticulrly if) unttene n left to its ownevices With the bckbone of communl selfreprouction

isintegrting or crushe the moern stte power ws boun toengge in eliberte mngement of socil processes on n unherof scle nee it neee to generte by esign wht in the pstcoul be relie upon to pper on its own. t i not tke over thefunction n the uthority of oc communities n corportions;it i not concentrte the previously isperse powers t presieover the formtion of n entirely new type of power of unprecenente scope epth of penetrtion n mbition (see Bumn 98: Chpters 3 n 4)

The mbition ws to crete rtificilly wht nture coul not beexpecte to provie; or rther wht it shoul not be llowe toprovie The moern stte ws esigning power n esigningment to efine the ifference between orer n chos to sift the



Bumn Moernty an Ambvalene 59

espng the stgmtzng lssfton through eptne of nonstgmtze form of l fe ws on the other hn extene to thenvuls Assmlton ws n nvtton extene to nvulmembers of the stgmtze groups to hllenge the rght of thosegroups to set proper stnrs of behvour t ws n offerextene over the hes of n s ret hllenge to ommunln rportve powers Assmlton ws therefore n exerse nsretng n sempowerng the potentll ompettveommunl or orportve soures of sol uthort t me tloosenng the grp n whh suh ompettve groups hel thermembers t me n other wors t the elmnton of suhgroups s fores of effetve n vble ompetton.

One ths effet h been heve ommunl uthortesrobbe of ther prestge n ther legsltve powers renereneffetve the thret of serous hllenge to the extntstruture of omnton ws prtll elmnte The potentlompettors were shorn of ther power to resst n engge n logue wth even remote hne of suess Colletvel thewere powerless. t ws left to the nvul members to seek to wshoff the olletve stgm of foregness b meetng the ontons set

b the gtekeepers of the omnnt group The nvuls were leftt the mer of he gtekeepers The were obets of exmntonn ssessment b the omnnt group who hel omplete ontrolover he menng of her onut. Whtever the n whtevermenng the nene o nves n ther tons pror reffrmethe onrollng pt of he omnnt group. Ther lmourngfor msson utomll renfore the ltters lm toomnne The stnng nvton to ppl for entr n theposve response o t onfrme the omnnt group n ts sttus ofthe hoer he gurn n he plenpotentr of superor vluesb the sme token gvng mterl substne to the onept of vluesuperort. he ver ft of ssung the nvtton estblshe theomnnt group n he poston of the rbtrtng power foreenttle to set he exms n mrk he performne nvulmembers of the tegores elre s substnr were nowmesure n vlue b the extent of ther oformt wthomnnt vlues The were progressve' f the strove to mtte

the omnnt ptterns n to erse ll res of the orgnl ones.The were lbelle bkwr' s long s he retne lolt to thetrtonl ptterns or were not pt or fst enough n rng them selves of ther resul tres .



Thery Culture Sety

The stnng nvtton ws represente s sgn of tolernce nfct however the ssmltor offer erve ts sense from the stffness of scrmntor norms from the fnlt of the verct ofnferort psse or nonconformst vlues The tolernce unerstoo s the encourgement of progressve tttues' expresse nthe serch of nvul selfmprovement ws menngful onl slong s the mesures of progress were not negotble Wthn thepolc of ssmlton tolernce me t nvuls wsnextrcbl lnke wth ntolernce me t the collectvtes thervlues n bove ll ther vluelegtmtng powers nee thefrst ws mjor nstrument n the successful promoton of thesecon.

The effectve sfrnchsement of lterntve vluegenertngn vluelegtmtng uthortes ws represente s the unver slt of vlues supporte b the extnt herrch n fct howeverthe llege unverslt of the uthorttvel hle n promotevlues h no other mterl substrtum but the expeentlprotecte soveregnt of the vluejuctng powers The moreeffectve ws the suppresson of possble sources of chllenge theless chnce there ws tht the bluff of unverslt woul be clle

n tht the pretence of the bsolute vlt of vlueclms woulbe unmske s functon of power monopol The egree to whchthe locll omnnt vlues coul crebl clm suprloclvlt ws functon of ther locl supremc

Cg Eluve rgerom the stnpont of the grnose et unmplementble proectof ssmlton some nsuffcentl emphsze often overlookefcets of moern socet n ts unes htelove reltonshp wthmoern culture cn be better seen

Assmlton s stnct from crossculturl exchnge or culturlffuson n generl s tpcl moern phenomenon t ervets chrcter n sgnfcnce from the moern ntonlzton' ofthe stte e from the b of the moern stte to lngustc culturln eologcl unfcton of the populton whch nhbts theterrtor uner ts jurscton Such stte tene to legtmze tsuthort through reference to shre hstor common sprt n

unque n exclusve w of lfe rther thn to extrneousfctors (lke for nstnce nstc rghts or mltr superort)whch on the whole re nfferent to the versfe forms of lfeof subjecte populton.



Bumn Modenity and Amivalene 1 6

The gp between unfomt nheent n the e o fthe nton nthe pctcl heteogenet of cultul foms nse the em uneunfe stte mnstton consttute theefoe chllenge n pobem to whch ntonl sttes espone wth cutul cusesme t the estucton of utonomous communl mechnsms ofepoucton of cutul unt . The e n whch nton sttes weefome ws chcteze b cultul ntoence; moe geneb nonenunce of n mptence wth l ffeence Pctcestht epte fom o not full confome to the powessstecultul ptten wee constue s len n potentl subvesvefo smutneousl th ntonl n poltcl ntegt.

The ntonlzton of the stte (o the ettzton of the

nton) bene the ssue of poltcl ot n tustwothness(seen s contons fo gntng ctzenshp ghts) wth tht ofcultu confomt. On one hn the postulte ntonl moelseve s the el objectve of cutul cuse but on the othe tws epoe s the stn b whch membeshp of the bopotc ws teste n the exlusve pctces wee explne negtmze whch h been pple to those squfe s hvngfle the test n the esult ctzenshp n cultu confomt

seeme to mege; the secon ws peceve s the conton but lsos mens to ttn the fst

n ths context obteton of cultul stnctveness n cqustn of ffeent powessste cultue ws constue npeceve s the pme vehce of poltcl emncpton The conse quence ws the ve of poltcll mbtous vnce sectos ofen poputons to seek excelence n pctsng the mnntcutu pttens n to svow the cultul pctces of thecommuntes of ogn The pospect of ful poltcl ctzenshp wsthe mn souce of the seuctve powe of the ccututonpogmme

The ve to ccututon put the ostensble entt of potcsn cutue to the test n expose the contctons wth whchthe fuson ws nescpbl buene n whch n the ong unpove esponsbe fo the utmte flue of the ssmltopogmme.

() Cutu ssmton ws n ntnsc nvul tsk nctvt whe both potc scmnton n poltc emncp ton ppe to the len (o othewse excue) communt s whoe. As the ccututon ws boun to pocee uneven n



2 Theory, Culture Soiety

nvolve vous sectons o the communt to a vng etent an atvng spee the vnce sectos seeme to be hel bck b theelvel ee ones. Cuttng the tes wth the communtoee no w out om the mpasse s the collectve matut occeptance lke the capact o a bge woul be measue b theqult o the wekest secton. On the othe han ctng s aculul boke o msson on behal o the omnnt cultue noe to ccelete the cultul tansomaton o ntve communts whole onl enoce the commonalt o te between theccultute n the cultuall alen' sectons o the communtn uthe tghtene the alea st contons o poltclcceptance.

(b) The eventl cque chcte o cultul tats gne nthe pocess o ccultuton je wth the nhete an scbentue o natonl membeshp hng behn the omul ocommon cultue. The act tht the cultul smlat h beencheve mae the accultuate alens eent om the est notell lke u s' suspect o uplct n pobabl also ll ntent onsn ths sense cultul assmlton n the mewok o ntonlstte ws seleeatng As t wee ntonl communt though

culul pouct coul sustan ts moalt as a naton onl thoughemphtc enl o a meel cultual' .e. atcl ounton.nstea eve ts entt om the mth o common ogn nnulness. The nvual was o ws not ts membe one coulno choose to be one.

(c) Though t eectvel lente ts agents om the communt o ogn ssmlaton not le theeoe to ull nuncononl cceptnce b the omnnt naton. Much to thesm he ssmlnts oun tht the h n eect ssmltesolel to he pocess o assmlton. Othe ssmlnts wee the onlpeople aoun who he the poblems netes n peoccupaons. Hvng let behn the ognl communt n lost theome socl n sptul antes the ssmlnts lne nnothe communt the communt o ssmlnts' no lessesnge n mgnle thn the one om whch the escapeMoeove the new lenton splae a mke tenenc to selecebton. The Weltanshauung o the assmlants was now

oge out o the she epeence o the new communt ngven shpe b scouse conucte mostl nse ts mewok.n the even t showe mke tenenc to unelne the unve slstc' chace o cultual values n mltte gnst ll n n



Bumn Modety and Ambvalene 1 63

pochly Ths ccumsnce se he pecepons he phlosophy n he els p fom he nve' ones n effecvelypevene he gp fom beng bge

The moen pojec of culul uny pouces h conons ofs own unfulflmen By he sme oken cees he unpeecene exuben ynmsm whch chceses moen culue

Oe n chos e boh moen es They emegeogehe ou of he supon n collpse of he vneyone wol whch knew of nehe necessy no ccen hewol whch jus ws Ths wol whch pecee he bfuconno oe n chos we fn ffcul o escbe n s own emsWe y o gsp mosly wh he help of negons we ell ouselveswh h wol ws no wh no conn wh wsunwe of Th wol woul hly hve ecognze self n ouescpons I woul no unesn wh we e lkng bou Iwoul no suvve such unesnng The momen of unesnng woul be (n ws) he sgn of s ppochng ehAn of he bh of moeny

We cn hnk of moeny s of me when oe of he

wol of humn hb of humn self n of he conneconbeween ll hee s me of hugh of concen of pccewe of self Fo he ske of convenence (he exc ng of bhs boun o emn conenous he nssence on ng s self phenomenon of moeny len o he pocess of s conceponn geson) we cn gee wh Sephen Collns who n hsecen suy 1989: 46728 29 32) ook Hobbes's vson fo hebhmk of he conscousness of oe h s of moen

conscousness h s of moeny ( Conscousness' sys Collnsppes s he quly of pecevng oe n hngs )

Hobbe ndeood ha a od n a naa and ha ode m be

eaed o ean ha a naa . . Soe no onge a anendena

aaed eeon o omehng pedened eena and beond e hh

ode eene heaha . I no a nomna en odeed b he oveegn

ae hh on aaed epeenave . . 40 ea ae Ezabeh

deah] ode a omng o be ndeood no a naa b a a a eaed

b man And mane poa and oa. . de m be degned oean ha appeaed bo ha . de beame a mae o

poe and poe a mae o oe and aaon . ndamena o he

ene eonepazaon o he dea o oe a he bee ha he ommon

eah a a ode a a hman eaon



64 Theory Culture Soiety

Collns s srupulous hstorn wry of the gers of projetonsm n presentsm bu he n hrly o mpung to the preHobbsn worl mny feure kn to the posHobbsn worl ofours f only through nng her bsene nee whoutsuh strtegy of esrpton the preHobbsn worl woul stynumb n menngless for us. o mke h worl spek o us wemust ly bre ts slenes to spell ou wh ht worl ws unwreof. We must fore tht worl to ke stne on ssues to whh remne oblous h oblon ws wht me t th worl worl so fferen n so nommuno wth our own.

An thus f t s true tht we know th the orer of thngs s notnturl ths oes not men ht tht oher preHobbsn worl

thought of the orer s he work of nture t not thnk of orert ll not n the sense we thnk of t now. The soery tht orers not nurl ws soery of orer s suh The onept oforer ppers n onsousness only smultneously wth the problem of orer of orer s mtter of esgn n ton Delrtonof the nonnturlness of orer' stoo for n orer lrey omngout of hng out of nonexstene out of slene nure ws fterll the slene of mn. f t s true tht we thnk of orer s mtter

of esgn ths oes not men tht tht other worl ws omplentbout esgnng n expete he orer to ome n sty on ts ownn unssste Tht other worl le wthou suh lternte twoul not be the other worl were t gng s thought to t . If t strue tht our worl s shpe by the suspon of brttleness nfrgl ty of the rfl mnme slns of orer mong the se ofhos t oes not follow ht he ther worl belee tht the orerstrethes oer the se n the humn rhpelgo lke t wsrher unwre of the tnton betwee ln n wter

We n sy tht the exsene s moern nsmuh s forks noorer n hos The exstene s moern nsfr s t ontns thelternte of orer n hos

Inee orer n hos. Orer s not me gnst n lternteorer the struggle for orer s not fght of one efnt on gnstnoher of one wy of rtultng relty gnst ompetteproposl I s fght of etermnton gnst mbguty ofsemnt preson gnst mblene of trnspreny gnst

obsurty lrty gnst fuzzness Orer s ontnuously enggen the wr of surl. Wh s no tself s not nother orer nyorer s lys the orer s suh wth hos s ts only lternte.



Bumn Moernty an Ambvalene 5

The other of orer s the msm of the netermnte nunprectbe: uncertnt the source n rchetpe of fer. Thetropes of the Other of Orer re: unefnbt ncoherencencongruence ncomptbt ogct Chos the Other ofOrer s pure negtt . t s en of tht the orer stres tobe t s gnst tht negtt tht the postt of Orer const tutes tsef But the negtt of chos s prouct of orer s sefconsttuton ; ts seeffect ts wste n et the conton sne qunon of ts possbt Wthout the negtt of chos there s nopostt of orer; wthout chos no orer

We cn s tht the estence s moern nsmuch s t s sturteb the wthout us euge feeng The exstence s moern

nsmuch s t s gue b the urge of esgnng wht otherwsewou not be there esgnng of tsef.

The rw exstence the exstence free of nterenton theunorere exstence becomes now nture: somethng sngurunft for humn hbtt somethng not to be truste n not tobe eft to ts own eces somethng to be mstere suborntereme so s to be rejuste to humn nees Somethng to be hen check restrne n contne trnsferre from the stte of

shpeessness nto form b effort n b ppcton of forceEen f the form hs been preorne b nture tsef t wontcome bout unssste n wont sure unefene. ngccorng to nture nees ot of esgnng orgnze effort ngnt montorng Nothng s more rtfc thn nturnessnothng ess ntur thn bng b the ws of nture Powerrepresson purposefu cton stn between nture n tht soceffecte orer n whch rtfct s ntur

We cn s tht exstence s moern nsmuch s t s effecte nsustne b soc engneerng The exstence s moern nsmuchs t s mnge n mnstere b powerfu resorcefu soer egn gences Agences re soeregn nsmuch s the cm nefen the rght to mnge n mnster exstence: the rght toefne orer n b mpcton set se chos s the eftoer thtescpes the efnton

t ws the ntenton to engge n soc engneerng whch methe stte moern The tpc moern prctce of the stte the

substnce of moern potcs ws the effort o extermnte mbence: to efne precse n to suppress or emnte eerthngtht cou not or wou not be precse efne The Other of the



Theory, Culture Soety

moen tte i the nomn' o ontete ln the une o oveefinit ion mbiguity. A the oveeignty of the moen tte i thepowe to efine n to mke the efinition tik eveything thtefefine o elue the ttelegilte efinition i ubveive.The Othe of oveeignty i obfution opity n onfuionReitne to efinition et the imit to oveeignty to powe to thepowe of oveeign tte to oe. ht eitne i the tubbonn gim emine of the flu whih oe wihe to ontin but invin; of the limit to oe; of the neeity of oeing. Stteoeing ete ho. But the tte nee ho to go on etingoe

We n y tht onioune i moen inmuh it i

uffue with the wene of inonuivene of oe; move bythe inequy ny nonfeibility of the oi engineeingpojet Conioune i moen inmuh it eve eve newye of ho uneneth the l i of poweite oe. Moenonioune itiize wn n let t pu into tion byunmking it ineffetivene. t pepetute the oeing butle byiquifying it hievement n ying be it efet.

Thu thee i htelove eltion btween moen eitene n

moen utue (in the mot vne fom of efwene) ymbioi fught with ivi w. n the moen e utue i thtobtepeou n vigint He Mjety Oppoition whih mkethe govenment feibe. Thee i no ove lot hmony noimiity between the two thee i ony mutu nee nepenene the omplementity whih ome out of the oppoi tion whih i oppoition. t wou be futile to eie whethemoen utue unemine o eve moen eitene. t oe boththing t n o eh one only togethe with the othe. Oppoition iit poitivity Dyfuntionity of moen utue i it funtionlityThe moen powe' tugge fo tifiil oe nee utue thtexpoe the imit n the imition of the powe of tifie. Thetugge fo oe infom tht expotion n i in tun infomby it fining n the poe the tuggle he it initil hubi:the pugnity bon of nivety n ignone t en inte toive with it own pemnene inonluivene n popetene Hopefuly it en in the en the iffiut kill of moety

n toeneThe hitoy of moenity i one of the tenion between oil

exitene n it ultue Moen eitene foe it utue intooppoition to itef Thi ihmony i peiey the hmony



Bum, Modety and Ambvalene 6

moert ees. The hstor of moert rws ts uc upreceete msm from t or the sme reso t c besee s hstor of progress s the turl hstor of humt

orp

Three spects of cotemporr chge usull subsume uer thecocept of postmoert m just m put tme lmt tothe lt of preceg lss.

A proouce though b o mes cocluse teectowr etolzto of the stte. prtzto of tolt or more correctl towr seprto betwee the stte

the to (smlr w to the lst cetur seprto betweethe stte the church) Ths process hs bee sometmes escrbes resurgece of ethct The ltter term puts the forefrot theutcpte flourshg of ethc loltes se tol mor tes. B the sme toke, t csts show o wht seems to be theeep cuse of the pheomeo the growg seprto betwee themembershp of bo poltc ethc membershp (or moregeerll culturl coformt) whch remoes much of ts orgl

ttrcto from the progrmme of culturl ssmlto Thsseprto tur s more th cetll relte to the estblsh met of lterte mostl oculturl oeologcl foutos of the sttes power or ll prctcl tets purposesthe er of sttele culturl cruses grs to hlt.

2 Culture tself hg lost ts strumetl role sercg thesstemc reproucto erwrtg the socl tegrto hsbee free from obtruse costrg terest of the stte

tes to become prt of the prte om . Ethct hs becomeoe of the m ctegores of tokes or tr bl poles rou whchlexble sctofree commutes re forme refereceto whch ul ettes re costrue sserte There reow therefore much fewer cetrfugl forces whch oce wekeeethc tegrt There s ste powerful em for pro ouce though smbolc rther th sttutolze ethcstcteess

3. Uer these cotos ethc ffereces m ust m

geerte less tgosm coflct th the pst. t s truetht rous spects of heterophob ssocte wth the bour rwg preoccuptos re stll operto; but the cotuousrerwg of boures tpcl of cotemporr (postmoer)



68 Theory Cuture Soety

culture n the esness wth whch hey re crosse n the bsence ofstehre borergurs reners he ntgonsms somewh moreshlow shorlve n less venomous or rcl. Wth the steeclrng (n prcsng) s nfference o culurl n ehncpurlsm oernce sns beer chnce hn ever before.

Between hemselves, hese hree enences my well rener herm of the nmbvlence wr o ssmlon mtter ofmostly hsorcl neres well before t hs reche he conclusonfor whch vnly strove

An eampe he nvua epeene nethe oaton no aenaton'Con 989 ). In at the nvua o the pemoen o not epeene

the abene o the epeene o oaton o aenaton. He not epeene

beongng membehp athoebeng togethene Beongng enta the aae

ne o beng togethe o a pat o thu beongng nevtaby ontan the aaene

o t on unetanty o the pobty o oaton o the nee to tave o o ove

ome aenaton Epeenng onee a unoate o unaenate a muh

moen a the epeene o oat on an aenaton.

rnAte Pete 989) Natoalsm tanate by Stuat MKnnonEvan) onon

Ea Ano

Aneon, Benet 983) Imagay Commtes onon: Veo.

Bath, Feek 969) t os ad Bodaes e Soal Ogazato ofCltal Dfeees Begen Unvetet eaget.

Bauman Zygmunt 987) Legslatos ad Iteetes o Poty Pe

Beuy ohn 98) Natoalsm ad te State Manhete Manhete Unvety

Pe

Con Stephen . 989) om Dve Cosmos to Soveeg State Itelletal

Hstoy of Cososess ad te Idea ofOde Reassae glad oo nvety Pe

ea aue 974) Of ammatology tanate by Gayat Chakavoty

Spvak) Batmoe: John Hopkn Unvety Pe.

ea Jaue 98 a) Dssematos tanate by Babaa ohnon). onon

Athone Pe

eia aue I98b) ostos tanate by Aan Ba). Chago: Chago

Unvety Pe.

ouga May 966) ty ad Dage onon: outege.

Eamu Chae J. 974) I Sea of te Commo ood Ne o ee Pe

Keou Ee 960) Natoalsm onon Huthnonevna Emmanue 982) ts ad Ity Co vesatos wt llie Nemo

tanate by ha A. Cohen). Pttbugh Duuen Unvety Pe.

Roueau Jean Jaue 93) Cosdeatos o te eset of olad onon

eon



Bauman Moety an Ambvaene 69

Shae Bd C ( 9 Nationaism Myt and Raity. ndn Ganz.

Smme, Geg ( 97 The Stange n On Individaity and oia Forms (gna

edtn 98 Chag Chag Unvet Pe

Zgu Baua s Professor of Socolog at the Unerst ofees Hs latest book s Moernity an the Hooaust (PoltPess 989)



Towards a Global Culture?

Aho D. Smih

The t probem th the cocept of gob cuture s oe ofthe meg of terms. C e spek of cuture the sgur? Ifby cuture' s met coectve moe of fe or repertore ofbeefs styes vues symbos the e c oy spek ofcutur ever just cuture for coectve moe of fe or reper

tore o bees etc. presupposes feret moes repertores uverse of moes repertores Hece the e of gobcuture s prctc mpossbty except terpetry terms.Eve the cocept s precte of homo s oppose toother speces the fereces betee segmets of humty terms of festye beefrepertore re too gret thecommo eemets too geerze to permt us to eve coceve of gobze cuture

Or re they? C e ot t st scer the emets o exctytht or cuture hch bers socsts ke h reme o hope for sce the st cetury? I the evoutoryperspectve the hmrk o hstory s groth groth szepoputo oee the e se uts everyhereere gvg y to eseypopute socetes o otetsce so tht eve the rest o tosttes s but stgg post the scet o humty For bers rom M pecer toPrsos meser the ptve cpcty o humty s

cresg by ete stges s moerzto eroe ocsm crete huge mobe prtcpt socetes hose exbty cusveess presge the ssouto o boures ctegores of commo humty

A smr hope s eterte by socsts o vretes.Despte the my mbgutes revee the scttere rtgs oMrx Eges o the subject o superseg humty's vsos they both ooke orr to the therg y o the to

stte the tertozto o terry cutures they

heo e oe nn ewb Pa an ew eh . 7

( 990 7 9



1 72 Te e Scie

ther communst successors ccepted the present retes of ntonboundres nd cutures nd even conceded the need to conduct thecss strugge wthn those boundres the nevertheess ookedforwrd to the d when the socst revouton woud nfuseproetrn vues nto ethnc nd nton cutures nd whenhumnt s dvsons woud be trnscended wthout beng formboshed

of o uu

t s these hopes tht hve reemerged fter 195 out of the runs of dvded Europe nd word Before 195 t ws st possbe tobeeve tht the medumszed ntonstte ws the norm of humn

orgnzton n the modern er nd tht nton cuture wshumnt's fn go nd ttrbute A word of ntons ech sover egn homogenous nd free coopertng n the egue of Ntonsws humnts hghest sprton nd the gurntee of potcustce through dverst nd pursm

The Second Word Wr destroed tht vson nd sprton treveed the bnkruptc of the word of ntons posted b nton sts nd ccepted n good fth b so mn t demonstrted the hod

of suprnton deooges over rge segments of humnt ofrcsm cptsm nd communsm. t so brought the hegemonof superpowers contnent sttes whch won the Wr reegtngthe former gret powers to the mdde or ower rnks of wordsttus

n the postwr word word of power bocs nd deoogccmps humnt ws redvded but n such w s to gve rse tothe hope of trnscendng the gretest obstce to tru gobpotcs nd cuture the ntonstte. n the postwr word thentonstte ws cer obsoete ong wth ntonsm nd tsrtus n ts pce rose the new cutur mpersms of Sovetcommunsm Amercn cptsm nd struggng to fnd pcebetween them new Europensm . Here the hope of erodng thestte nd trnscendng the nton

Fundment to the new cutur mpersms hs been the needto crete postve terntve to nton cuture . f the nton wsto be supersded t coud not smp be through process of

depotczon wtherng w of ntonsm To seprte nddestro nton but keep the orgnzton cuture of ntonsntct ws to rsk the renew of tht ver ntonsm whch wsto be boshed Ths ws n fct the Sovet pproch snce the



Smh Twards a Gba Cuture? 1 3

9 (Golhgen 198 GE Smh 1985. Bu he communuhore lo relze he nger of her polce owrnonle n herefore propoe he creon of new Sovemn czen of he Sove Unon whoe lol woul be neologcl one o he new polcl commun even where he orhe rene ene of emoonl olr wh her ehnccommun n he en hee ehnc commune n republcwoul fer pero of growng cooperon fue ogeher o pro uce rul Sove culure (Feoeev e 9

n merc oo he hope for connenl culure of mlvemoernzon be on he mercn Cree of lber ncplm w counerpoe o he nrrow nonlm of

Europe n he Thr Worl well o he commun rvlmerc he ln of mmgrn n mnore w hel up n he 95 he exemplr of melng po mlon n when hvon prove o be mrge of negron hrough ver Inh veron mbolc chmen o prculr ehnc commu ne re vlue n her nee n rgh re polcll recog nze o long he re ulmel uborne o he overrchngpolcl commun n complex of mh memore n

mbol Ehnc h become one of he bc f nformlorgnzng prncple of mercn oce bu no n uch w o mpr he overrng llegnce of ech czen o merc vlue heroe flg Revoluonr mh n he Conuon Toh offcl nonlm we cn more ffue chmen ohe culure n lncpe of merc prre eer nmounn rnge erl elemen n folk r (Glzer nMonhn 195 Klon 95 Gn 199

If he Sove n mercn experence emonre hepoble of he new culurl mperlm n rncenngnonlm he projec of rul Europen Commun pregehe mnner n whch globl culure mgh be cree Snce hencepon of he Europen movemen n 1948 here h been muchebe on he fuure hpe of uch uprnonl commun Onhe one hn here w he Gu formulon of Eurpe desatries hre b ome Brh governmen on he oher hn von of rul une e of Europe polcll well econo

mcll of he kn h erne he nme of upernon from ercor (ee Gung 193 In beween were vrou he offeerlm or confeerlm lnke b common Rhnebeculure hrkng bck beon he epoch of he none o erler



74 Thory Cutur Soty

n looser enttes the Ho Romn Empre the CrolngnsChrstenom even Rome tse rom whch new Europencuturl unt mght be orge wth the nstruments o telecom munctons n economc nterepenence. n the ge o televsonn computer t s perectl esbe to construct new Europencuture whch woul mtch ts Amercn n Sovet rvls nemonstrte once gn the vtlt o the new cuturl mperlsmsn postnustrl er.

ke the Amercn moel ths new ormulton o Europencommunt epens on the shonble noton o unt n ver st' whch suggests the possblt o cultur mperlsmcoexstng wth vtl culturl enttes ust s there s bnce

between common economc regulton rom Brussels n thespecc socl n economc poces o the member sttes o theCommunt just s there s shrng o potcl soveregntbetween the member sttes n the poltcl centres n Strsbourgn Brussels conomnum o overlppng jursctons; so n thesphere o culture common Europen hertge whch wl spwnthe new Europen ctzen s blnce b the stll vel cross ertlze cultures o Europe's mn ntons but n such w s to

subornte them to the cultur mpertves o the contnent n postnustrl er (see Schlesnger 987).

A 'Pos-ndusra Goba Cuur?

t s not cult to see wht les behn such ormultons o thenew cuturl mpersm. Brol spekng t s rgue tht the ero the ntonstte s over. We re enterng new worl o economcgnts n superpowers o multnonls n mtr blocs ovst communctons networks n nterntonl vson o lbour .n such worl there s no room or meum or smlsce stteset lone submerge ethnc communtes n ther competng nvsve ntonlsms. On the one hn cptst competton hsgven brth to mmensel powerul trnsntonl corportons wthhuge bugets reserves o sk le lbour vnce technologes nsophstcte normton networks. Essentl to ther success s theblt to elver sutbl pckge mger n smbolsm whchwll conve ther entons o the servces the prove Whle the

hve to rel on trnsntonl ngu rnc t s the new sstems oteecommunctons n computerze normton networks whchenbe them to bpss erences n nguge n cuture to securethe bour n mrkets the requre n other wors the resources



Smth Towards a Global Cultu 1 75

range an specalze flexblty of transnatonal corporatonsaces enable hem to present magery an nformaton on analmost global scale threaenng to swamp the culturl networks ofmore local unts nclung natons an ethnc communtes see Saan Smmons 976)

On the oher han an alternatve perspectve clams that we haveenere no just a postnatonal but also a postnustral somewoul say posmoern' era. Naons an natonalsm may haebeen funconal for a worl of competng nustral states but theyare obsolee n the serce socety of an nterepenent worl baseupon techncal knowlege. s not captalsm an its trannatonalcorporaons whch hae eroe the power of natonstates but the

possbltes of constructng much larger nsttutonal unts on thebass of ast telecommuncatons systems an computerze networks of nformaon n ths stuaton any attempt to lmt suchnetworks to natonal bounares s oome to falure toayculture can only be contnental or global. But by the same tokenhese same communcatons networks make possble a enser morentense nteracton between members of communtes who sharecommon cultural characterstcs notably language an ths fact

enables us o unerstan why n recent years we have been nessng the reemergence of submerge ethnc communtes anher natonalsms (Rchmon 198).

Ths last pont echoes Marx an Engels oncesson to natonaculture n a socalst worl. Natons Marx amtte woul belkely to persst as cultural forms an a truly cosmopoltan culture not rule out resual folk cultures to whch Engels referresanfully as so many ethnographc monuments wth ther yngcustoms crees an languages see Fsera an Mnnerup 978Cummns 980 Connor 198). Smlarly toay movements ofethnc autonomy n Western Europe have sometmes lnke therfate wth the growth of a European Communty that woulsupersee the bureaucratc stratjacket of the exstng system of natonstates whch have sgnally fale to ge perpheral ethncmnores ther ue n the postWar worl Only n a broaer looserEuropean Communty woul such neglecte mnorts fnrecognton an equal opportuntes see Esman 1977 A. D Smth

98 ) .Ye the man thrust of latecaptalsm an/or postnustral

sm analyses s away from the smallscale communt an towars aworl of cultural mperalsm base on economc state an



1 They, Clte Sciety

communcons echnolog n nsuons. Wheher he mperl sms re eologcl or polcl or economc her culurl bse slws echncl n els he re s wh ever mperlsmculures of se or ses promoe from bove wh lle or nopopulr bse n wh lle or no reference o he culurl ronsof he peoples ncorpore n her omn

Bu here s n mporn fference from erler culurlmperlsms Erler mperlsms were usull exensons of ehncor nonl senmens n eologes rench Brsh Russn ec os mperlsms re osensbl nonnonl; cplsm nsoclsm n n fferen sense Europensm re b efn on n nenon suprnonl f no unversl he re

suppore b echnologcl nfrsrucure whch s rulcosmopoln n he sense h he sme elecommuncons bsewll evenull eroe culurl fferences n cree genunelglobl culure bse on he properes of he me hemselves owhch he messge wll become ncresngl ncenl or heres oursm n museolog lone wll preserve he memor of nerler er of nonl culures of he kn h Donl Horne hsgven us such vv recor (Horne 1 984.

Wh s he conen of such posnusrl globl culureHow shll we pcure s operons Answers o such quesonsusull ke he form of exrpolon from recen wesern culurlexperences of posmoernsm Beneh moerns veneer wefn n prcce psche of culurl mofs n sles unerpnneb unversl scenfc n echncl scourse A globl culure sohe rgumen runs wll be eclecc lke s wesern or Europenprogenor bu wll wer unforml sremlne pckgngSnrze commerclze mss commoes wll neverhelessrw for her conens upon revvls of ronl folk or nonlmofs n sles n fshons furnshngs musc n he rs lfeou of her orgnl conexs n nesheze So h globlculure woul opere severl levels smulneousl: s cornucop of snrze commoes s pchwork of enonlze ehnc or folk mofs s seres of generlze humnvlues n neress s unform scienc scourse of menngn fnll s he nerepenen ssem of communcons whch

forms he merl bse or ll he oher componens n levels. I mgh be rgue h here s nohng especll new bou

globl culure h erler culurl mperlsms were ever wh seclecc n smulneousl snrze Afer ll he hellenz



Smh Towars a Goba Cuture? 1 77

on h Alexners rmes crre hroughou he ncen NerEs rew on re of locl mofs s well s gng hem expresson n he GrecoMceonn forms of here ssembl mrkelce n gmnsum An he sme ws rue of he px Romnhroughou he Meerrnen worl (see Tcherkoer 970;

Blson 979)

Ye hose premoern culurl mperlsms were neher globlnor unersl The were ulmel e o her plces of orgn ncrre wh hem her secl mhs n smbols for ll o recognze n emule Tos emergng globl culure s e o no plceor ero I s conexless rue melnge of spre comonensrwn from eerwhere n nowhere borne uon he moern

chros of globl elecommuncons ssemsThere s somehng equll meless bou he concep of globl

culure Wel ffuse n spce globl culure s cu off fromn ps As he perennl pursu of n eluse presen or mgnefuure hs no hsor A globl culure s here n now neerwhere n for s purposes he s onl seres o offersome econexulze exmple or elemen for s cosmopolnchwork

Ths sense of melessness s owerfull unerlne b he reemnenl echncl nure of s scourse A globl culure s essen ll clcule n rfcl osng echncl problems whechncl soluons n usng s folk mofs n sr of echeplfulness Affecel neurl cosmopoln culure reflecs echnologcl bse me up of mn oerlpng ssems ofcommuncons boun b common qune n echnclscourse mnne b n ncresngl echncl nellgens whoseculure of crcl scourse relces he socl crque of s erlerhumnsc counerrs (see Goulner 1979)

Mr d ad Clurs

Eclecc unersl meless n echncl globl culure s seen sreemnenl consruce culure he fnl n mos mposngof whole seres of humn consrucs n he er of humn lberonn mser oer nure In sense he non oo ws us such consruc soeregn bu fne mgne commun'

Nons were bul n forge b se eles or nellgenssor cplss; lke he Scos kl or he Brsh Coronon ceremonhe re compose of so mn nene rons whose smbolswe nee o re hrough rocess of econsrucon f we re o



8 Thory Cultur Soty

grsp the hen menngs beneth he tet of ther sourse. Theft therefore tht globl ulture woul nee to be onstrutelong wth globl eonom n poltl nsttutons shoul o

son no surprse; nor shoul we vl t the eletsm wth whhsuh osmopoltn ulture s lel to me use of bts n peesof preestng ntonl n fol ultures.

et us onee for the moment tht ntons re n some sensesol onstruts n mgne ommuntes s t beuse of thsonstrute qul t tht the hve mnge to survve n flourshso well? Are we therefore justfe n pretng the sme brghtfuture for n equll well rfte globl ulture

To nswer ffrmtvel woul requre us to ple the whole

weght of emonstrton on the ommon hrterst of humnonstruton n mgnton t the epense of those hrterstsn whh ntons n ntonl ultures ffer mrel from ouresrpton of the qultes of globl ulture The obstnte ft stht ntonl ultures le ll ultures before the moern epoh repartular tmbound n xprsv n ther eletsm operteswthn strt ulturl onstrnts. As we s t the outset there nn prte be no suh thng s ulture onl spef hstorl

ultures possessng stong emotonl onnottons for those whoshre n the prtulr ulture. t s of ourse possble to nvent even mnufture trtons s ommotes to serve prtulrlss or ethn nterests But the wll onl survve n floursh sprt of the repertore of ntonl ulture f the n be meontnuous wth muh longer pst tht members of tht ommu nt presume to onsttute ther hertge . In other wors grftngetrneous elements must lws be elte operton the new

trtons must evoe populr response f the re to survve ntht mens hewng lose to vernulr motfs n stles. Tht wsthe nstnt whh gue most ntonlsts n helpe to ensurether lstng suesses. The suess of the nneteenthentur Brt shCoronton eremon or the Welsh Estefou owe muh tothe blt of those who revve them to rw on muh oler ulturlmotfs n trtons memores of whh were stll lve though none sense new these revvls were onl ble to floursh beusethe oul be presente n were epte s ontnuous wth

vlue pst (see Hobsbwm n Rnger 983)f ultures re hstorll spef n sptll lmte so re

those mges n smbols tht hve obtne hol on humnmgnton Even the most mperlst of those mges emperor



Smh Toward a Global Culture? 1 9

Pope or Tsr he rwn her power from he herge ofRomn n Bznne smbosm. s one hng o be be opckge mger n ffuse hrough worwe eecommuncons neworks. s que noher o ensure h such mges renher power o moe n nspre popuons who he for so ongbeen e b prcur hsores n cuures whch hemrrore n crsze he experences of hsorc sepreoc groups wheher csses or regons regous congregons orehnc communes. The menngs of een he mos uners ofmger for prcur popuon eres s much from hehsorc experences n soc sus of h group s from henenons of pureors s recen reserch on he non recepon

of popur eeson sers suggess (see Schesnger 198) .n oher wors mges n cuur rons o no ere from

or escen upon mue n psse popuons on whose tabularaa he nscrbe hemsees. nse he nrb express heenes whch hsorc crcumsnces he forme ofen oerong peros. The concep of en' s here use no of common enomnor of perns of fe n c much esssome erge bu rher of he subjece feengs n uons of

n popuon whch possesses common experences n one ormore shre cuur chrcerscs (usu cusoms nguge orregon). These feengs n ues refer o hree componens ofher shre experences

. sense of connu beween he experences of succeenggenerons of he un of popuon;

2 shre memores of specfc eens n personges whch hebeen urnngpons of coece hsor; n

3 . sense of common esn on he pr of he coecshrng hose experences.

B coece cuur en herefore s men hose feengsn ues n respec of sense of connu shre memores n sense of common esn of gen un of popuon whch hsh common experences n cuur rbues

s n jus hese senses h nons' cn be unersoo s

hsorc enes or es erng cose from hem whe gob n cosmopon cuure fs o ree o n such hsorcen Unke non cuures gob cuure s essenmemoress Where he non' cn be consruce so s o rw



8 Te e Scie

upon n ree tent popur experences n nees gobcuture nswers to no ng nees no enttnthemkng t hsto be pnfu put together rtfc out of the mn exstngfok n nton enttes nto whch humnt hs been so onge There re no wor memores tht cn be use to niehumnt; the most gob experences to te coonsm nthe Wor Wrs cn on sere to remn us of our hstorcceges (f t s rgue tht ntonsts suffere seecte mnesn orer to construct ther ntons the cretors of gob cuturewou he to suffer tot mnes to he n chnce of success )

The centr ffcut n n proect to construct gob enttn hence gob cuture s tht coecte entt ke mger

n cuture s ws hstorc specfc becuse t s bse onshre memores n sense of contnut between genertons

To beee tht cuture foows structure tht the technoeconomc sphere w proe the contons n therefore thempetus n content of gob cuture s to be mse once gn bthe sme economc etermnsm tht ogge the ebte boutnustr conergence n to oerook the t roe of commonhstorc experences n memores n shpng entt n cuture

Gen the purt of such experences n enttes n gen thehstorc epth of such memores te project of gob cuture soppose to gob communctons must pper premture forsome tme to come.

Er d r

f t proes ffcut to ensge pont of eprture for ths proectn common humn experences n memores the uners

stumbngbock to ts constructon s not fr to seek Thtubqutous obstce s emboe n the contnue presence of pre moern tes n sentments n the moern epoch nee ust s postmoern er wts ts berton from the moern nustrwor so the tter s st weghe own b the buren of pre moern trtons mths n bounres he rgue esewheretht mn of tos ntons re but up on the bss of premoernethnc cores whose mths n memores ues n smbosshpe the cuture n bounres of the nton tht moern etes

mnge to forge Such ew f concee must quf our erercceptnce of the rge constructe qut of moern ntonsTht ntonst etes were cte n ncuctng sense of nton t n rge sectons of ther poputons who were gnornt of n



Smth Towards a Global Culture? 1 8 1

natonal afflatons s wellocumente (see Keoure 1 96;Breull 982) t oes not folow that the nvente natons wherenone exste' as Gellner ha once clame even where the usepreexstng materas an even when natons are efne as largeanonmous unmeate cocutural unts (see Gellner 196Chapter 7 also Gelner 1 983 Chapter 5)

Ntonasts lke others foun themseves constrane baccepte cultural tratons from whch the mght select an bpopular responses whch the hope to channel f not manpulate.But ther room for cultural manoeuvre was alwas lmte b thosecultural tratons an popular vernacular repertores of mthmemor smbol an value or natonalsts the natontobe' was

not an arge anonmous cocutural unt . t was a communt ofhstor an culture possessng a compact terrtor unfeeconom an common legal rghts an utes for all members. fnatonasm creates natons' n ts own mage then ts efnton ofthe naton was of a pece wth ts aspratons for collectveautonom fraternal unt an stnctve entt The entt anunt that was sought was of an for an exstng hstorc cuture communt whch the natonalsts thought the were revvng an

returnng to a worl of natons' t epene therefore n largemeasure on the rescover of the communt's ethnohstor' tspecuar an stnctve cultura contrbuton to the worlwe funof what Weber cale rreplaceable culture values Ths was thenatonalst project an t s one that has b no means run ts courseeven as sgns of ts supersesson b wer projects are on thehorzon. n fact t can be argue that natonalst an post natonast projects fee off each other an are lke to o so forsome tme to come

n fact the success of the natonalst project epene not onl onthe creatve skls an organzatona ablt of the ntellgentsa buton the persstence antqut an resonance of the communt'sethnohstor The more salent pervasve an enurng thathstor the frmer the cultural base t affore for the formaton ofa moern naton Once agan these are largel subjectve aspects ts the salence of that hstor n the ees of the communt'smembers an the antqut of ther ethnc tes an sentments

whch gve an ethnohstor ts power an resonance among westrata. t matters ltte whether the communal events recountehappene n the manner purvee or f heroes acte nobl as tra ton wou have us beeve; the Exous Wlam Te Great



82 Thory Cultur Soty

Zmbabwe erve ther power not from a sober hstorcal assessment but from the way events heroes an lanscapes have beenwoven by myth memory an symbol nto the popular conscous ness. or the partcpants n ths rama ethnohstory has aprmora qualty or t s powerless A.D Smth 1988).

Why o such myths an memores retan ther hol even toayo fue the natonalst proect? There s no sngle answer; but twoconseratons must take prorty. The frst s the role of ethnohstory ts myths values memores an symbols n assurngcolectve gnty an through that some measure of gnty for thenvua) for populatons whch have come to feel excluenegecte or suppresse n the strbuton of vaues an opportun

tes. By establshng the unty of a submerge or exclue populaton aroun an ancent an preferaby lustrous pegree not onlys the sense of bonng ntensfe but a reversal of colectve statuss acheve at least on the cogntve an mora leves. t s the startof a mora an soca revouton through the moblzaton of hencolectve energes or Krt to use Herers prophetc term seeBarnar 965).

The secon conseraton s even more mportant. Wth the

attenuaton of the ho of tratonal cosmc maes of anotherunseen exstence beyon the everyay worl the problem of nvua obvon an coectve sntegraton becomes more pressngan less easly answere oss of socal coheson feeng off anncreasng sense of nvua meanngessness n a century whenthe o probem of evl has been pose n unparalee ways rvesmore an more peope to scover new ways of unerstanng anpreservng entty n the face of annhaton or many the onyguarantee of preservaton of some form of entty s n the appeato posterty to the future generatons that are ours because theythnk an feel as we o ust as our chren are suppose to feean thnk ke each of us nvually. Wth the ssouton ofa tratona theoces ony the appea to a coectve postertyoffers hope of everance from obvon see A.D. Smth 197;Anerson 983: Chapter ) .

t was n the eghteenth century that the quest for a terrestralcoectve mmortaty was frst frmly voce an not ust for the

phosopher. Poets sculptors panters an archtects recore anceebrate ancent an moern heroes whose xmpla vrtu tsensure the mmortalty of themselves an ther communtesnotaby Sparta Athens an ancent Rome but equay of moern



Smth Towards a Global Culture 1 83

ntons Engn rnc t Grmn Amrc s Rosnbum 967 Chptr 2; Abrms 98) Th sm cntur wtnssth brth o nton th oogc momnt n thmn to r or bu ntons on th Angornch mowhch wou ct s morn communts o hstor n stn tokp th scr mmor o nus n ms n hmrch o th nton through hstor. B pcng tht mmor n thp o th nton postrt n trnscnnt purpos wourstor mnng n ntt to nus brt b scursmTo ths th srr monumnts to th n th csss rtuo rmmbrnc th rnt cbrton o hros n smboscross th gob tst to th sm mpus to coct mmort

t th sm concrn or th jugmnt n soc o postrt.

Vrulr Moblzo d Culurl Copo

Thr r so mor spcc rsons or th contnung ho onton cuturs wth thr thnc mths n mmors n nncrsng ntrpnnt wor.

Prhps th most common w n whch ntons h bn nr bng orm s through procsss o rncur mob zton

n cutur potczton'. Whr thnc communts or ethne)ck stts o thr own hng usu bn ncorport n wrpots n n rr poch th rsk ssouton n th trnston tomornt unss n ngnous ntgnts mrgs strongnough to mobz wr sctons o thr communt on th bsso rscor thnohstor n rncur cutur Th succsso th ntgnts rg hngs on thr bt to scor conncng cutur bs on tht cn n popur rspons tst mong uct strt Th ntgnts r popust to thxtnt tht th mk us o som) popur cutur n ngcommun hstor n whr th stop short o mobzng ctupsnts. Th mportnt tsk s to connc mmt oowrsn nms outs o th cutur bt o th ntontob.Th rchr mor u ocumnt th thnohstor th morw spokn th rncur tongu n th mor w prctsth nt customs n rgon th ss cut w t b toconnc othrs rns n nms o th ctut o th

nton or t cn b m to ow cotrmnous wth thmot hne n sm ts rncrnton tr ong pro oprsum h. Conrs th scntr th rcors o thnohstor n ss w spokn th rncur n prcts th



84 Thery, Culture Sety

customs the hrder wll t be to convne others of the vblty of thentonl project nd the more t wll be necessry to fnd new wysof overcomng doubt nd hostlty Hene the ppel to lost eps

nd forgotten heroes n Osn or emmnnen to frnsh noble pedgree nd sred lndspe for sbmerged or negletedcommuntes (see Hthnson, 987 Brnh, 1985 Introdton)

To rete the nton therefore t s not enogh smply to moblzecomptrots They must be tght who they re where they mefrom nd whther they re gong They mst be turned nto contonls throgh proess of moblzton nto the vernlrculture lbet one dpted to modern sol nd poltl condtons Only then n the oldnew lture beome poltl bse nd

furnsh poltl wepons n the muh more ntense ultrlcompett on of word of ntons Old relgos sges nd snts nnow be turned nto ntonl heroes nent chroncles nd epsbecome exmples of the retve ntonl genus whle gret ges ofchevement n the ommnty s pst re presented s the ntonsgolden ge of prstne prty nd noblty The former ultre of communty whch hd no other end beyond tself now beomesthe tlsmn nd legtmton for ll mnner of ntonl poles

nd purposes from grltrl vllgton to mltrsm ndggrndsement Ethncty s ntonlzed (see SetonWtson, 1977Chpters 4; AD Smth 98: Chpter8)

Though the ntellgents tend to be the prme benefres of thepolt czton of ultre, other strt shre n the relzton of thentonl project Pesnts nd worers re not mmne even f theyre rrely prme movers, prtculrly where mrxsnt ntonlcommunsm holds swy On the whole t s the ntonlst motfs

whch tp pesnt energes most effectvely, prtlrly where foregn thret cn be onvncngly portryed s when Chn wsnvded by Jpn (see ohnson 199; AD Smth 979: Chpter5) Becuse of ths mltclss hrcter the ntonl projectretns populrty tht s the envy of other deologcl movements;for t ppers to offer eh lss not jst tngble beneft but thepromse of dgnty nd unty n the sperfmly of the ton (seeNrn 977: Chpter 9; Horowtz 1985: Chpter)

One other reson for the contnung power of the ntonl de

tody needs to be remembered Ths s the centton of tht dend of the severl ntonl ltures ross the globe by thercompetton for dherents nd prestge I m not smply referrnghere to the wy n whch such ultures hve become nterwoven wth



Smith Towards a Global Culture? 85

the rivlr of sttes in the interntionl ren. The cultures them selves hve been thrown into conflict s communities in theirstruggle for politicl rights n recognition hve rwn upon theirculturl esources music literture the rts n crfts ressfoo n so on to mke their mrk in the wier politicl renregionll n interntionll n continue to o so b the use ofcomprtive sttistics prestige projects tourism n the like Thesere veritble culturl wrs which unerline the polcentric ntureof our interepenent worl s ech communit iscovers fresh itsntionl essence in its irreplceble culture vlues (Weber 968Vol. Chpter 5)

Vernculr mobiliztion the politiciztion of cultures the role of

intelligentsi n other strt n the intensifiction of culturlwrs: here re some of the resons briefl sketche wh ntionlcultures inspire b reiscovere ethnohistories continue to ivieour worl into iscrete culturl blocks which show little sign ofhrmoniztion let lone mlgmtion When we the shrpluneven nture of the istributions of both rich ethnohistor neconomic n politicl resources between ntions n ethnie tothe likelihoo of n erl supersession of ntionlism ppers

remote. eeing on ech other ethnic ntionlisms seem set tomultipl n ccentute ntionl n ethnic bounries n theuneven istribution of culturl n economic resources t lest inthose res where there remin multitue of unstisfie ethno ntionl clims If the vrious regionl interstte sstems pperstrong enough (for how long) to contin conflicting ethno ntionlist movements even in Afric n Asi the number nintensit of current n potentil ethnic conflicts hrl suggests

globl iminution of the power of ntionlism or the hol ofntionl cultures in the next few eces.

Lga Fraa ad Clr Aas

rom the stnpoint of both globl securit n cosmopolitnculture this is blek conclusion. There is however nother sieto the overll picture which m over the longer term help to mitigte some of the worst effects of intensifie n prolifertingethnontionl conflicts. refer to the growing importnce of the

lingu frnc n of vrious culture res.The fct tht certin lnguges Engl ish rench Russin

Arbic Swhili n Chinese hve chieve regionl or evenglobl coverge n recognition woul not in itself le us to



1 86 Theoy Cultue Soety

prect coergece of cutures et oe trsceece oftosm Noe of these we spoke guges he cheethe trsterrtor trscutur corporte ett tht

mee t Arbc possesse tht pero there were fewr wrtte guges exteg throughout the soc sce ofprtcur ethc commutes except perhps other screguges (Greek Hebrew Arme the West Ner Est)The stuto ow s er fferet M ow cutures wth purespoke guges ects he bee ture to terr hgh'cutures of mss pubc eucto og soc cssesHece the to ettes tht he emerge to requtte fferet from the oose ter corporte ettes of

mee cerg uem rstocrts (see Armstrog 1982:Chpter 3) Ths mes tht of themsees the rse of thegu frc rous prts of the wor whe fforg possbt for wer trsterrtor cutures cot esure theremergece Other fctors he to eter the fe whch c themke use of the ew gustc commuctos opportutes

Proxc t s form of tosm tsef coupe wth po tc gos of rego pece prospert whch m ffor

bss for h rs of rgo f ot gob utures he mthe soce P tosms efe s the ttempt to uf sge potc commut seer usu cotguous ttes o thebss of commo cutur chrcterstcs or fm of cuturesHstorc exmpes of such tosms he cue PTurksm PArbsm PAfrcsm to esser egree PtAmercsm

rom rrow potc stpot oe of these moemets

ws success here success mes ufcto of seprte sttesto superstte those who mesure PEuropesm smr crcumscrbe terms re fo of okg these egtepreceets . But we ee ot opt so strct pot c stpot Juge terms of other mesos cutur ecoomc phthropc P tosms he some cheemets to thercret PArbsm m ot he preete terece wrsmog Arbs but t hs spre terArb eeopmet projects broer cutur phthropc ks the sme ws true

o essr sce the se of PTurksm (see u 198 1 ) Aboe P tosms b remg burgeog sttes tos of wer cutur hertge to whch the re jot hershep to couterct the fssprous teeces of mort ethc



Smth Towards a Global Cultur? 87

ntonlsms n the rvlres of terrtorl stte ntonlsms Evenf the economc movtons n poltcl wll re nsuffcent toovercome conflcts the keep lve the bro esre to negottefferences wthn culture res n crete wer regonl lgnments n nsttutons

t s n ths context tht we shoul vew postwr ttempts to cretewer n eeper regonl lgnments n the western hf of Europet s not queston of cretng unt n or through verst Rtherthe Europen fml of cultures conssts of overlppng nbounrtrnscenng culturl n poltcl motfs n trtons Romn lw Renssnce humnsm Enlghtenment rtonlsmromntcsm emocrc whch hve surfce n vrous prts of

the contnent t fferent tmes n n some cses contnue to o socretng or recretng sentments of recognton n knshp mongthe peoples of Europe t s on ths bss tht PnEuropenmovement loose form of Pn ntonlsm hs been ttemptngto gue the esre for greter economc cooperton n unonn the poltcl wll to vo the sstrous wrs of the frst hlf ofths centur n the recton of bro poltcl communtthough not necessrl Unte Sttes of Europe let lone super

stte (or supernton ) of Europe (see however Gltung 73).hough the wl l to cooperton mong Europen sttes s mnl

economc n content t s lso bse on culturl ssumptons ntrtons hough nvul ntonl cultures remn stnctven vbrnt there re lso broer Europen culturl ptternswhch trnscen ntonl culturl bounres to crete n overlppng fml of common components Democrtc els nprlmentr nst tutons cv rghts n legl coes ueoChrs

tn trtons of ethcs the vlues of scentfc enqur rtstctrtons of relsm n romntcsm humnsm n nvulsm: these re some of the culturl ptterns whch strle mn ofEuropes ntonl cultures to crete snrome of repete elements n form culture re of overlppng components Some ofthese components hve been nsttutonlze others remn t thelevel of belef n vlue of unerlng culturl ssumpton slegtmtons of choce n cton

t woul be msleng to thnk of such culture res s untes n

verst or verst wthn unfe frmework Perhps suchuntes re n wll be crete n the poltcl n economc spheresBut the ber onl prtl reltonshp to the reltes of cultureres n lngu frnc The re wlle constructe nsttutonl



88 Thery, Culture Sety

unities; wheres culture re with or without its lingu frnc is prouct of longterm historicl circumstnces often unirecte nunintentionl n unnticipte which re no less powerful becusethe remin inchote n uninstitutionlize slmic Russin orEuropen ientit ies n sentiments re no less potent thn the sociln politicl institutions tht express them officill

ClSuch culture res re, of course fr cr from the iel of globlculture which will supersee the mn ntionl cultures th stillivie the worl so resouningl Their loose ptchwork qulit nmixture of cultures o not s et offer serious chllenge to the st il l

firl compct n frequentl revive ntionl cultures There reit is true signs of prtil hbriiztion of ntionl cultures whichwere of course never monolithic in relit At the sme timeimmigrtion n culturl mixing cn prouce powerful ethnic rec tions on the prt of inigenous cultures s hs occure in somewestern societies (see Smuel 989 Vol ).

As this exmple illustrtes we re still fr from even mpping outthe kin of globl culture n cosmopolitn iel tht cn trul

supersee worl of ntions ech cultivting its istinctivehistoricl chrcter n reiscovering its ntionl mths, memoriesn smbols in pst golen ges n scre lnscpes A worl ofcompeting cultures seeking to improve their comprtive sttusrn kings n enlrge their culturl resources ffors little bsis forglobl projects espite the technicl n linguistic nfrstructurlpossibilities

At the sme time, the prtil mixing of cultures the rise of lingufrnc n of wier Pn ntionlisms though sometimes working

in oppose irections hve crete the possibilit of fmilies ofculture which porten wier regionl ptchwork cultureres.

Such cultureres m perhps serve s moels in the more longterm future for even broer intercontinentl versions. Even insuch istnt scenrios it s hr to envisge the bsorption of ethnontionl cultures onl iminution in their politicl relevnce. Sottenute cosmopoitnism is unlikel to entil the supersessionof ntionl cultures

I Ths was a ommon neoevoutonst theme n the 960s see Pasons 966) and

Smese 968 t was aeady pesupposed n the wok o ommunatons theosts

sh as etsh ad ene see aso Nett and Robetson 968)



Smth Towards a Global Cultur? 1 89

. he Hegea theor o htore peope ao pae a part ther more

pecfc aae of partcuar ato epeca the rtg of Ege ee av

( 967) a Cumm ( 980).

3. have brought together fferet phae of tetethcetur eter cuture

h ketch partcuar the moert tre of the 960 the potmoer reac

to of the 960 a 970 a the techca eutrat of the ma computer

revouto of the 980 f coure thee tre a phae overap Stravk

patche ate from the ear 90 he moerm t eert profou

uece t toa. he ma pot that th Weter mage of thg to come

compoe of evera cotractor aer

4. or the ea that ato hou be coceve a overeg but mte mage

commute ee Aero ( 9 83) H aa hch gve pre of pace to the

techoog of prt captam a the amtratve pgrmage of provca

(rea atoa' toa) ete (to Wahgto Moco Brue?) cou ee he

ght o the chace a obtace to the re of er regoa cuture oa.

. Scheger ( 987) cue the ork of Matteart Stuart Ha More a

other hc emotrate the a hch popuar repoe to the cutura

prouct of Amerca cutura mperam var accorg to ethc group a

oca ca eg upport to the argumet for the htorca pecfct of maer.

6. h a ecear curtae cuo of the cocept of coectve cutura

ett hch ee to be tguhe from the tuatoa aa of vua

ett o hch ee kamura (98) ee A. Smth (986 Chapter ).

7 h hou ot be cotrue a a argumet for prmoram the ve thatethct a atoat are omeho g ve of huma etece a/or htor.

or a cuo of the ue vove ee the ea b Bra a obo aor

a Yapp (979) cf. ao A.. Smh (984).

Rfcs

Aram A U (9) l H B l HPg Wahgto C Smthoa Ittuto Pre

Aero Beect (98) g C fl Og f l oo ero Eto a Ne eft Book

Armtrog oh (98) a bf aal Chape H Uvert of

North Caroa Pre.

Bao . (979) l oo uckorth.Barar . M ( 96) H l Pll Tg lg al for Careo Pre.

Brach Mchae (e) (98) Kll f H (traate b W..

Krb). oo he Athoe Pre a Ne Hamphr over

Breu oh { 98) l a Macheter: Macheter vert

Pre

Coor Waker (I984) T al x- T aag Prceto: Prceto Uvert Pre

Cumm a (980) x gl a al oo Croom

Hem.av Horace B. ( 967) al l x a ab T f

al oo a Ne York : Moth eve Pre.

Ema Mto (e.) ( 977) C l Ihaca: Core

Uvert Pre



90 Theory, Culture Soety

Feseyev P N e a ( 1 977 em e l e Ins e f Max

smeninsm CC CP Msw: Msw Pess Pbshes

Fsea VC an Mnep (1978 Ma nes an he Nana esn

p p 719 n Cahm an VC sea (es lm lm V I

Nnham pesmanan (197 Te Ee Cmm A ee e gnn ee en an nwn

ans ebe (1979 ymb hny E l e 2( 20

ene nes (194 Tg Cge nn Weenfe an Nsn

ene nes (98 lm f Bas Bawe

aze N an Mynhan DP (es (1975 E Te ExeeeCambe M ava nvesy Pess

haen (e (98 E e e e New Y:

Paee

ne vn (1 979 Te e f e ellel e e f e e Clnn Maman

bsbawm an ane eene (es (98 Te e f T Cambe: Cambe nvesy Pess

ne Dna ( 984 Te e em nn an yney P Pess

w Dna (1985 E Cfl Beeey s nees an

nn nvesy f Cafa Pess

hnsn hn ( 1 987 Te Dm f Cll lm; Te el el e Ce f e e nn: ee en an nwn

hnsn Chames (199 Bn a Cmmns Nan n Chna n

aapn (e Te Cmm el A nw NPenea

ee e ( 90 lm nn hnsn

Ksn Man (1975 Bas an Nehny n mean Pa fe

pp n N ae an D P Mynhan (es E Te Exee Cambe M aa nvesy Pess

ana ab (1 981 P Tm Te nn C s

Nan m (977 e Be f B nn: New ef Bs

Ne P an besn an ( 98 el em e e f ee nn abe

ama Y (98 ana hny E l e 4(4:4525

Pasns a (9 ee El Cme Peee

new Cffs N : Penea

hmn nhny (1 984 hn Nanasm an Psnsasm E l e 7( 1 4 8

senbm be (97 Tfm e Egee Ce A Pnen Pnen nvesy Pess

a b an mmns (es ( 97 E el Cex

New Bnsw: ansan Bs

ame aphae (e (989 Pm h mg f Bl e l e Oe nn an New Y :

ee

hesne Php ( 1 987 n Nana en y me Cnepns an Msnep

ns Cse l ee fm 2( 2194



Smh owd Gobl Culu

SetnWatsn h 977 Og Plc l nn Methen

Sese ei 968 E clgcl Exl new is

Penticea

Sith Anthny D 1 970 Menity an i Se Sciica eectins n thePbe Meanin' Dg 7 6580

Sith Anthny D. 1979 l T C xf Matin

betsn

Sith Anthny D 98 T Ec vvl l abie

abie Uniesity Pess

Sith Anthny D 1 984 thnic Myths an thnic eias E l

clgy 25 2805

Sith Antny D. 1 986 T Ec Og . x Basi Bacwe.

Sith Anthny D 988 The Myth the Men atin" an the Myths

atins Ec cl 1 126Sith 985 thnic atinais in the Siet Unin eity eaae an

nt Ev Plg C v Plc 497

Tay Dai an Yapp Mac es 979 Plcl

nn an Dbin ente f Sth Asian Sties SAS n Pess

Tcheie Vict 1970 Hllc Cvl ew Y

Athenae

Webe Max 1968 Ec c eite by . th an Wittich. ew

Y Beinste Pess

Anhon D. Smh ehe Soology he onon Shoo ofEonom H le boo Etn Ogn oj on(Blwell, 86



The Deam of a Secula Ecumene: The

Meanng and Lmts of Polces of

DevelopmentFriedrich H ebruck

oty ye go evelopment emege the ecognze uty oome the legtmte clm o othe n globl tk o llWthn oty ye the polce o evelopmen hve thooughlytnome the wol by ettng o poce o ecolonlzton by ecng the te o goup n by etblhng eltonhpbetween tte on clent b Ove the lt oty ye wolwe poce o evelopment cme nto beng nome by centccplne n une the wtchul eye o the publc

Ate oty ye, eence n the leel o evelopment contnueto epeent htocl ynmte poltcl thet n humneven mol n elgou chllenge Rtonl n humntnemn tll conont u wth the tk o ovecomng une

evelopment But toy th tk poe n qute novel wybecue two lmt e comng nto vew tht hve pevouly beenovelooke

For one, we ave o reonze n ll eoune tht the m o llthee eot the elmnton o uneevelopment le n nuncetn utue The ntl optmm whch envge the golcloe t hn h tune nto outne ocue on ngul mmete enevou Th eltc tttue cme to become moe

convncng the moe ctvte ncee n wee mpove Whtemn unece whethe thee enevou even they poveucceul n nvul ce wll n the en elmnte une evelopment pemnently In th epect polce o evelopmente utne by hope n th

But we cnnot et content wth the eolve to o ou bet Thepoblem o evelopment poe tel new once we tke nto ccounttht the tk o evelopment cnnot even emotely be ccomplhe

Te Culue ce e wb Pa a ew eh V

(990 920



94 oy Cutu Soty

I eveopmen a has so a meey seve as an nsumen omoenzaon hen he eazaon ha hs am anno be eahew eque o us a humane an eha eson. Ae we povngeveopmen a as bohey hay n oe o aevae msey oo suppo n p eemea ashon pomsng oneo poes o s paymen on aoun o manan he bee n moenzaon whhanno be ue Do we wan o suppo he wnnes oompensae he oses

A hese quesons have so a emane submege une suhgenea oneps as poy o eveopmen an eveopmen awhh sugges ha s ony a ase o povng he bes means oaheve gven ens. The ues nheen n hs as eman

unanowege moay an auay when we us assume hahese ens ae esabe an ahevabe Ths mnshes ouesponsb y beause ou eos ae o be uge soey n eaono he suess o eveopmen. The smp s aenave: eveop men yes o no epesses he on o vaues ha nhees n aou aons.

om he begnnng hee was a ompehensve ea uneynghe pogamme o he emnaon o uneeveopmen. One no

ony ame o em unevomn bu ho o uvaes ensons an ons. One anpae ha unomwou mean on eveopmen eang o peaeabe soayTweny yeas ago aeay he enya Pououm Pogosae pognany ha eveopmen s now he new name opeae' s an epeaon ponng beyon he en o wa anowas he aena ommonay o neess an o unesanng

he Ne Mege

I s o hese easons ha we have o esabsh he ms o ou easo eveopmen. Thee ae some oga eos wh whh o sa. Inequay s no onuve o peae oes no oow ha equays . Whe unom eveopmen heps o esove some pobems ooesene may aso eae new ons Beause ou eas aboueveopmen o no ae hs possb y no aoun hey may unno angeous usons As ong as we ega eveopmen as he

souon o a ou pobems o oesene we ae pone o oveoo an heeby possby eaebae ohe ns o pobems haanno be emee hough eveopmen aone

Even he onep eveopng ounes s eepve beause



enbruck, Dm o Sul Eumn 1 9

hde ome central act. By uggetng an objecte account t turn

nto a ourc e o conuon, mundertandng and contradcton .

Wh at dene a deelopng count ry mply the abence o certan

crtera o deelopment; at t mot bac, a low GP ere a an

ndex o poerty. Th ere the opnon that deelopng countre

are uch becaue o extng condton h an erroneou ew,

howeer.

o country a deelopng one jut becaue t le deeloped

than other. here hae alway been rch and poor countre but

neer deelopng one, een though derental between them

may hae been greater beore than they are now Een orty year

ago, there were no deelopng countre and no underdeelop

ment . hee term uraced only gradually n Amercan poltcallanguage and lterature; they acheed wder crculaton through

nternatonal organaton (uch a the nternatonal Bank or

econtructon and Deelopment, the Unted aton, UESCO)

and through the re o centc dcplne that amed to cater or

thee concern

he ntenton, or at leat the hope, to mproe the earthly lot o

people wa not unamlar to Chrtan monare and een to

colonalm the Amercan concepton wa alo nluenced by theeolutonm o the nneteenth century wth t ath n the general

nature o problem o deelopment. But t repreented a reolu

tonary tep to turn deelopment ad nto a global ta and there

ore nto a regular duty together wth a juted clam. n th

way, the on o the One World wa created that n ce then ha

come to domnate thought and acton rrepecte o extng

derence

he new meage dd not jut recogne derence n the leel o

deelopment or etab lh deelopment programme t rather turned

unorm deelopment nto the expected norm that had not been

realed, .e. preented n the cae o certan naton. n th way,

countre that had preouly been regarded a poor or undeeloped

now were een a underdeeloped and a hang been let behnd

expected deelopment . O nly n t h way dd we get the term u nder

deelopment, underdeeloped countre', whch tranpoed

extng condton nto an anomaly whch had to be corrected a

rapdly a poble and whch thereby turned t nto a tgma orthoe concerned, one whch wa toned down through the new

lngutc conenton deeopng count re Een t hough t may be

d cult to notce t to day, all related term are alueladen becaue



96 ory Cultur Soity

the procee from the assumpton of a unform evelopment as aval an expecte norm

The ea of a lobal accor ave rse to the concept of evelopncountres an the puttn nto effect of ths accor prouce tsrealt. evelopn countres became a realt to the extent to whchthe allevaton of unerevelopment acqure the obvousness of atas n perptut. Most of the terms that eep the realt of evelopn countres n front of our ees (such as evelopment aservce mnster) emere wth those nsttutons actvtes anscplnes that were establshe for the reazaton of evelopmentpolces n reference to ther am .e unform an collectveevelopment

dealstc Orgns

evelopn countres are the result of polces that reare unformevelopment not onl as a esrable or humantaran oal but as anachevable tas . Ths le to the optmstc convcton that ths tascoul be accomplshe promptl an evenl just le an othertechncal problem as lon as there was enouh oo wll expertsean other forms of nvestment. Once that belef vanshe t was the

turn of the socal scences to uncover the uneln causes ofunerevelopment toether wth the unreconze precontonsfr the esre course of evelopment . n ths wa more an morescplnes were calle on for the soluton to problems of evelopment; the then forme an expane ther own specalst areas norer to cope wth the ncreasn emans for nowlee b nsttu tonalze evelopment polces.

Eucaton has been of partcular mportance here On the bass of

the worlwe recommenatons of Unesco t ntrouce nschools an elsewhere an awareness of th e communt of fate ofpeace an of the evelopment of the One Worl. Snce theneneratons of chlren have rown up wth the vson of a just worlorer as an eal. t s therefore not surprsn that art lteraturetheatre an maaznes scovere a maret for certan relevantssues After all membershp of the fraternal communt ofevelopment ha become a part of our exstental selfuner stann an the fht aanst unerevelopment the nvual

contrbuton to the salvaton of humantWhether the vson of the worl nto evelope an unerevel

ope countres can be overcome remans to be seen. The sameapples to the queston whether evelopment a s the approprate



Tenbru Dm o Su Eum 1 97

mens owrs hs esre eelopmen. Unl now hs ph hslrgely llowe he goernmens of reeng ounres o onenre her power n o wen he es of he se whou onhe whole benefng he populon. There s een use for worryh relne on foregn resuls n permnen puperzon sfurher o be quesone wheher eelopmen s ulurlly neurl proess whh n be seere n speeeup orng o pln .Bu hese n oher presupposons nno esly be rse beusehey queson oblgons ms n epeons h he longbeen en for grne . or hs reson s neessry o unoer heunerlyng ssumpons whh nhb ler ew of he fs

The One Worl unersns self s solrs ommuny of

free nons wh he oblgon o wor or unform olleeeelopmen no rse ou of self from unoorneproesses bu s eenly wlle n nene operon . s bseon son whh ws hen regre s he only possble or lesppropre orer n ws elre n pursue s suh. Howeerorre my be h hs son ppere plusble n epble s lso he se h hese were responses o noel e. Toyhoweer we see he relzon of hs e s he resul of n

unsoppble nonymous proess h woul sooner or ler hele o he sme resul. There s no longer ny referene o heels orgns of he One Worl

Ths ew orrespons o our urren moe of hnng hhooses o see hsorl eelopmens s neble resuls of solrumsnes n proesses; s n ol hrmony wh he urrenhnng bou eelopmen whh sees he One Worl s heouome of nurl eoluonry proess. n hs wy hsorl

proesses re reefne s neessry ones ouse he nfluene ofes whh n ny se merely rule wh s hppenngnyhow f hey re o he ny nfluene ll. As suh he OneWorl s he resul of neble proesses mos nobly senfehnologl n eonom progress whh elere n forehe growng nerepenene of ounres.

Ths onepon s no onnng. These supposely nebleproesses were f no n e hen les esely elere byhe relzon of hs new e Een f hey h oherwse been

unsoppble hey sll woul no he e up o he hrersorer whh ws rbue o he One Worl. The growng nerlnng of he worl woul he been el wh que fferenly byhe As powers h hey won he Wr. Bu he worl woul lso



1 98 hoy Culu Soy

look deenly no ad Enland and Fance emeed as supe

poes ou o he on sen o because o he eneed move

by meca no solaon sm) o Russa ad been able o become a

lobal poe Mos pobably decolonazaon ould soone o

ae have occued n any case; bu suc a saemen o cous e leaves

open e socaly decsve specc ses o ccumsances

suoundn hs pocess. s he oced empo e lobal

poamme he eneal sceme hc ave decolonalaon s

caacesc om and hch poduced e concee suaons

elaon shp s oces and expecaons a dene e unqueness o

ou socal suaon.

Arcas Sns o ssone novel dea o a coec ode could only emee n e ob

o culues a eaded emselves as based on a un vesal messae

deced a e ole o umany and n s sense called upon o

spead oldde. Such concepons acqued senh only n

some old elons a coespon dn mssonay caace o

n some nsances n secula plosophes such as e lae Soa

hee hoeve emaned esced o educaed ccles. nly n

t w c w p vrc r -drsandn o culues a all ead hem sev es as on as as a all

enable as he only ue and va ld om o exsence hou havn

any nees n mssonay eos.

Fom a socal pespecve becomes clea aly quckly ha

he dea o e ne Wold could only spn om he ound o

Chsendom . as suc Chsan concepons as he Ceaon e

unvesaly o e chlden o God and o boheood hc

oehe he clasc pomse asn n e Mddle es o

e oeve pelmnay salvaon o e Kndom o God on

ea a povded e medum o e oh o e dea o a

secula ecumene as a s oldly Comn Tue nl y n he conex

o secula emans o s Chsan heoloy o hsoy could he

dea o an equal and comm on deveopmen o umany as e ull

men o hsoy be announced and elcomed

hese concepons acqued e socal dynamc om he

Fench Revoluon s deas o bey equaly and aeny

c h bea e ym o e poesson oads uman appnessand seldeemnaon Fom em span n e nneeenh

cenuy e deoloes o poca poess lbeasm and soc alsm

ch povded deen pas oads he same oal he lobal



Tnbu Drm o Sulr Eum 1 99

ommun y nlly h on o o nlu ll ol bu ully no o mn h momn o ouml onon n ooun hby m un hu o on om o h nul umn o hoy h u n ho hol hn o uu mnnTh luon o h n o mnn nonnnly l h oh o h o o bouo n n h nm o uu hn Enulyoluony ho u o o mooh lomnbu h m m l no omhn ny n nulh houl h n l n hoy h no bn n byunnul umn

Noh h no h bl n o ohly n h USA h ou om h bl n mony nhl on o hou nuon. h h h USA h moy h unl on o o.Thy on h on hoy h unl m o hlbl nly o nnn moy n o nn h m no ll on on. En ll oy Amn on oly ho y nnn momn

n h onnou n o ol o h Amnylmoy omhn ll ol nully h h hn mn. Wh h onon h USA n h WolW n h only om h o hn hy no n h on n 1945 ho h onon h o Am o n n o o h ol omhn hy h o o on h b o h h n h onmon. Th On Wol n hh unlomn o boom houh oly o lomn hu n hhm o uon n h USA lon hoy

Th omm l oun n by lon ounhou h ooon h hol n oul h bn nomo hn onon hbl on on h onul oun Rh hn noln hol non hn m om mll nnou ou ho h bnu n Euo o h n om oh y om no on hEuon n h n hn o mnn h

USA n b oon hn h ol olonl o ho hbn unbl o u o ln o obl o on oun oh n n l Bu Am h m mo om Euon non n olonzon hh h



Tenbruk h Dram of a Suar Eumn 20

he wtherng w of the stte But ths s unoble f oneonees of hstor s menngful whole wth gol beuse onethe gol hs been rehe hstor omes to n en Ths poston s

unknown n premoern lztons whh onsere unexpetehnges n ffultes s the fte of mnkn n whh thereforeonee so often of new heen n erth where ll humnnees oul be stsfe Ths s lso the se wth the orgnl Chrsn unerstnng of the ontrst between n mlessl unformproess here on erh n the purpose relzton of heenlpln for slton Wth the e of progress howeer hstorqures n nnerworll gol n therefore lso n enpont Thereproh leelle gnst Mrxsm pples to ll theores of progressn bsll the sme w beuse the neessrl onerge on son of n hstorl future It of ourse lso pples to the notonof the worl s ommunt of eelopment whh s orentetowrs gol n hstor

ust s n Mrxsm hstor merges nto n hstorl epoh whenll nees n be stsfe wthout gng rse to onflt so the sonof eelopment too ntptes n hstorl epoh n whh theres onl eelopment wthout nthng tull hppenng Ths s

beuse eelopment stns for n empt sequene of futureeelopments whh n be ntpte s mproements onlbeuse we know nothng spef bout them The expetton thtonl eeloment roes for our nees ges brth to the belefht eelopment soles ll problems wthout usng new onesThe onl problems engenere b eelopment tht he beenreognze re so fr on the tngble threts to our surl suhs eologl estruton oerpopulton the rms re; but een

the re qukl reltze s unesre bprouts whh nthemseles be remee through more eelopment

Natonal Cultues and Global Cvlzaton

It s the lk of hstorl onsousness whh eenes the utn lmttons of the progrmme of eelopmen ust s we reobserng n nresngl powerful hstorl trnsformton of theworl we expet to fn t the en n hstorl tht s unproblem t stte of oexstene whh s to be hee through eelop

ment s permnent proess Ths son hes from ew the fttht we n neer espe hstor wth ts surprses unertntes nhllenges It thns out hstor to uners soet tht no longerreognzes hstorl stuteness n problemts n prtulr t



202 hoy Clt Soty

ovelooks ll those spets tht thete the uvesl shemebeuse o the oete vulty.

Wheeve the vso of ewolly fulflmet of the hstoy

of k hs beome tumpht thee the estee of tos tol ultues stube the em of seul eumety The vuty ( lmttos) of th s vso beome ppet thelmost totl bsee of y seous efletos oeg the fte ofthese hstol gves the evelopmet poess. The questowhee eveopmet s ultul poess s leg to oes ot fompt of ths thkg Whee efeee s me to ths ssue t ll ttes to be the fom of joyous tpto of ehge teto ossfetlto the blossomg of vul ultues

o t ulges the opposte eto ems of globl ultue;qute ofte thee s ot eve y stto me betwee these twolly ffeet esults It ws ot eve possble wth thsoepto of evelopmet to sk the questo oeg the fteof vul ultues

e h ley pose ths usolvble pule fo Msm; justs mk ve t the lssless soety oly though the tstol peo of the ttoshp of the suppesse lsses so t

arriv at t invita u o a atat oy ough thetstol peo of the omplete lbeto e the feeom tobeome epeet of ll suppesse tos. hs fuso s evtble beuse hstoy s ewolly evet wll ome to e the seul eumety of mk. But ths eques theelmto of vul ultues s hstol foes to useob Bukht s epesso. o ths eso fuso s eges evtble Mst thought just s t s Weste hstolthought Hee too hstoy omes to e the vso of seuleumeel; hee too fuso s evtble eve though t oes teto shf vguely betwee ssoluto to uty globl vlto ompeto hough the foweg of tol ultuesTo spek ptlly fo foty yes Ueso ptul hs veyeffetvely bee speg the eology of ufom olletveevelopmet But ts el ppes s ve f ot ley upltous vew of the ft tht the h Wol otues to emevelopmet whle t the sme tme beg moe moe sstet

o etg ts ultul etty.Wht omes to vew hee s globl theme tht omes to es

tee oy though evelopmet tvt es o whh t lest s meotuousy moe ute though them Ths s so beuse wht we



Tenbrk Dm o Su Eumn 203

pereve s evelopment nespbly monts to the mltseopenng nterpenetrton n mnglng o ltres Ths proessenngers ltrl entty n Est n West n ths not st n theevelopng ontres The qeston tht s now ng s s whetherwe see beore s ntry globl ltre or the lowerng o nvl ltres. There re mny sgns thogh tht thngs wll tke erent orse bese ll ltres n themselves enmeshe n globl strggle or ther seletermnton. As or eyes re rveteon the nversl tren the qeston onronts s s to whh ltreswll srvve ths proess. Not solely bt espelly t ths pont oesthe tre oneve o s evelopment revel tsel s ngerosmrge tht sggests the en o hstory whh however never omes

to be. t s thereore o pressng mportne tht we reognze behntht hstorl mrge the hstorl onstellton o globlstrggle over ltre tht s engenere by evelopment s srely st s ene by the eology o evelopment

Global Cultual truggle

Even thogh worl polts hs s we hope ome to eshew wronqest n ore ths hs qte rrespetve o grey n mrgnl

res hnge only the orms n mens o onlt. Behn thsomestton n t lrks ts ntenston. Ths s bese nontrst to erler epohs where only ew ltres lshe t thergeogrph borers moern evelopments throgh ther nverslpresene n penetrton now brng ll ltres nto network onterreltonshps The nvoble lpse o ths evelopment sthe onrontton o ltres whose ontne selrmton s trsk . The more we psh on wth norm n olletve evelopmentthe more t wll hve to qre the tt trts o globl ltrlstrggle the ltter wll be more sgnnt or tre hstory thnthe noteble progress n evelopment tht s the os o lleorts

Together wth ths the ontos or legtmy n loyltyhve hnge nmentlly. The wellknown erese n sttesoveregnty s only one prt o ths hnge. revosly powerholers legtmze themselves by onvnng ther ollowers toythey hve to emonstrte ther eptne by worl opnon Ths

pples s mh to polts s t oes to relgon n otherores Throgh ths the loyltes o the most vre poltl eltesbeome ntertonlze s n be observe espelly btnot exlsvely n the evelopng ontres bove ll n the newly



24 Theor, Culture Societ

ndependen nons o Arc They hve bsorbed Eropenscence nd edcon nd her eles o some exen Eropenculure nd lngge oo Wh he rnson o n ndsrlorgnzon o le he relonshp o he people o her ownculure nd hsory s p no qeson s well n hs sense helberon o colonl conres ogeher wh he cceleron omodernzon hs only ncresed her dependence on developedcounres especlly n relon o clre As conseqence heconcern wh clrl deny hs lredy come spersede h odevelopmen n nmber o cses

They look owrds he Uned Ses o Amerc nd he SoveUnon no j us becse hese re sperpowers whch represen her

neress on globl scle; hey re lso vs cenres o clrlpresge whch orm he rnsmsson bel or clrl developmenWheher nended or no hs brngs us o he pon o heAmercnzon nd Rsscon o her respecve spheres onlence whch s hsory shows s somehng h only gesnoced once hs been compleed n hs respec we hve o expeche grdl colonzon o he older Eropen clres whosendvduly wold n he end be levelled o nd bsorbed s s

n becme domnn n he mperm Romnm nd evenllybolshed ll nve lngges n he Wes so ody s Englsh ndRssn whch re dvncng o he ss o he lng rnc o heclrl eles n her prclr spheres o nlence n cernrespecs hey re lredy he lngsc medm or he scences ndre penerng n vros wys no polcl nd everydylngge The deology o developmen nheren n seemnglyobjecve ermnology mes s blnd o he c h hsoryproceeds by he ormon nd dssolon o peoples lnggesclres nons ses nd wll conne o do so more hn ever nor er o globl developmen The expnson o Eropen clreshs resled n he bqos copresence nd nerpeneron oll clres Developmen hs enhnced globl mgrons nddslocons o people nd hs moreover orced ndvdl clresno worldwde eors o presenng nd exporng her msclerre nd relgon her des worldvews nd lesylesbrod Ye wh we presenly perceve s mnes ncrese n

mlculrl conjncres w l hsorclly prove cones over hepreservon srvvl domnon dssolon nd exncon oculres

Ths brngs no ocs he novel predcmen o clres n n ge



Tenbruck The Dream oj a Secular Ecumene 205

of elecronc mass mea wh her ervasve global resenceWhereas he mea formerl rele on language an were hereforegeare rmarl o naonal auences he now can b herrelance on souns an cures easl jum across lngusc anculural froners an hereb become he rec bearers of crossculural mages an messages Amercan elevson for eamleoes no merel caer o rvae emans for lgh or serous eneranmen bu serves as a owerful carrer of Amercan culure oes lea o sorenaon an frusraon n he homes of Beounsor Afrcan rbes as he fal o come o grs wh an llusor realn he Wes s alrea brngng abou an ongong habualzaonno he folklore of Amercan hsor an he forms of lfe an

culural aerns of he Amercan wa of lfe can be foreseenha oher culures wll jon he bale of he arwaves an also usehe mea of eneranmen for he uroses of culural messagesan mssons Generall nvual culures are losng herauonom as he are beng rawn no he nework of elecroncmass mea ha are nsrumenal n creang crossculuralauences movemens ssues mages an lfesles Conversel allsors of eas relgous olcal moral or aeshec mus now

srve afer a global hearng recognon an resresenaon anherefore en o ge organze on a crossculural globalmssonar scale

All hs aumbraes a global culural sruggle wh an unceranoucome The One Worl nevabl calls forh he cones ansruggle or culures for her survval an consequenl he fae ofeoles naons an languages n he longerm hs wll eermnewhch course of courses he rocess of evelomen s gong oake an wha s oucome wll be

There les a lesson n all hs for he socal scences n he wake ofeologes of evelomen he have been concenrang on aggregae aa absrac facors srucural varables an arfcal consrucs hereb losng sgh of hose socal forces an formaonswhch b her rse an fall b her ssoluon an recomosonlargel shae an make hsor nsea of erfecng generalheores of soce whch anwa can never rerouce socal realhe socal scences mus reconser he hsorcal role of nvual

culures eoles naons languages relgons an smlar concreesocal formaons



26 Theor Culture Societ

No

h a a hon von o he ogna whh wa ubh n aan anGan n A al clgaclg abc (987)

Fd H buk s Poesso o Sooog he Unves oTbngen Hs mos een books e Die unbealtigten Sozialissenschaten ( 984) n Die kulturellen Grundlagen derGesellschat ( 989)



Naionalism, Globalizaion an Moerniy

Joha P Aaso

rd

wou be n unersemen o sy h he heory n prcice ofnionism hve no kep in sep A fiure o progress beyoncssic moes n preference for reucionisic versions of hemhve been chrcerisic of oherwise ifferen perspecives on he

moern wor bu he iscrepncy beween he hisoric roe nhe heoreic unersning of nionism is pricury srikingFor he nysis of moern cpiism he ivergen bu no esseniy incompibe pproches iniie by Mrx n Weber hveremine inispensbe poins of reference hough he erniveprigm of inusri sociey hs never reche comprbe evehere is isincive probemic h cn be rce bck o Spencern Durkheim; n espie he reive negec of perns n

processes of se formion suies in his re cn bui on nmus come o erms wih he concepu founions i byWeber n recs by Norber Eis . n hree cses he confron ion wih new hisoric experiences hs unerine boh bsic shor comings n unexhuse possibiies of he ominn heorecmoes. There is no comprbe bckgroun o heories of nionism The impc of he er on he moern wor hs of coursebeen fr oo conspicuous o be gnore bu he neres i hsrouse mong hisorins hs no been mche by soc heoriss

As I sh ry o show new heories of moerniy hve so fr noone much o chnge he siuon Conversey some heorss nhisorins of nionism hve re o brek new groun bu hereffors hve been unermine by obsoee concepu frmeworksn corresponing imges of moerniy. An ernive ine of rgumen wi be expore in he hir secion of he pper wih regr oheir inerpreive scope n expnory poen he mos influeni heories of moerniy eve much o be esire bu hey cn so

be re s provision formuions of uneryng perspecves h

heoy Ce Soey nn ewb Pa an ew Deh V 7

( 1 990 2023




hve et to be ull rtculte One o the ltter the e ogloblzto n s prtculrl relevnt to the nlss o ntonlsm.Some o ts mplctons w ll be scusse n the lst two sectons o

the pper The m s not to evelop no t even to sketch newtheor o ntonlsm but onl to clr some ponts tht shoul beon the gen or such theor.

o of Modnt

The emergence or reemergence o moernt s omnnttheme n socl theor mght seem promsng evelopment heexplct ocus on moernt s recton gnst mplct conceptonso t n gnst the reuctonstc theores to whch the gve rse

ntonlsm shoul n ts plce n the more complex vson tht snow tkng shpe The ollowng scusson wll explore some pthstowrs ths gol But lthough t wll tke note o the mjorttempts to construct new theor o moernt ther relevnce toour present purpose s lmte ; on the whole the re less concernewth ntonlsm thn wth other prevousl unerestmte spectso the moern worl.

Hbermss theor o moernt groune n more generl

theor o communctve cton s cse n pont t contns nospecc nlss o ntonlsm but there s n lluson to ntonlst octrnes s exmples o the secon generton o eologesevelope

on the bss o bourgeos socet (Hberms 1 98 :

o 59). eologes o ths tpe respon to the problems nconlcts o n evolvng moern socet but the remn roote n premoern context nsmuch s the operte wth totlzngconceptons o orer n when the crebl t o the ltter s rre

versbl unermne b the moernzng process the result s rgmente conscousness rther thn new orm o eologclscourse Wthn ths rme o reerence, there s no plce orntonlsm s lexble but b no ens totll mnpultve substrtum o successve n lterntve eologes. On theother hn the stnctve chrcterstcs n evelopmentl trenso the moern stte re nlse n tems o the generl reltonbetween sstem n leworl. On ths level o nlss the cttht the moern stte s or tens to become ntonstte cnbe sregre t s true tht Hberms hs on other occsons hmore to s bout ntons n ntonlsm n tht the overllthrust o hs comments s cler the nton s speccll moernorm o collectve entt ts mn hstorcl role s to mete



Arnaon Nationalism Globalization and Modity 29

between partculartc an unveraltc orentaton of moernocety an hft n the balance between thee two tenence canea to change n the tructure of natonal concoune (cf partcuarly Haberma 1987: 15979) But thee obervaton have notbeen ncorporate nto the more ytematc theory of moernty

A more fferentate mage of moernty oe not po factoguarantee a better unertanng of natonalm In contrat toHaberma Agne Heler an Ferenc Feher have propoe a moelwhch tnguhe between everal fferent logc of moernty thoe of captalm nutra lm an emocracy an rejectthe ea of a common enomnator (Heller 1 982; Feher an Heler1 983) Whle th vew n prncple le retrctve t ha o far not

prove more receptve to the problematc of natonalm The manreaon obvou f the pluralty of bac tren reuce to thethree logc the ynamc of tate formaton an ntertatecompetton are thereby relegate to an even more ervatve rolethan n the Habermaan cheme The mpct refua to regarthem a the fourth (an not necearly the lat) menon alobock the analy of natonalm; although the relatonhp of theatter to the moern tate nether mple nor table t a we

hal ee a key element n a more compe tructureAmong recent contrbuton to the ebate the work of AnthonyGen tan out a ayng by far the tronget empha on thenatontate an t ecve roe n the moernng proce ThNationStat and Violn (Gen 1 985) can be rea a a compre henve theory of moernty wth a thematc centre ncate by thettle Th farreachng change of focu tll leave open ome queton concernng natonam Gen rghtly warn agantconflatng the naton the natontate an natonalm but nteaof treatng the anaytcal eparaton a the frt tep towar anaccount of ther nterrelaton he ten to refy t by reucngnatonam to t pychoogca component A varou author(ome of whom wll be cue ater) have hown natonampreuppoe the mage of the naton a a manfet latent or ereform of collectve entty an relate t to the natontate a a coevovng or antcpate form of polcal organzaton; at the ametme the reference to the naton alway an actve an electve

nterpretaton an the poltcal projecton coetermne theproce of tate formaton Rather than a mpe nk between preetent pattern of culture an power natonalm thu a vehcleof ther mutua etermnaton an jont tranformaton Some of



21 Theory, Culture Society

Gienss frmltins shw bth certin wreness f thisprblemtic n preference fr psychlgicl efinitin Byntinlism men phenmenn tht is primrily psych lgicl the ffilitin f inivils t set f symbls nbeliefs emphsizing cmmnlity mng the members f pliticlrer (Giens, 1 985 1 1 6). Despite the reference t cltrlsymbls n pliticl rers, the primcy f the psychlgiclimensin is ths tken fr grnte, n this rectinist tenencyresserts itself fter n pprent chnge f irectin Giens listsfr themes which ght t be f prime imprtnce t theries fntinlism th e sscitin wit h the ntinstte; th e ielgiclchrcteristics (relte t bth ss mintin n the histricity'

f mern scieties), ie. the cntrlle se f reflectin pnhistry s mens f chnging histry (Giens, 1985 212); thepsychlgicl ynmics mnifeste in rnge f sentiments nttites; n the prticlr symblic cntent (Giens, 198521516) his gen is then smme p in nther efinitinNtinlism is the cltrl sensibility f svereignty, the cnc mitnt f the crintin f ministrtive pwer within thebne ntinstte' (Giens, 1985 219). spek bt

cltrl enibility the thn cltl nterpretton i t shrtcircit the psychlgicl n the cltrl spect n the reference t concomitnt rther thn co-determnnt minimizes the impctf cltre n the pliticl sphere. he cnstittive rle f cltre isfrther bscre by n ttempt t efine the ntin in prelybjective terms s cllectivity existing within erly emrcteterritry which is sbject t nitry ministrtin, refexivelymnitre bth by the internl stte pprts n thse f thersttes (Giens, 1 985 1 16 ) he hesitnt pprch t ntinlismn the filre t explre its reltins t the ntin n the ntinstte re ths erly linke t mre generl nerestimtin fcltrl fctrs.

tepettos of Ntolm

On the ther hn, sme recent wrk n ntinlism is gie by nexplicit reference t mernity s the prper cntext f nlysis.Ewr A irykin n Neil Nevitte rge tht recnceptliz

tin f ntinlism is ne f the mst imprtnt prereqisites fr cmprtive nlysis f mernity (irykin n Nevitte, 1985)On this view, the nerstning f ntinlism hs been blcke byn excessive preccptin wi th ecnmic n technlgicl spects



Arnson Nationalim, Globalization and odernit 2 1 1

of he modernzng proess ommon o Mrxss nd nonMrxss .The ernve pproh however urns ou o be more fexbeverson of he sme bs ssumpons: we undersnd bmodern se of nnovve dpons o he so uur ndphs envronmen whh so ors dop vounr(Trkn nd Neve 985 59). The de of dpve upgrdng's he ore omponen of modernzon nd s uur orenon h n be nernzed b so ors s hus rened. Gvenhs onepu bkground he mn reson for png more en on o nonsm s s mporne n regrd o po nnovons s I w r o show he fure o brek wh n enrenhedmge of modern hus wekens he se for new pproh o

nonsmTrkn nd Neve se hemseves hree neronneed sks

o spe ou he vounrs nd dnm rbues h shoud benuded n he onep of he non o rf he reonshpbeween non nd nonse nd o deveop new poog ofnonsm On hree eves he dvoe reurn o hesss prur Mre Muss nd Mx Weber s remed for he shoromngs of onemporr sooog Muss s

reded wh sever fundmen nsghs No obeve rer ofnonhood n be sepred from he ongong sefdefn on of henon from n evouonr pon of vew he non form ofso negron represens sep beond rb or ehn groups swe s beond rdon empres on he oher hnd we n dsn gush beween more or ess bned nd perfe ses of nonnegron fn he proess of non unfon umnes nhe modern demor se (n oher words: non ndzenshp ompemen eh oher) A more smpfng nerpreon of Weber hghghs he hemes whh he shres wh Muss. Heshows h non sodr hough dependen on obevepreondons s never fu nd unequvo deermned b hemnd h he sefdeermnve nd sefrung spes ofnonhood re mos mnfes n he srvng for po expres son A non essen srves for hevng or redeemng po uonom non s fundmen po ommunnd hus he onep of non s n rns nked o h of po

power (Trkn nd Neve 985: 64). The mgmonof Muss nd Weber pves he w for reurn o Prsons Ifnonhood s bove mer of nersubeve sodr ndnegron rher hn obeve sruures n be subsumed



2 1 2 Theor Culture Societ

uner the Prsonin tegory o soiet ommunity (irykin nNeitte 1 985: 67) n the ose inks between ntion n stte iustrte the interpenetrtion o the soiet ommunity n the po ity.

his ine o rgument my sere to orret some imbnes inPrsons's onrete nyses but it oes not question his minpresuppositions.

the retion n mintenne o uture (irykin nNeitte 1 985: 65) n the quest or poiti utonomy re unment n onsubstnti hrteristis o the ntion rther thnseprte proesses whih nee oorinting instne theprobemti o ntionism is thereby simpiie in ne. It nnow be eine s the mking o ims in the nme or on beh o

the ntion (irykin n Neitte 1985: 67) n it beomesomprbe to other ores tht hep to ne moernity throughoetie tion. he typoogy onstrute on this bsis bois ownto rther eementry ihotomy. One kin o ntionismientiies the ntion ommunity with the poiti entre o thentionstte nother sies with the periphery ginst the entre (ort the ery est ginst exusionry prties o the tter) thegreter iersity o the seon type is ue to wier rnge o hoie

beween eensie n oensie orienttions.A simir but more ute tension between reisoere

probemti n reeie prigm is hrteristi o ErnestGener's Nation and Nationalim he stte im o this book is toeeop theory o ntionism whih shows it i n its gener ormsi not in its etis to be neessity (Gener 1983: 129) . heneessity in question turns out to be mixture o untion nhistori eterminnts. But or our present purposes Gener's

preiminry einit ion o ntionism is n o ess interesting thn h istheoreti onusions. He begins by unerining the poitispet: the im tht the stte s poiti unit shou oiniewith the ntion s utur unit is the most obious n uniersexpression o ntionism. In other wors ntionism presupposes speii interprettion o poiti power n its pe in soi ieit genertes sentiments n ttitues whih iitte or preent theientiition with existing strutures o power n it gies rise tomoements whih strie to impement its prinipes Sine shre

uture is neessry i not suiient onition or theexistene o the ntion ommunity the ore ie o ntionismn be unerstoo s the einition o poiti units in terms outur bounries (Gener 1 98 3: 1 1 ) . In ontrst to the pproh



Ason Ntionlism Globliztion nd Modeity 2 3

fvoure b Trkn n Nevtte the fuson of culturl n pol tcl unt or t lest movement tors t s not bult ntothe concept of the nton Rther the converence of to ntllseprte processes stte formton n the consttuton ofntonl enttes s rere s the m n chevement ofntonlsm Snce nether the project nor the result s preeter mne b pst hstor the nlss of ntonlsm s n utonomoushstorcl force becomes more mportnt thn the unerstnn ofthe supposel more prmorl phenomenon of ntonl enttIt s ntonlsm hch eneners ntons n not the other roun (Gellner 93 55) It s ntonlsm tht s to collectveentt n culturl herte the voluntrstc propertes' hh

lhte b Trkn n Nevtte n t cn onl o so b smultneousl vn them poltcl expresson Onl some of the roupsenoe th stnctve n shre culture emere s ntons nths most complex sense

If ntonlsm s to be unerstoo s specfcll moern nunpreceentel close reltonshp beteen culture n poer more etle exmnton of the to poles n of the possbltesnherent n ther respectve structures oul seem necessr But

Gellner oes not follo ths ro Hs clrfcton of the concept ofculture oes not o beon reference to sstem of es nsns n ssoctons n s of behvn n communctn(ellne 3 ) n the more specfc thess tht fference nlnue entls fference n culture heres lnustc homoenet oes not preclue further culturl fferentton As to theproblemtc of the stte the ellknon Webern efnton sccepte s strtnpont n some mofctons re sueste

The monopol of letmte volence must be seen more clerl s chrcterstc of the moern Western stte rther thn unverslfeture t s both prt n enerl preconton of complexvson of lbour fnll nother n s the scusson ofntonlsm ll sho even more mportnt monopol must bee: tht of letmte eucton There s no scusson of themore enerl concept of poer

Ths pprent lck of nterest s of course locl consequenceof Gellner's theor of ntonl sm The necessr enerl forms' tohch he refers re not the result of n ntrnsc trens or essentlnterreltons of culture n poltcs rther the re etermnen mpose b eveopments n the economc n technoloclsphere The ke to ntonlsm s to be foun n the nmcs n



2 4 Theor Culture Societ

emns o nustl soet n be the mutul eltonshp o moen ultue n stte s somethng qute new n spngsnevtbl om the equements o moen eonom (ellne98: 4)

The ltte epens on moblt n ommuntonbetween nvuls t level whh n onl be heve thosenvuls hve been solze nto hgh ultue n nee ntothe sme hgh ultue ( 1 98: 140). A ompehensve n onstntlhngng vson o lbou nnot unton wthout n equteultul meum o nteton to ensue the stnzton nuson o the ultul ptten entlze stte s neee butthe stte lso epens on the ultul ontext whh genetes theneess ommtment n entton on the pt o ts tzens

But ths untonlst mge o moent oes not expln whthe emn o new om o ultul ntegton shoul hve le tothe evelopment o ntonlsm The untonl log opeteswthn n s spee b hstol ontext wol tht nheteboth the poltl unts n the ultues hgh n low o thepeeng ge (ellne 198: 52). The pogess tows ultulhomogenzton tkes ple on the bss o multple peonsttuteunts n n suh w tht the onsolton o lge n moe

ntegte unts etes new obses o gob homogenet Anthee s uthe twst to ellnes gument Beuse he enesntonlsm n tems o ese unt o ultul n poltl untsn n eot to bng t bout he s less nteeste n the kn ount tht gows out o gul uson n genetes ntonlsmthe thn the othe w oun n the se o the elest ntonsttes poess o ultul unton lmte but genune ompne the entlzton o powe n thus ete bss

on whh lose eltonshp between ultue n powe oulevelop ellnes sttngpont s b ontst the tenson betweenthe new sol nee o homogenet n the hstol obstles tot ths tenson s expeene s svntge b spe solgoups ntonlsm s the logl esponse Among stutons o thstpe ellne sngles out thee euent pttens o onltetemne b the eltonshp between thee omponents onustl soet powe euton n she ultue (ptl novete tego ong to ellne s subonte to eu

tonl esoues) I monopol o powe s ombne wth monopol o hgh ultue n those who e thus exlue elso unepvlege wth eg to euton the esult s whtellne lls the lssl Hbsbug om o ntonlsm



Aso Nationalim Globalization and odernity 2 1 5

shre hgh culture wth reltvel hgh strs o eucto lcspoltcl ut s tht sese uerprvlege wth regr toother culturl uts the ttempt to correct the mblce gves seto

u ctor tolsm o the Germ or Itl tpe; llthere s the spor tolsm o culturll stctve ecoomcll speclze commutes whch re ot ol brrerom ccess to poltcl power but scttere cross poltclroters (Greeks Jews Armes re the most cospcuouscses)

or m erler hstors o tolsm th e clssc exmple ots Wester verso the begg o ts worlwe uso wsthe ew k o tol coscousess whch mture

through the rech Revoluto the momet whe the tocesg to be epeet o the stte whch h crete t wte tomke the stte epeet o tsel (Mor 1984 3) Gellerstpolog lks the Wester moel to Germ tl rther thrce There s smlr sht hs scusso o Hbsburg tolsm The more cocrete the escrpto becomes the better t tssouthester Europe rther th Czech or Hugr tolsmAprt rom the fcult o explg the two ltter cses terms

o uerprvlege groups strugglg or ccess to eucto power more specc spect s obscure b Geller s rgumet thereerece to erler sttes whch h ter complex somews orgl evelopmet lost ther epeece but retet lest smbolc cotut wth the rmewor o the Hbsburgempre A oth cses moer tolsm herte lbet eret ws wth eret cosequeces the problemtc o sttes whch h bee chrcterze b tesos betwee multtol structure omt ehc compoet Thelure to o justce to ths cetrl Europe ptter reflects thesme coceptul shortcomgs s the eglect o the rechprgm Gellers expltor moel hs o plce or the processo stte ormto s utoomous vrble ollowg ts owlogc uctog well vce o the trsto to ustrlsocet I the uctolst mge o moert the stte ppersol s complemet to the vso o lbour s bckrop tots culturl meum A crucl etermt o the moer worl s

thus owgre ts tercto wth other hstorcl orcescorrespogl smple ether ts sgcce or the evelopmet o tolsm geerl or ts mpct o specc tpes otolsm c be properl evlute




Although Gellner has more to sa on the ultural preontons ofnatonalsm than on the poltal ones, he arrves at smlarl reutonst onlusons Hs tpolog s onl onerne wth the

orrelatons between ultural fferenes an fferenes n aess toeuaton an power. At ths level the ontents of spef ulturalpatterns are rrelevant to the problemat of natonalsm. Nosstemat onneton s mae between the varetes of natonalstexperene' an the verst of tratonal experenes an nterpretatons of entt John Armstrongs semnal work on natonsbefore natonalsm' (Armstrong, 982) hghlghts the strength anomplext of the tratonal bakgroun; another ase n pont sGener's own analss of Islam the most protestant of the great

monothesms (Gellner, 983 79) an ts ver stntve ontrbu ton to moern natonalsm, but ths argument s not ntegrate ntohs general theor A further onsequene of the eson to abstratfrom ultural ontents shoul at least be brefl note The naton alst fuson of ulture an power nterats wth other mages annterpretatons of power that are haraterst of or reman atvewthn the moern worl an sne the resultant onstellatonsannot be analse wthout allowng for the role of varng nter

preve onen hs lne o eenon exle omGellner's tpolog. The relatonshp between natonalsm anemora epens to a sgnfant extent on the ultural nterpreta tons of power whh preval on both ses; the onsttutve magerof partular natonalsms s more or less onuve to the perpetuaton or reatvaton of mperal projets last but not least, the rse oftotaltaran omnaton was fal tate n fferent was b fferenttpes of natonalsm Gellners ambton s to evelop a general

theor of natonalsm an he expltl refuses to onern hmselfwth the hstoral explanaton of ts most extreme forms, butalthough the mutaton of natonalsm nto fassm onl took plaeuner ver spef rumstanes, ts global mpat on the moernworl was suh that the general theor ought to nlue an analssof ts preontons.

A promsng frst step the loaton of natonalsm n the felof relatons between ulture an power s thus overshaowe bfuntonalst preoneptons an b the lassfator framework nwhh the are reflete. An attempt to ontnue the ntal argument along nonfuntonalst lnes woul nvolve a strongeremphass on the autonom of both polts an ulture. There s,however, a prmafae reason for begnnng wth ulture: natonal



Aso Nationalism, Globalization and Modernit 2 7

sm efes ust fes power terms o f cuture rther th theopposte eve theor whch wts to emstf ths cmmust frst come to grps wth t Atho D. Smths most recet

work o tos tosm spels out some cosequeces ofths pproch It s es to show tht tosm s movemet eoog rems epeet o the to s cuturl form though the tter m e tsef to strteges of mputo mobzto t so sets mts to them Most mportt theto presupposes rems epeet o erler form ofcolectve ett Put smp moer tos re ot smoer s moersts wou hve us beeve If the were thecou ot survve ; other wors the requre ethc cores f the

re to survve (Smth 98: 22) . As ether pst or presetexperece suggests tht moer tos c trsce ethct (sSmth rght stresses the cse of the Ute Sttes s cert ot couterexmpe) the frst tsk of theor of tolsm s tocrf the cocept of ethc group (or ethnie s Smth prefers toc t) Although Smth oes ot use ths expresso hs lsscou be summe up terms of oube prox of ethct Othe oe h the ethc commut trsces the bo of kshp

but t c o o so b geerzg sublmtg t through mth of commo escet correspog sese of sortO the other h ths oubleege reltoshp to the culturmoe of kshp s bse o combto of sever fctors. Themost slet of them re shre hstor stctve shreculture ssocto wth specfc terrtor. Although therretve weght vres comprtve ss of ethc survvlleves o oubt bout the prtculr sgfcce of relgo More

precsel t s the etfcto of ethc commut wth svtost relgo tht ppers to secure survv more effectvelth thg else. The teso betwee the prtcurstc cosureof the ethnie the uverslstc potet of the rego c beeutrze vrous ws But the most geer terms t seemspproprte to escrbe the ppret solt urblt of theethc bo s the superstructure of more problemtc bss termer posto betwee kshp relgo epeet oboth but lso o the cpct to suborte them to the ethc

mpertve.To stress the spesblt of ethc foutos s ot to e

l ovelt to moer tos. Smth expls the formto oftos s respose to the trpe revouto ecoomc



2 1 8 Theor Culture Societ

tegrto mstrtve cotrol culturl coorto whch mrks the vet of moert. The mpct of thsglobl structurl chge o the ethc core s twofol O the oe

h t s suborte to ew forms of socl tegrto theto becomes terrtorll cetrlze poltcze legll ecoomcll ufe ut bou b commo cvc outlook eolog (Smth 1986 152). O the other h the fuso stblzto of these ovtos s mpossble wthout the ctvevolvemet of the ethc substrtum: the to must tke oversome of the ttrbutes of preexstg ethnie ssmlte m ofther mths memores or smbols or vet oes of ts ow (Smth 1986 152). The cvc the ethc compoet re thus terepeet equll fumetl spects of the moer tobut the c lso gve rse to coflctg eftos of tohoo tpes of tolsm (o ths vew tolsm s the theoretcl prctcl rtculto of the process whch les to the formto of tos) The cvc moel of the to ws Wester veto ts worlwe ffuso s comprble to tht of someother proucts of Wester cvlzto but the ethc elemet lsolet ts mrk o the erlest Wester tos lthough t becme

more proouce lter stges of evelopmet other prts ofthe worl.

Smths m coteto s clerl formulte covcglrgue the formto of tos s ot smpl prt of themoerzg process t s coeterme b the ethc teceets the ltter c eve eter to coflct wth the more stctvelmoer fctors. But t rems to be see how ths rgumet scombe wth more comprehesve theor of moert At ths

pot Smth returs to fuctolst perspectve; hs expltormoel rests o the clm tht the trple revoluto me the formto of tos esrble (Smth 1986 13 1 ) . Both the trtol the moer greets of tohoo h tegrtve fuctosto fulfl t ws ther smulteous ctvto respose tosocetl ees tht geerte the teso betwee them. Ths resserto of fuctolst mge of moert prevets Smth fromevelopg hs rgumet other recto f tos tolsm c ol be uerstoo s chgg mxtures of moer premoer elemets ths mght be specl prtculrlobvous cse of more geerl ptter: the permet cocosttutve presece of trto wth moert. We coul other wors tr to use the problemtc of tos tolsm



Arnson Nationalm Globalization and Modeit 2 9

s ne ke to the nterpretton o f moernt rther thn sborntng t to preexstent moel Ths sggeston ll seem moreplsble f e lnk t to some other focl ponts of the ebte

oinr o an Alrnaiv

The three bovementone theores of ntonlsm re s I hvetre to sho ll open to the sme objecton: the relctnce to qes ton receve mge of moernt lmts ther nterpretve nexplntor scope On the other hn ech of them centres on specfc e hch ol len tself to other ses Trkn nNevtte r ttenton to the ntegrtve propertes of the nton; fe re to vo trnsfgrng them nto socetl commnt nths confltng them th n ntegrtve core of socet n generle nee comprtve nlss of contrsts n connectonsbeteen the nton n other forms o ntegrton Gellner nter prets ntonlsm s ne n stnctve lnk beteen cltre npoer; lthogh the nton represents the cltrl pole of the rel tonshp ts formton prespposes the poltcl one s ell Thslne of rgment cn be contne more effectvel f the cltrln poltcl etermnnts of moernt re not collpse nto the

vson n orgnzton of lbor nll Smth s scsson ofthe reltonshp beteen ethnie n ntons hghlghts both the neefor more generl reconserton of the stncton beteen trton n moent n the mposblt of tcklng ths problemthn fnctonlst frmeork

Bt s I rge n the frst secton of the pper crrent theores ofmoernt re chrcterze b lck of nterest n or lmte grspof ntonl sm There s ths no reme conceptl frmeork

for the three sggeste lnes of enqr We cn hoever tr torelte them to some observble shfts n trens n the recent hstorof socl theor rom ths pont of ve concrete proposls for ne mge of moernt re less mportnt thn the generl recton ncte b the brek th the ol one; hle the former ll noobt be spersee b more complex moels the ltter s longterm perspectve tht hs et to be fll rtclte If e look for common enomntor of ne pproches to the qeston ofmoernt three chnges nterconnecte n prncple btneqll evelope n sometmes solte n prctce stnot s prtclrl mportnt or or present prposes t llbe convenent to escrbe them s globlzton plrlztonn reltvzton Wthn the lmts of ths pper nether the



Thor Cultur Socit

ecee clcl heo o he ew pec e b ecele c be cue el I hll cofe melf o befclfco of he hee cocept

The em globalization c be ue o efe boh o hoclpoce o he cocepul chge whch t belel ll compleel eflece Globlzo he f boe ee be efe he cllzo of the eewol gle plce (Robeo 98 38) he emegeceof globlhum coo (Robeo 198b 3) Bu hetepeo of he poce he poe let poe o eucom he heoe whch wee cocoul o ucocoul

pe o he moe lme hozo of he oe Globlz o heo hu ll fce wh he tk of ceg plpepece coucg fme of efeece whch woulcoepo o he bef ecpo quote boe I h cotewol em heo c pehp be ege pecl ce ofgloblzo heo ope o he chge of ecoomc euco m bu ll coug chllege o le eelope eoWllee wok h le o emc tfomo of he

M pespecte whh hs et to be mthe b eo Dukhem o eoWebe of globlzo heo

Bpluralization I me he gowg wee of eel e epee bu mutull eucble cmpoe of moet, of the cepce eo bewee them The hoclefeece boh o plul whch h lw bee coue ofhe moe wol lhough w empol obcue b oemeol heoe o he ou pocee whch

fome the ogl coello I o eough to mulplchcec ce of he moe coo o hemoezg poce the ece ep , he, the e offfee logc, e pe of bc elo logemeelopme h c ee to coflc wh ech ohe gee to ege o ee muull eclue pgm ofmoe Boh he Hbem choom of em lfe wol (wh he epece pe of olzo) heheemeol moel popoe b ehe Helle c be

ege moe th eco, but he c lo be cczefom he po of moe cl plulm The eglec ofolm oe of m coequece of he pemtue cloueof he cocepul cheme



Arnson Nationalm Globalization and Modeit 22 1

An nss n terms of fferent spects n chngng retonshps between them necessr es to relatiization of themge of moernt not on n the sense tht t unermnes thee of unfe project or prgmtc moe but so nmore mportnt becuse of ts mpctons for the stnctonbetween trton n moernt If the structure of moerntens tsef to vrtons whch epen on the hstorc context t sb the sme token open to prt etermnton b the trtonbckgroun The verst of cutur trtons s thus refecte nth e confgurtons of moernt s we s n th e ros to t Thsoes not men tht the unt whch cn no onger be gurntee bn e or proect o f moernt s restore on the eve of prtc

ur trtons It s more frequent the cse tht ntern tensonsn confcts of the trton re rectvte n new context Anthe snthess of trton n moernt shou be seen s mtrxof further chnges rther thn stbe moe (the trnsformtonsof Jpnese socet fter ts brekthrough to moernt re prtc ur strkng exmpe) The theoretc expressons of ths newperspectve re s vre s those of the other two At one en of thespectrum SN Esenstt proposes to reefne the Western

prgm of moernt s new gret trton comprbe to theunvers regons n to expn nonWestern vrnts n terms offusons n confcts wth other trtons At the other AnTourne rgues tht moern socetes re combntons ofmoern structures n moernzng processes n tht the seconcomponent cn never be euce from the frst there s noenogenous unfong of moernt on chngng forms of epenence on nonmoern bses n forces of eveopment

There re some obvous ponts of contct between these perspec tves n the nterprettons of ntonsm scusse n the seconsecton of ths pper The emphss on nton ntegrton must bequfe n the ght of gobzton theor; n the context of thegob stuton the nton n the ntonstte ntersect nconfct wth other forms of ntegrton f ntonsm s (s Genersuggests) to be unerstoo s n between nt seprte nfunment utonomous processes n the cutur n the po

tc sphere ths s re frst step towrs purzton of theover mge of moernt n f premoern founton(such s the ethnie nse b Smth) turns out to be essent to thever moernt of ntons ths concuson shou rse some further



Theor Culture Societ

quesions bou he isincion beween riion n moerniBu on he oher hn he connecions beween he heoreicperspecies re oo compex n frreching for hem o be use

sepre in reion o specific hemes Ech of hem nees furhercrificion in he igh of he ohers Gobizion heor specifieshe frmework wihin which he wo oher pproches he o beoce conerse purizion n reiizion re necessrcorrecies gins simpifie moes of gob uni

his inerepenence hs o some exen been cknowegeRobersons gobizion heor is in principe open o he oherwo perspecies: he insisence on heerogenei n rie in nincresing gobize wor is s I he si inegr o gobizion heor (Roberson 98b : ) his wou seem o pp o heinrinsic heerogenei of he moern wor no ess hn o he iion rie erie from ifferen ciiizion bckgrouns Bu more concree snhesis cou on be he oucome of moreexpici iogue wih he heories h he gien firs priori opurizion or reiizion n some formuions of gobizion heor sugges rher resricie iew of his sk Referenceso singe pce wih ssemic properies' o be ree in erms of

wh we c ounrsc wor ssm heor n inoing he probem of gob orer in iion o or perhps een inseof he o probem of soci n socie orer (Roberson nechner 985: 3) re unmiskb inicie of Prsoninpproch rnsferre from n rifici isoe n unifiesocie o he gob coniion If we ccep h heories of bohsocie n moerni he s resu of purizing n reiizing pproches moe w from moes of ssemic

cosure he premises of gobizion heor wi he o be reconsiere in he igh of hese eeopmens. Conerse someoces of purizion n reiizion r o ink heir heseso he iernion conex bu miss he specific perspecie ofgobizion For exmpe Eisens rgues h he rious eesof inercion beween ciiizions gie rise o seer wor ssems(economic poiic n ieoogic) bu he chrcer of he gobfrmework wihin which he inerc remins uncer

Despie he impici conergences he emerging probemic ishus si frgmene one n coser ook some cssic rgumens migh hep o bige he gps As I sh r o show in hefoowing cion M Wbers work cn nowihsning n



Ason Nationalism, Globalization and Modernit 223

ppren unconcern wh globlzon sll be used s gudeowrds combnon o he hree perspeces

or he consrucon o posunconls mges o socey nd

moderny ll hese perspeces re essenl Crcs o unconlsm he shown h s sysemc models ( les he rdonl.e preuhmnnn ones) re delzed projecons o boundedsocl uns such s he nonse; he ler re secondry congurons mposed on more complex nd open socl eld Globlzon plurlzon nd relzon re complemenrypproches o he modern srucure o hs eld A deled nlysso her nerconnecons s beyond he scope o hs pper heollowng dscusson wll cenre on he rs perspece nd re heoher wo s subordne prs o In generl erms smlrpreerence or plurlzon or relzon would o course beeqully jused. Bu wh regrd o nons nd nonlsm herere good resons or he presen pproch nsmuch s globlzon heory conrons he nonl phenomenon wh qulelyderen nd more comprehense orm o negron cons ues prculr rdcl chllenge o he rdonl ew

Globalzaon an CouneuenNo heory o nonlsm hs gnored he negre properes ohe non or her role n he modernzng process bu hs proedeser o reconze her mpornce hn o plce hem n properconex Some mjor concepul obscles he lredy beenlluded o. n prculr he eecs o he unconls persuson( Alexnder) wh whch conemporry heorss o nonlsmseem relucn o brek een when hey rejec s mos sysemc

ersons re boh obous nd rrechng. n he ls nsnce subordnes nere relons o nsrumenl ones he delso he connecon depend on he sysemc conceps no whch hensrumenls perspece s rnsled mos drecly on heprmcy o reproducon or dpon . And he dsnce logco negron s emphszed more srongly (gns he sysemcpon o ew or whn more lexble erson o ) he speccyo nonl negron s oen oershdowed by more generlprncples. The Prsonn snce doped by Trykn nd Nees good exmple The resons or s sh rom he prculr ohe generl re no hrd o nd As seerl crcs o he socologlrdon (Els Gddens nd Tourne o menon only he mos




mportnt ones) hve onvnngl rgue the ntonstte uner stoo s the poltl expresson of the nton s the hstorl reltbehn the more or less elborte onept of soet. The prtulr

hrtersts of ntonl ntegrton hve thus been too sstemtll sublmte nto generl moel of sol ntegrton forthem to be themtze n ther own rght; n onversel the generltheor of sol ntegrton hs been too unversll omnte bthe spel se of the moern ntonstte for genune ompr tve perspetve to evelop. The ntonstte s n other wors bothpresuppose n trnsfgure b the soologl trton Thspples not onl to those who were most onerne wth solntegrton or most wre of the ntonstte s mtrx of

moernt Solomon Blooms nterpretton of Mrx (Bloom 1 94 1 )shows to wht extent Mrx took the ntonl n the nterntonlontext (the ltter n the lterl sense of the nterton betweenntons n ntonsttes) for grnte s bkgroun to lssstruggles n ptlst evelopment.

But the mge of worl of ntons n whh Bloom sums upths tt menson of Mrxn theor hs nother n even moremportnt onnotton. Ntons n ntonsttes o not smpl

nert wth h ohr nr orn onon he for orten to form orld .e globl ontext wth ts own proessesn mehnsms of ntegrton The ntonl form of ntegrtonthus evelops n funtons n lose onneton n more or lessute onflt wth the globl one. Ths brngs us bk to globlz ton theor n ts reserh progrmme To grsp ts relevne tothe nlss of ntonlsm t s neessr to ber n mn thtgloblzton s b no mens snonmous wth homogenzton

(whh s not to s tht t oes not nvolve proesses of prtlhomogenzton). It shoul rther be unerstoo s new frme work of fferentton. Robertson stresses the nee to nluenvuls soetes reltons between soetes n (n the genersense) mnkn s the mjor ontemporr omponents or mensons of the globlhumn onton (Robertson 198b 23) nhe rws ttenton to the globl vlorzton of prtulr enttes ( l 98b 2 1 ) whh forms prt of the overll proess of globlz ton Among the enttes tht re thus renfore n reorente b

the globl ontext vlztonl omplexes n trtons re notthe lest mportnt.

We n now efne more presel the ontrbutons of globlzton theor to the unerstng of ntons n ntonlsm. On the



Ason Nationalism Globalization and Modeit

one hn the fferenttng mpt of gobzton strengthens orretvtes nton enttes ommuntes n projetons Thsproess nton fferentton s the obverse of the onsttu

ton of wor soet hs of ourse not gone unnote. Themore senstve Mrxst pprohes (. espe Buer 94)throw some ght on t; espte ts funtonst premses the smen be s bout Geners nss But gobzton theor nnk suh nsghts to more expt n equte frmework Onthe other hn the nton eve of ntegrton ompementsontons n ounterts the gob one Wthn the wor ofntons the ntons hve more or ess pronoune tenen tobeome wors n the r own rght n n ths pt the so fe

the tsk of omng to terms wth the other nes of fferenttonwhh re but nto the gob onton The phenomen of sub orountergobzton enterng on the nton n the ntonsttehve been ess thorough nse thn the rst spet Thefoowng remrks shou be re s n ttempt to put them nperspetve.

Theores of the gob onton hve so fr been prmronerne wth ts eonom n pot spets e the ptst

woreonom n the nterntonzton of the Europen sttesstem. On both eves ntons n ntonsm n be rete to thegob ontext n three fferent ws nsmuh s the serve toonsote n emrte the unts of whh t s ompose t mseem pusbe to tret them s funton supports of the ntern ton vson of bour (Wersten) or subornte bproutsof nterstte ompetton (Es) But even wthn the mts of thsretonshp the funtonst pproh s nequte Nton

enttes n ntonst perspetves n beome the strtngpont for fferent nterprettons of the gob stuton; togetherwth fferent vzton trtons n onftng urrents nmoern uture the thus en to the tenent sngurt of thegobzng proess purt of menngs Ths ftor wsompnes the subornton of nton unts to the gob soo utur fe but ts mpt n s the two other onfgurtonsshow go muh further.

On the one hn the pero repperne n prt suess ofmper projets s no ess hrterst of moern hstor thns the onsttuton of eonom n pot wor sstems. Thsprt of the moern onsteton mght be seen s n ttempt torempose premoern pttern on the gobzng proess but



Arnon ationalim Globalization and Modernity 22

n be unertoo n the lght of the nl of orl orer hhten to beome loe unvere th ther on totlzng log(Weber 946: 32359) but the ret ompron th ntonl

ulture more puzzlng. t perhp eer to unertn f eume hre but tt referene to globlzton Wthn theglobl ontext the orl orer thoe for exmple of moernptlt eonom of overegn tte n tte tem or of ogntventrumentl reon be on the umpton of unverllulblt n trvng for n unlmte omnton of nture n evelop more frrehng prton n beome morenepenent of eh other thn thn the bounre of moreretrtve oetl unt Eh of them h t on tntve form

n ontent of nterntonlzton Weber ount mpltlpreuppoe th menon. To the extent tht the onept of orltem pplble to the globlzton proe the pproprtefrme of referene thu plurlt of tem rther thn ngleone On the other hn the nton n the ntonl mger nternlze the globl horzon. The mge of the nton ulturltotlt pble of mpong ne unt on the vergng lfeorer' repone to the globlzng proe n n ttempt to

neutrlze the ltter on t on groun n the plurlt of uhrepone up to pont omprble to the plurlt of theorer Both the unfng n the frgmentng tenene mut beunertoo n relton to the globlhumn onton

If globlzton n fferentton re neprbl lnkethe frt of our three theoretl perpetve le retl to theeon The bove onerton hve lre touhe upon thepoblemt of plurlzton theor hh nt to relte nton

n ntonlm to the globl onton mut lo lote them n thefel of multmenonl n multretonl moernt It true tht ntonl form n el of ntegrton m obure thelnk beteen globlzton n plurlzton the len etrength both rel n mgnr to the bounre hhmore lolze ol unt tr to mpoe on globl n plurlzeol fel But from nother pont of ve th tntve ontrbuton mke t ll the more neer to oner nton n ntonlm n relton to other menon of moernt. Th not

mpl mtter of nterton beteen mutull externl fore.More mportntl the ntonl mger n t ntonlt rulton onttute themelve b reltng to vrou other petof broer ontext n the fferent of ong o re reflete




n ther sefefntons s we s n ther mpct on the overptterns of moernt. The most obvous cse n pont s the connecton wth the moern stte: ntonsm enes n efens the

nton n reton to the stte s gven esrbe or recoverbeform of potc orgnzton n even n the re n extreme cseof pure cutur ntonsm suppose cpbe of trns cenng potc vsons the project must nvove n expctevuton of the stte Aprt from ths centr pont of reference theor of ntonsm wou hve to e wth more seectve nfexbe retons to other components of moernt But cuturefntons of the nton o not on stute t wth regr to othersococutur sgnfctons; n mportnt prt of the hstor ofntonsm conssts n the ssmton of the nton to other nter pretve ctegores more cer efne or more ttune to specfcpurposes The entfcton of nton grandeur wth revou tonr project s n exmpe of ths; nother s the e of theproetrn nton whch substtutes nton for css s the subjectof coectve cton but t the sme tme rws on the e of thecss strugge to egtmze the sh ft On fferent n ess eoogc chrge eve the moern e of nvut hs functone

s moe or t est necessr pont o reference for nterprettons of the nton phenomenon Defeners of ntonsm s prncpe of egtmton n orgnzton hve tre to strengthenther cse b comprng the equ rght of ntons to sefetermn ton to the mutu recognton of utonomous nvus coserbut more mbvent retonshp s envsge b those who thnk ofntont s n nner nseprbe propert of the person nconcue tht t s mpossbe to stn n mor retonshp to ths

person wthout recognzng the exstence of wht s so mportnt tohm (Soovev quote n Kmenk 9 : 9) Theorsts of ntonsm hve often been gue b the e tht ntons re the gretcorporte persontes of hstor n tht ther fferences nchrcter n outook re on e of the mn fctors shpng the courseof events (Kohn 946: 9) Among other thngs the noton of nton chrcter becme the strtngpont for the most sstemtcMrxst nss of the nton queston (Buer 94) On theother hn those who wnte to berte the nton mgnrfrom the restrctons of nneteenthcentur ntonsm conemnethe tter becuse of ts tenenc to thnk of ntons s nvuswrt rge (nger 9)

But the nton s not on component of moernt If ts



Arnason Nationalism Globalization and Modernit 229

interpretive consti tution involves a preexistent ethnic core it is alsoa changing combination of traition an moernit an thecultural interpretations which serve to situate the nation within a

pluraize worl shoul be seen against this backgroun n thiswa the perspective of pluralization converges with that ofrelativization in the sense of a recognition of the presence anongoing reactivation of traition within moernit Another ook atMax Weber s work an the questions he let open or saw noreason to ask ma help to unerstan the relationship betweenthe two approaches an their common links to globalization theor

Webers anasis of conficting cutural spheres is as we haveseen a pioneering an stil relevant contribution to the theor ofpluraization But contrar to some recent interpretations theworl orers' which he istinguishes are not reucibe to a moernpattern of ifferentiation; the are rather coetermine albeitnot al to the same egree b traitional patterns of meaning anorientation This is most obvious in the case of religion With thetransition from the traitional to the moern worl it loses itscentra position an much of its integrative capacit but it remains aconstitutive part of the moern constelation not onl as an

increasingl irrational an marginal haven of retreat from otherspheres but aso as an implicit moe for the ogic of the ominantorers whose eveopment is to a consierabe extent shape b thenecesst to occup the place an assume the roes let vacant breligion This ink to the traitional backgroun is reinforce bspecific patterns of meaning in other spheres n Webers moel thepluralization an relativization of moernit thus go han in hanan the significance of the snthesis is easier to unerstan if we

reate it to another connection which Weber i not spell outis comparative anasis of civiizations is frst an foremostan inventor of the sociocultural structures an forces whichobstructe or facilitate the emergence of moern capitalism If welocate capitalist eveopment within the fiel of tensions constituteb mutipe an conicting wor orers the ogica next stepwou be a comparison of the civilizationa patterns Occientalan Oriental as matrices of ifferentiation Weber touches uponthis theme the refection of ifferent civiizational contexts inifferent patterns of the separation an interaction of culturaspheres on various occasions but there is no sstematic iscussion of it Webers faiure to explore this problematic is eas tounerstan e was intereste in the Western roa to a moernit



23 Theory, Culture Soiety

omnte by ptlsm n n te obstles to omprble brektrou n soetes omnte by oter trtons te omple mentry queston o motons o moern ptterns nlun

n prtulr ptterns o plurlzton) n oter prts o te worl use by te enurn or retvte mpt o oter vlztonlomplexes ws not yet on te en ter evelopments broutt to te ore but tey ve lso sown tt te penomen n queston te reonsttuon o trtons n enttes n only beunerstoo n relton to te loblzn proess.

Te tr teoretl perspetve te reltvzn one n tesense ene bove n tus be lnke to te rst n wy wlts te potentl ontrbuton to te teory o ntons nntonlsm . A omprtve stuy woul nlyse te vrous trns tons rom ethnie to nton n te lt o erent vlztonllees n orresponn ros to moenty Su n pprowoul be nomptble wt te Euroentr stnton between teornl ntonlsms o te West n te ervtve ntonlsmsw resulte rom ts mpt on te rest o te worl But tspont must be susse n onneton wt some oter typololstntons

ord poog of NtomAs soon s t s mtte tt te nton s to be nlyse s nnterpretve onstrut rter tn n objetve struture te teoryo te nton beomes nseprble rom tt o ntonlsm Teteorsts wo ous on ntertve strutures my stll try to eente prmy o te nton but or te two oter pproessusse n te seon seton o te pper ts lm s mu less

eptble; Gellner rues tt ntonlsm retes ntons rtertn te oter wy roun n Smt 's nlyss ponts to smlronluson ntonlsm s obvously nvolve n te trnstonrom ethnie to nton. An sne te perspetves o loblztonplurlzton n reltvzton ll relte te nterpretve onsttuton o te nton to broer ontexts tey strenten te se or prmy o ntonlsm On te oter n ntonlsm nsexpresson n onltn eoloes n movements n te ntonppers s ommon but spute bkroun. Tere re n oterwors oo resons to stnus between ntonlsm n tenton but te ltter soul be rere s oonsttute orzon rter tn preexstent onton Gellners tess n tusbe tken one step urter ntonlsm enertes ntons but n



Aon Nationalim Globalization and Modeity 23 1

w tht enow them with etin tonom in eg to thegenetive ontext

o thee eon theo o ntionlim i moe ppopiteme o eeene thn theo o the ntion n bee o theexoin iveit o it obet it mt begin with impliingpologil heme n he peent ontext we mt limit oelveo bie eonietion o thee tpologil iintion wiele in the litete on ntionlim bt open to ome obetion onhe bi o new inight into the eltionhip between ntionlimn moenit Eh o them n be elte to one o the theeheoetil pepeive ie bove bt it n lo be hownht the pepetive o globliztion h moe ompehenive

being on ll o themAnl o ntionlim hve oten itingihe between

Weten n n Eten tpe The ome i i to be moe olilgone in oil n polit il elitie whee the ltte ompente o i wekne in thi epet b emphizing ltl nitn peiiit n b ttibting to the lte in qetion moeo le mhil oninit Eten ntionlim th ten to eghe ntiontte the ntl expeion o peexitent nit

whih n lo eve to elegitimize oil n poliil onli; iti in othe wo moe onive to ntiemoti ttite thnhe Weten tpe Depite it pimie plibilit the itintionh pove ve iilt to eine in peie tem Hn Kohn eit o explin the ontt between Gemn n Weten Eope(Kohn 1 946) lte tho hve oten move the bon heo he Et On the othe hn ome eipion o Etennionlim te it init with it iologie n movement n ine it eem le tht the i it mttion ontionlim took ple in ne (Stenhell 1 983) thi ie omeqeion bot the ontt between Wet n Et inll it nbe hown tht ntionhoo n nionlim epen on boh poliiln ltl to n tht ieent tpe n be expline intem o ieent popotion between thee omponent Theppoel Weten n Eten tpe e on thi view omplement ie n ltentive ietion o eve ntionlim

The geogphil iviion h th pove ntenble Bt i we

elte he neling qetion moe iel o globlizion theothe iintion n pehp be eomlte The ieene thtwee it peeive in tem o Wet n Et wee ptl e bieen poition within he globl onext n the mot bi




tncton of the ltter kn reflect funmentl mbvlence nthe reltonhp between the two form of ntegrton. Ntonntontte n ntonlm functon o n the one hn lnk to

the globl context n component of t vrou level n on theother hn rel n mgnry counterweght to the globlzngproce Whle the econ pect never completely bent ttrengthenng cn we hve een gve re to efenve well offenve trtege It mpct on the ntonl mgery obvouly conucve to econtextulzton n eentlztonof the nton Th cn be jutfe on culturl rcl or terrtorlgroun; the ttempt to rw lne between Wetern n Eternntonlm hve uully ngle out one or the other of thoepect But lthough mge of ntonl eence rw on fferentource n emphze fferent content they converge n therrepone to the globlzng proce; f the two type of ntonlmre to be reuce to n ntrnc ulty of ntonlm the globlcontext thu eentl to the unertnng of the ltter

The econ tncton h to o wth ucceve pttern rtherthn geogrphclly eprte type The lberl or Rorgmentontonlm whch evelope n the ftermth of the French revolu

on n becme one of te formte force of nneteenthcenturyEurope often contrte to the ntegrl ntonlm whch wmore chrctertc of lter er of mperlt expnon n nterntonl conflct (for th veron of the typology cf prtculrlylter 985) It temptng to renterpret th chotomy n the lghtof the plurlzng perpectve ecrbe bove berl ntonlmrelte the nton to other pect of moernty n uch wy thtt become generl frmework for ther unfolng n thereby

loe ome of t pecfc content The ntontte envge necery focu of ntonl entty llow more or le contnuou evelopment of cptltnutrl economy n thecorreponng ocl conflct; furthermore t permt n crcumcrbe the progre o f the emocrtc counterweght to cptlmBy contrt ntegrl ntonlm (prtculrly n t Fct veron)ffrm the prmcy of the nton n the ntontte t the expeneof the htorcl force wth whch they were prevouly octe n more blnce wy. The conequence o f th e chnge were no t theme for nutrlm cptlm n emocrcy (ther evelopmentl logc coul be ntrumentlze reorente or uppree)but the overll pttern cler; the tttue n octrne n que ton coul perhp be more equtely ecrbe excluvtc



34 Theor Culure Soie

a perpheral to a cetral role For a aal of the relatohpbetwee atoalm a moert the evelopmet of Japaeeocet before a after 1868 of uque mportace a t

cotext o tctve that there a tro prmaface cae forplac Japaee atoalm a tpolocal cateor of t owTh what Maao Maruama (1969 15 a 13556) tre too h theor of ultraatoalm H ma empha wa o theablt of Japaee atoalm to mpoe from the outet a retrctve a partculartc proect of moert a to protect taat racal a uveraltc challee Ultraatoalm thu prmarl efe term of t tructural (a tructur)properte But t htorcal meo o le relevat If thereferece to a ethc core alwa erve to mpoe o htor a moreor le mthcal vo of cotut ultraatoalm coul rawo everal apect of the Japaee trato whch were partcularlcoucve to a extreme vero of th patter

Further tpolocal cateore a combato are beo thecope of th paper But t worth ot that our recoeratoof the three mot frequet tcto ha hhlhte ome ourceof varet a chae: the fferetat mpact of lobalato

the cha relato betwee feret apect o moert athe reactvato of fferet trato Althouh the arumet haot oe beo tetatve formulato t woul eem to throwome lht o the queto poe at the be of the paper If thetak of the theor of moert to aale a lobal complex aope tructure ato a atoalm are ot mpl a electecompoet whch houl be rate equalt wth other Becaueof ther ambut a vert a well a ther ablt to fluece

the cottuto a evelopmet of other factor the are acouterexample to the terpretato whch tr to cotruct ale overall loc or a set of eparat a uequvocal loc Theproblematc of atoalm other wor a partcularl uefulcorrectve aat overtematze vero or hortcrcutapplcato of the theor of moert a a te cae for theemer ew approache

NoI Te eeal te teat t te ae eeece f Ma'

aal te at Tee al te e ecc ea te Wete ta

t a t qe ctbt t te ea te at Wete e

becae a Ma t t a ee f at te ret f t ce ca be



Ason Nationalim Globalization and Modernit 23

ace bac o he soelan sncon beween e an l, an o ne o he

essena neea phases was he eveopen o oan aw (Mass

969 5 -639

2 Ths ean o Webe neecs aon ohe hns hs nepeaon o

naonal soa as an obvese o he va beween polca ns an as a wa oansn he se o powe as Webe sees he concep o naon eans

above a ha s rer o epec o cean ops a specc senen o

soa n he ace o ohe ops hs he nae pese o powe s ans

oe no ohe speca os o pese an especa no he ea o he

naon" ' (Webe 968 922

3 n he een conbons o saecene an c ecene pocesses o

he oaon o oen naons c also en ebe ( 964.

4 Fo a paca eee an spsc veson o he choo c John

Paenaz Two Tpes o aonas n Kaena ( 93 223.

5 Fo a oe eale scsson o hs aspec c J P ason ( 98a 98bThe Moen Consellaons an he Japanese na.

Rfr

le Pee (985 l. Fan h ap

son John (982 befre l. Chape l nves o

oh Caolna Pess.

ason J (98a The Moen Conselaons an he Japanese na Pa I

Te lee 439

ason J ( 98b The Moen Conseaons an he Japanee na Pa II Te lee 8 5684

Bae o ( 924 De Nlefrge e Szlekre Wen Wene

Volsbchhanln

oo ooon ( 94 Te rl f N w o o Ps

Fehe Feenc an ee nes (983 Clas Deoca Moen Ter &Se 2(2 2 44

ene nes (983 l o Bacwel.

ens nhon (985 Te -Se Vlee Cabe Po Pss.

abeas Jen ( 98 Tere e kke Hel 2 Voes

Fan hapabeas Jen (98 e r Sebklg Fan hap

ee nes 982 Ter f Hr onon oee Kean Pa

Jne ns ( 932 Der rbeer Herrf el ab aneasche

Velasansal

Kaena ene (193 Nl Te Nre l f e.

Canbea saan aona nves Pess

Kohn ans ( 946 Te e f Nl. ew o Maan

Kohn ans (968 Te ge f Nl ew o ape ow

ebe (964 Nl 2 Vos enbe owoh.

Maaa Masao (969 Tg Ber e Pl onono nves Pess

Ma Macel ( 969 Oere Vo 3 Pas ons e Mn

Mon a ( 984 Po ne hoe e a naon pp 2938 n Mon e )

Slge Pas Faa



Cooolan and Loal n orId Culure

U aerz

hee s now wod cutue but we hd bette mke sue tht weundestnd wht ths mens It s mked b n ognzton odest the thn b epcton o unomt No tot homo genzton o sstems o menng nd expesson hs occued nodoes t ppe ke tht thee w be one n tme soon But the

wod hs become one netwok o soc etonshps nd betweents deent egons thee s ow o menngs s we s o peopend goods

he wod cutue s ceted though the ncesng ntecon nectedness o ed oc cutues s we s though the deeop ment o cutues wthout ce nchoge n n one tetohese e becomng subcutues s t wee wthn the wdewhoe; cutues whch e n mpotnt ws bette undestood nthe context o the cutu suoundngs thn n soton But toths gob nteconnected dest peope cn ete n deentws. Fo one thng thee e cosmopotns nd thee e ocs

he cosmopotnoc dstncton hs been pt o the socoogc ocbu o cose to h centu now snce RobetMeton ( 95: 38) deeoped t out o stud dung the SecondWod W o pttens o nuence n sm town on the estensebod o the Unted Sttes At tht tme (nd cetn n thtpce) the dstncton coud hd be set n nthng but nton

context. he cosmopotns o the town wee those who thought ndwho ed the es wthn the stuctue o the nton the thnpue wthn the stuctue o the oct. Snce then the sce ocutue nd soc stuctue hs gown so tht wht ws cosmo potn n the e 9s m be counted s modete om oocsm b now od t s ntenton ntegton thtdetemnes unest whe nton cutue hs n o poncsm the ungn utho Geoge Kond wtes n hs Anti

politics ( 98: 9).

hory tr oty (SAGE nd Newb Pa and New Delh Vl 7

( 990 237251



238 Te e Scie

Wht oow boe n exporton o comopotnm perpecte tte o mn or to tke more proceuew moe o mngng menng I h not concern mehere wth pttern o nuence n not o er much wth oche pont o ew o the tter I w touch upon mot or purpoeo contrt M purpoe not o much to come up wth entono the true comopotn though I m he n opnon on tht we but mere to pont to ome o the ue noe

Ca v: Oa ad C

We oten ue the term comopotn rther ooe to ecrbe utbout nbo who moe bout n the wor But o uch peope

ome wou eem more comopotn thn other n other gnhr comopotn t I he beore me n o cuttng rom theneaina Hea Tibne 16 October 18) bout tre ntre the tter r oten ct) between go n onon hertce quote report b ght ttennt on the route cmng thtgo mrket women bor ononboun pne wth ooettng gown whch enbe them to tre wth re h te tother thgh n upper rm he re h preumb o to

ther countrmen n onon on the return trp the women crrmr concee bune o rozen h tck re mk nbb cothe o whch re n gret emn n go onon conumer (or memn) pre or Ngern About 1percent o the penger on the ononboun ght he excebggge n bout 30 percent o thoe treng n the oppoterecton

I th comopotnm In m opnon no; the hoppng trp ogon trer n mugger hr go beon the horzon ourbn Ngern cuture t n ow he h tck n th e bbcothe hr ter tructure o menng more thn mrgnAn much o tht noement wth wer wor whch chrc tertc o contemporr e o h kn rge mtter omtng tem o ome tnt proenence nto unmentoc cuture

Htorc we he been ue to thnk o cuture tnctetructure o menng n menngu orm uu coe nke to

terrtore n o nu eeent nke to prtcuruch cuture he unerng umpton here tht cuture owmot n cetoce retonhp n tht peope o not moe



Hnnez Cosmopolians and ocals in World Culure 239

oun much Such n ssumpton seves us wel enough nelnetng the ocl s n el tpe

Yet s coectve phonemen cutues e b efnton lnke

pm to ntectons n socl eltonshps n on nectl n wthout logcl necesst to ptcul es n phsclspce The ess soc eltonshps e confne wthn tetolbounes the ess so s so cultue; n n ou tme especll wecn contst n goss tems those cultues whch e tetolefne (n tems of ntons egons o locltes) wth those whche ce s colectve stuctues of menng b netwoks moeextene n spce tnsnton o even gob Ths contsttoo but not t one suggests tht cultues the thn bengesl septe fom one nothe s the hege peces n mosc ten to ovelp n mnge Whle we unestn them to beffeent octe n the soc stuctue of the wol we lsoelze tht the bounes we w oun them e fequentthe bt

nw such vew of the pesent n cutu tems m help usentf the cosmopoltn The pespectve of the cosmopoltnmust ent etonshps to plult of cultues unestoo s

stnctve enttes (n the moe the bette cosmopoltns shoule be foxes the thn hegehogs) But futhemoe cosmo potnsm n stcte sense ncues stnce tow vest tseftow the coexstence of cultues n the nvul eeence moe genune cosmopoltnsm s fst of ll n oentton wlngness to engge wth the Othe t s n ntellectu nesthetc stnce of openness tow vegent cultu expeences sech fo contsts the thn unfomt To become cqunte

wth moe cultues s to tun nto n aicionado to vew them s twoks t the sme tme howeve cosmopoltnsm cn be mtteof competence n competence of both genelze n moespecze kn Thee s the spect of stte of eness peson bt to mke ones w nto othe cultues thoughlstenng lookng ntutng n efectng n thee s cultulcompetence n the stcte sense of the tem bultup skll nmnoeuvng moe o less expet wth ptcu sstem ofmenngs n menngfu foms

n ts concen wth the Othe cosmopoltnsm thus becomes mtte of vetes n leves Cosmopotns cn be lettntes swel s connosseus n e oten both t ffeent tmes 3 But the




wngness to beome noe wth the Other n the concern wthcheng competence n ctres whch re nt en rete toconsertons of sef s we Cosmopotnsm often hs nrcs

sstc strek the sef s constrcte n the spce where ctresmrror one notherCompetence wth regr to en ctres tsef ents sense of

mster s n spect of the sef Ones nerstnngs heexpne tte more of the wor s somehow ner contro Yetthere s cros pprent proxc nterp between mstern srrener here t m be one kn of cosmopotnsm wherethe n pcks from other ctres on those peces whch sthmsef n the ong term ths s ke to be the w cosmopotnconstrcts hs own nqe person perspecte ot of n osn crtc coecton of experences Bt sch seectt cn operte nthe short term stton s we n nother moe howeer thecosmopotn oes not mke nos stnctons mong the prt cr eements of the en ctre n orer to mt some of themnto hs repertore n refse others he oes not negotte wth theother ctre bt ccepts t s pckge e Een ths srrenerhoweer s prt of the sense of mster The cosmopotns

srrener to te en ctre mpes person tonom ssthe ctre whee he orgnte He hs hs obos competence wthregr to t bt he cn choose to sengge from t He possesses t t oes not possess hm Cosmopotnsm becomes protensmSome wo et cockroches to proe the pont others nee on etescrgots Whcheer s reqre the prncpe s tht the morecer the en ctre contrsts wth the ctre of orgn the moret est prts of the former wo een be seen wth reson

throgh the ense of the tter the more conspcos s srrenerbro form of mster t homeYet the srrener s of corse on conton The cosmopotn

m embrce the en ctre bt he oes not become commtte tot A the tme he knows where the ext s

Cpla a d th Variis bl

Of corse cosmopotns re s somewht footoose on themoe n the wor Among the seer ctres wth whch the reengge t est one s presmb of the terrtor kn ctreencompssng the ron of eer fe n commnt Theperspecte of the cosmopotn m nee be compose on fromexperences of fferent ctres of ths kn s hs bogrph



Hnnez Cosmopolitans and ocals in World Culture 24

inclues peios of sts in iffeent plces But he m lso beinole ith one cultue n possibl but not usull moe of thtothe kin hich is cie b tnsntionl netok the thn

b teito It is ell the goth n polifetion of suchcultues n socil netoks in the pesent peio tht genetesmoe cosmopolitns no thn thee he been t n othe time

But being on the moe I he le gue is not enough totun one into cosmopolitn n e must not confuse the ltteith othe kins of telles Ae touists exiles n exptitescosmopolitns n hen not h not

In he noel The Accidental Tourist (985 Anne Tle hs min chcte ho mkes his liing chuning out tel books fonticosmopolitns people (mostl business telles ho oulthe not he left home; people ho e locls t het These etel guies fo Ameicns ho oul nt to kno htestunts in Toko offe Seet 'n 'o hich hotel in Mi hsk ingsize Beutest mttesses n hethe thee is Tco Bell inMexico Cit

Anothe contempo ite Pul Theoux ( 1 986 1 33 continuousl occupie ith themes of jounes n the cosmopolitn

expeience comments tht mn people tel fo the pupose ofhome plus Spin is home plus sunshine Ini is home plussents Afic is home plus elephnts n lions An fo some ofcouse tel is iell home plus moe n bette business Thee isno genel openness hee to someht unpeictble iet ofexpeiences; the benefits of mobilit e stictl egulte Suchtel is not fo cosmopolitns n oes little to cetecosmopolitns

Much pesent touism is of this kin People engge in itspecificll to go to nothe plce so the cosmopolitnism thtcoul potentill be inole oul be tht of combintions of teitoill bse cultues But the plus often hs nothing htsoeeto o ith lien sstems of mening n lot to o ith fcts ofntue such s nice beches Yet this is not the onl eson hcosmopolitns nos lothe touists n especill lothe beingtken fo touists

Cosmopolitns ten to nt to immese themseles in othecultues o in n cse be fee to o so The nt to be pticipnts o t lest o not nt to be too eil ientifible ithin co of pticipnts tht is of locls in thei home teito Thent to be ble to snek bckstge the thn being confine to the



242 Theory Culture Soiety

fronsge res. Tourss re no prcpns; oursm s lrgel specor spor. Even he wn o become nvolve n n hsense hve cosmopoln orenon ourss re ssume o bencompeen . The re oo lkl o mke nusnce of hemselvesThe locl n he cosmopol n cn spo hem from mle wocls evolve prculr ws of hnlng ourss, keepng snce from hem no necessrl explong hem bu no mng hem no locl recproces eher. No les becuse cosmopolnsm s n uncern prcce gn n gn blncng heege of compeence he cosmopoln keeps runnng he rsk ofbeng ken for ours b locls whose experence mke hemppl hs lbel ncresngl rounel An hs coul run mn of

he plesures of cosmopolnsm s well s pose hre o hecosmopoln sense o self

The exle lso shfe recl from one errorl culure onoher s ofen no rel cosmopoln eher for hs nvolvemenwh culure w from hs homeln s somehng h hs beenforce on hm A bes le n noher counr s home plus sfeor home plus freeom bu ofen s jus no home ll He ssurroune b he foregn culure bu oes no ofen mmerse

hmself n Somemes hs mperfecons s cosmopoln m behe oppose of hose of he ours he m relucnl bul up compeence bu he oes no enjo . Exle Ewr S hsrgue s n unhelble r sconnuous se of beng jelous se

Wth ver litte t pssess hd n t what have with aressive deen

sveness What achieve n exe s precse what have n wish t share

and t s n the drawin nes arnd and r cpatrts that the least

attractive aspects bein an exle eere an exaerated sense rpsldarit as well as a passinate hstit tward tsders even thse wh a n

act be in the sae predcaent as Said 94 5

The French nelleculs who escpe o New York urng heSecon Worl Wr s porre b Rukoff n Sco ( 1 983) weremosl exles of hs sor. her New York wh s own cemn s own revue ws sncur where he susne he noonh Frnce n cvlzon were jus bou n erchngeble erms

Among hem noneheless were nvuls who seze he opporun o explore he c wh ll her senses. Clue vSruss(1985: 258ff) n chrmng memor nclue n The Vie jrom

Ajar hs escrbe hs New York of nque shops eprmen



Hnnerz Comopolitan and ocal in World Culure 243

stores ethn vges museums of everthng from rt to nturhstor n Chnese oper performng uner the frst rh of theBrookn Brge

So now n then exes n be osmopotns; but most of themre not Most ornr bour mgrnts o not beome osmo potns ether or them gong w m be e home pushgher nome; often the nvovement wth nother uture s not frnge beneft but neessr ost to be kept s ow s possbe Asurrogte home s gn rete wth the hep of omptrots nwhose re one beomes enpsute

The onept of the exptrte m be tht whh we w mostre ssote wth osmopotnsm Exptrtes (or exexpt rtes re peope who hve hosen to ve bro for some peron who know when the re there tht the n go home when tsuts them Not tht exptrtes re vng moes of osmo potnsm; oonsts were so exptrtes n most thebhorre gong ntve' But these re peope who n ffor toexperment who o not stn to ose tresure but threteneuproote sense of sef We often th nk of them s peope of nepenent (even f moest mens for whom openness to new experenes

s voton or peope who n tke ong ther work more or esswhere t peses them wrters n pnters n Prs between the wrsre perhps the rhetpes Nevertheess the ontemporreptrte s rther more ke to be n orgnzton mn so here Iome bk to the trnsnton utues n the networks n nsttutons whh prove ther so frmeworks

rannaonal Culu oda

The hstorn mes e ( 197 ) surveng the eveopment nqueston over onger pero wrtes of Trnsntonsm n theNew Trbe' but one m s we entf number of fferenttrbes s the peope nvove form rther seprte sets of so retonshps n s the speze ontents of these utures re ofmn kns Trnsnton utures to ten to be more or esserut oupton utures (n re often te to trnsntonob mrkets George Konr emphszes the trnsnton utureof nteetus

The ba w nrmatn preeds n man deren ehna and nstt

tna ees b n a eves he nteetas are he nes wh knw ms abt

ne anher arss he rners wh eep n h wh ne anther and wh

ee ha he ae ne anhers aes




We a decrbe a rannaona hoe neecua ho are a hoe n he

cuure o oher peope a e a her on he keep rack o ha

happenng n varou pace he have peca e o ho e counre here he

have ved he have rend a over he ord he hop acro he ea o dcu

oehng h her coegue he o v one anoher a ea a hercounerpar o hundred ear ago rode over o he nex on o exchange dea

984 089

Yet thee ae tansnationa utues aso of bueauats poti ians and business peope and of ounaists and dipomats andaous othes (see e.g. Sauant 976). Pehaps the ony tansna tona tue in deine is that of heedtay oyaty. These utuesbeome tansnationa both as the indiiduas inoed make quikfoays fom a home base to many othe paes fo a few hous odays n a week fo a few weeks hee and thee in a yea and asthey shft thei bases fo onge peods within thei ies. Wheeethey go they find othes who w inteat with them in the tems ofspeaized b ut oetey hed undestandings.

Bease of the tansnationa utues a age numbe of peopeae nowadays systematiay and diety noed with moe thanone utue. In human hstoy the diet moement between tei

toal ultes has oen been adental a feak ouene nbogaphes if not an expession of shee pesona diosynaythen a esut of wa pota upheaa o epession eoogadsaste.

But the tansnationa and the tetoia utues of the wod aeentanged with one anothe n manfod ways. Some tansnatonatues ae moe insuated fom oa paties than othes that ofdpomay as ompaed with that of ommee fo exampe. The

tansnatona utes ae aso as whoes usuay moe maked bysome tetoa utue than by othes. Most o f them ae in dffeentways extensions o tansfomations of the tues of westenuope and Noth Amea If een the tansnationa utues haeto hae physia entes somewhee paes in whih o fom wheethe pata meanings ae poded and dsseminated wth pat a ntensity o paes to whh peope tae n ode to nteatin the tems ths is whee suh entes tend to be oated. But een

awayfom these entes the institutions of the tansnationa

utues tend to be oganized so as to make peope fom westenuope and Noth Ameia fee as muh at home as possibe (byusng thei anguages fo one thing). In both ways the oganizationof wod tue though entepeiphey eatonships is madeedent.



Hannez Cosmopolitans and oals in World Culture 245

t is a onsequene of this that westen Euopeans and NothAmeians an enapsulate themselves ultually and basiallyemain metopolitan loals instead of beoming osmopolitans not

only by staying at home in thei teitoial ultues. Like Ann Tyle' saidental touists they an also do so to a faily high degee ifnot ompletely in many of the tansnational ultues. Fo thosewho ae not westen Euopeans o Noth Ameians o who do notspend thei eveyday lives elsewhee in oidental ultual enlavesinvolvement with one of the tansnational ultues is moe likely i nitself to be a distintive ultual expeiene.

The eal signifiane of the gowth of the tansnational ultueshoweve is often not the new ultual expeiene that they them

selves an offe people fo it i s fequently athe estited insope and depth but thei mediating possibilities The tansna tional ultues ae bidgeheads fo enty into othe teitoialultues nstead of emaining within them one an use the mobilityonneted with them to make ontat with the meanings of otheounds of life and gadually inopoate this expeiene into one spesonal pespetive

Coopo d Culu of Ci DiouThe eadiness to seize suh oppotunities and osmopolitanize is nodoubt ofen a vey pesonal haate tait On the othe handdiffeent tansnational ultues may also elate in diffeent ways tothese oppotunities. Hee and thee and pobably espeially wheethe oupational paties themselves ae not well insulated fomthe ultues of vaied loal settings the development of om petenes in alien ultues has appeaed too impotant to be left tohane and to pesonal whim in the last few deades we have seenthe apid gowth of a ultue shok pevention industy oss ultual taining pogammes have been developed to inulatesensitivity basi saoir ire and pehaps an appeiation of thoseothe ultues whih ae of speial stategi impotane to one'sgoals (fom the oidental point of view ptiulaly those of Japanand the oilih Aab wold) Thee is also a bugeoning doityouself liteatue in this field Septis of ouse may dismissthese pogammes and this liteatue as a quik osmopolitan fix

They would b e inlined to doubt that ouse wok fo a ouple ofdays o weeks o a haateistially unsubtle handbook gene ansubstitute fo the pesonal ouney of disovey And they may beommitted to the notion that osmopolitans as suh should be self made men



246 Theory Culture Society

Some tansnationa utues on te ote and may ave a kindof buitin eationsip to tat type of openness and stiving towadmastey tat ave efeed to above. eoge Konad in te statement wi ave aeady quoted poposes tat inteetuas ave apatiua pedietion towad making temseves at ome in oteutues Tis is moe tue in some instanes tan otes; te Fenaademia in its New Yok exie we ave seen tended to keep toitsef Noneteess it may be wot onsideing te possibiity tattee is some kind of affinity between osmopoitanism and teutue of inteetuas.

Wen oas wee infuentia Robet Meton ( 957 400) found inis assi study tei infuene ested not so mu on wat tey

knew as on wom tey knew. osmopoitans in ontast basedwateve infuene tey ad on a knowedge ess tied to patiuaotes o to te unique ommunity setting. Tey ame equippedwit speia knowedge and tey oud eave and take it wit temwitout devauing it .

Not supisingy tee as been moe attention given to supeope eenty. Tey ae te new ass peope wit edentiasdeontextuaized utua apita . Witin tis boad soia ategoy

some woud distinguis as Avin oudne (979) as donebetween inteigentsia and inteetuas Tis is ady neessay fomy puposes ee; in any ase aoding to oudne tey sae autue of itia disouse' .

etainy tese ae a type of peope wo now stand a patiuaygood ane of beoming invoved wit te tansnationa utues.Tei deontextuaized knowedge an be quiky and siftingyeontextuaized in a seies of diffeent settings (Wi is not tosay tat te tansnationa utues onsist of noting but suknowedge tey may we evove tei own patiuaisms as weof te kind wi ae esewee te speia esoue of oas:biogapia knowedge of individuas anedota knowedge ofevents and even of te onsteations of oaes wi fom tesettings of tese utues) Wat tey ay oweve is not ustspeia knowedge but aso tat ovea oientation towad stu tues of meaning to wi te notion of te utue of itiadisouse' efes Tis oientation aoding to oudnes (979:

28ff) desiption is eflexive pobematizing onened witmetaommuniation; woud aso desibe it as geneay expan sionist in its management of meaning. t puses on eentessy in itsanaysis of te ode of ideas stiving towad expiitness wee



Hannerz Comopolitan and ocal in World Culture 7

ommon sense as a ontrasting mode of meaning managementmight ome to rest omfortably with the tait the ambiguous andthe ontraditory In the end it strives toward mastery

Obviously it annot be argued hat suh an orientation to strutures of meaning is in any way likely to show a partiularly lose fitwith those alien ultures in themselves whih the osmopolitandesires to explore These are probably as full of ontraditionsambiguities and tendenies toward inertia as any other loalulture inluding that in whih the osmopolitan himself originatesYet as a mode of approah it seems to inlude muh of that openness and drive toward greater ompetene whih I have suggested isalso harateristi of osmopolitanism It is not a way of beoming aloal but rather of simulating loal knowledge

The speial relationship between intelletuals and osmopolitanism if there is one ould also be desribed in another way hardlyunrelated to what I have ust said. Intelletuals in the narrower senseare involved in a partiular way with what we might see as the entreperiphery relationships of ulture itself Kadushin (97 6) in hisstudy of Amerian intelletuals has suggested that eah ulture hasertain entral value onepts whih give meaning to experiene

and ation and that most members of soiety manipulate theseonepts easily enough beause they tend to be defined essentially i ntheir onrete appliations rather than through abstrat formula tions. Intelletuals however have the speial task of finding therelationship between value onepts and traing the appliation ofthese onepts over time. Suh onepts Kadushin notes are forexample rights of man ustie or freedom of speeh

In their enquiries the intelletuals traffi between the ore of

ulture and the peripheral ephemeral fats of everyday life If theyare voationally in the habit of doing so they would appear to havean advantageous point of departure for explorations of otherultures as well when the opportunity of osmopolitanism presentsitself And this advantage is surely not lost when different ultures infat turn out to have entral value onepts in ommon; eorgeKonrads transnational intelletuals forming allianes arossfrontiers tend to ge together preisely over suh shared onerns.

Coopo Ho

This has mostly been a sketh of the osmopolitan abroad Muh ofthe time even osmopolitans are atually at home Yet what doesthat mean in their ase?




Pehps e osmopons fe hey hve ken ou membeshp n h egoy e neve que home gn n he wy eos n be Home s kenfognedness bu e he

pespeves hve been evesby ffeed by he expeene of heen nd he dsn osmopons my no vew ehe he sesonsof he ye o he mno us of eveydy fe s bsoueynu obvous nd neessy Thee my be feeng of deh men pehps on wh hose ommed o he o ommonsense nd unwe of s bness O pehps he osmoponmkes home' s we one of hs seve soues of pesonmenng no so dffeen fom he ohes whh e fuhe wy; ohe s pesed wh hs by boh o suende o nd mse hs ones we

O home s ey home bu n spe wy; onsn emndeof peosmopon ps pveged se of nosg Ths swhee one hngs seemed fy smpe nd sghfowd O sgn ey home omfobe pe of fm fes wheeone's ompeene s undspued nd whee one does no hve opove o ehe onesef o ohes bu whee fo muh he smeesons hee s some sk of boedom

A hoe o o osopolns mos ohes e os Ths sue n he ge mjoy of eoy bsed uues onveseyfo mos of hese os he osmopon s someone eunusu one of us nd ye no que one of us Someone o beespeed fo hs expeenes possby bu equy possby nosomebody o be used s me of ouse Tus ends o be me of shed pespeves of I know nd I know h youknow nd I know h you know h I know' And hs fomu fo

he so ognzon o f menng does no neessy ppy o heeonshp beween o nd osmoponSome osmopons e moe dep mkng ppy gn

eemad eie Reise tut da ka er as erzhle h e syng goes nd hee e hose who mke spey ou of engohes know wh hey hve ome oss n dsn pes So heosmopon n o some exen be hnneed no he o; ndpesey beuse hese e on he whoe sepe sphees he osmopon n beome boke n enepeneu who mkes pofYe hee s dnge h suh emps o mke he en esyessbe ony sueeds n vzng nd heeby beyng snue nd he he of he e fshnd enoune So n



Haez Cosmopolitans and ocals in World Culture 249

way te moe pey osmopota tttde may be to et sepaatetgs be sepaate

espte a ts ome s ot eessay a pae wee osmopo

tasm s exe t s ata tat te otempoay wod mayoa settgs ae easgy aatezed by ta destyose of osmopota atos may make seete se of teabtats to mata te expase oetato towad te wdewod Ote osmopotas may be tee wete tey te tae at ome o aboad ad stages of ote ta osmopoaoetatos Apat fom te faetofae eotes tee ae temeda bot tose teded fo oa osmpto atog teyspeak of wat s dstat ad tose w ae eay pat of ote

tes ke foeg books ad fms Wat MLa oedesbed as te mpose powe of te meda may ow make stabot eeybody a tte moe osmopota Ad oe may te edask wete t s ow ee possbe to beome a osmopotawtot gog away at a

Cl: Dpd f Cpl l d

d

To epeat tee s ow oe wod te A te aosy dst bted sttes of meag ad expesso ae beomg te eated someow somewee Peope ke te osmoptas ae aspea pat bgg abot a degee of oeee ad beasetey ae ts pat tey ae eeed ose atteto ee eewee oy oas te wod wod te wod be o moe tate sm of ts sepaate pats.

As tgs ae ow o te ote ad t s o oge so easy to

ofom to te dea type of a oa. Some pepe ke exes omgat wokes ae deed take away fom te tetoa bases ofte oa te bt ty to eapste temsees wt someappoxmato of t yet t s a geate mbe wo ee staygome fd te oa tes ess pease ess to be take fogated ess eay boded towad te otsde f tat ote kdof wod te wee ee to ome abot, tog a temapoess of goba omogezato oas wod beome extt osee dffeety tog te oemet wt te oe exstg

te eeybody wod be te same kd of oa at te gobaee

Hee owee todays osmopotas ad oas ae ommo



250 Theor Culture Soet

ieress i he surviva of uura diversiy. or he aer, diversiyisef as a maer of persoa aess o varied uures may be ofie irisi ieres us so happes ha his is h e priipe

hih aos a oas o sik o heir respeive uures or heosmopoias i oras, here is vaue i diversiy as suh buhey are o ike y o ge i i ayhig ike he prese form, uessoher peope are aoed o arve ou speia ihes for heiruures ad keep hem Whih is o say ha here a be oosmopoias ihou oas

Th t von o th pap wa pntd at th Ft ntnatona

Connc on th Oympc and EatWt and Sothoth Clta Echan n

th Wod Sytm n Sol Koa 7- 9 At 987 Th pap ha bn ppad

a pat o th poct Th Wold Sytm o Ct n th Dpatmnt o Socal

Anthopoloy Unvty o Stochom Th poct ha bn ppotd by th

Swdh ach Conc o th mant and Soca Scnc (SF

2 Anthopoot a th not ncaly vy comopoltan many o thm a

ontb popl On hdho and o Bn (978

3 Th dlttant mmb on who dlht omon who coty ta

hm a bt byond odnay nowd athoh n a ntmany way h an

om bcomn a pa (c yn )

4 Th o co ao a lm bad on th nov

5 S o ampl th volm Do 's a Taboos o h o d by th

a n Company whch dcb t oa

dally th boo w hlp ach wod tav ow ttl nvbl antnna that

w n ncomn ma abot clta dnc and nanc An app

caton and ndtandn o th dnc w pvnt mbaamnt,

nhappn and a n act lann thoh tav abot th cltal

dnc can b both chann and n (At 985 owod

6 S ao o amp anda Con' (979 60) contat btwn

ndno and oma podcton o clt

7 On common n o amp t 975 and Bod ( 977: 64

dcon o th doc mod'

Rf

Axtl o E (985 Do's a Taboos o th o w Yo Wly

Bln aah (978 ssa Thks w Yo: Vn

Bod (977 Ot of a Tho of Pa Cambd CambdUnvty

Coln anda ( 979 Th Cia o w Yo Acadmc

Fld Jam A J ( 97 Tannatonam and th w Tb tatoaOrgaiatio 25 35362



Haez Csmplitans and cals in Wrld Culture 25

Gtz Ciod 1 95 Commo Ss as a Cta Sstm A ntioch Rviw 33

56

God Avi W 199 h Ftr of th Intctas and th Ris of th Nwass odo Mamia

Kadsi Cas 19 h Amrican Intcta Eit. osto itt owKoad Gog 198 A ntipoitics Sa Digo ad Nw o aot a

Jovaovi

viStass Cad 1985 h Viw from Afar Nw o asi oos

s ss 1966 onfssions of a Dittant. Nw o : a ow

Mto obt K 195 Socia hory and Socia Strctr. Go : F

ss

to t M ad Sott Wiiam 983 T F i Nw o:

sista ad Stt Socia Rsarch 50 1851

Said dwad W 1 98 T Md o Wit tos o i arpr s

Maazin Stmb 955Savat Ka 1 96 T ottia o Mt iatioa tiss as Vis o

t Tasmissio o siss Ct i Ka Savat ad Faid G avio

ds ontron Mtinaiona Entrpriss od CO: Wstviw

To a 1 986 Snris with Samonstrs amodswot gi

T A 1985 h Accidnta orist. Nw o Ko

lf nnrz is head of the epatmet of Soia Athopoogy at

the Uiesity of Stokhom He is autho of Explring the Citnquiries Tard an Urban Anthrplg (oumbia UiesityPess 980)



254 Theor Culture Soiet

iniuion pofeion) imed onfi oidne nd eouion In nonbune ffi oo eeydy neion ouo bode whih n genee onfi unde fmiy w oompenion w fo empe) whih my he o be mngedwihou he infuue whih i o hepfu o he buinewod

Hing peiouy de wih o mped puey nionphenomen he oioogy of w i now dieing i enion o howdefiniion of he iuion e mde in poee ouing dieybeween he pie inoed in obode eon o whenpeope mke ue of dioy negoiing oniiion o biionfiiie. I i o ooking peifiy nomi uion whih

my ie ou of k of uffiien nomie guidne of eihe eg o uu nue. Boh of hee obe of inee e deiedfom he umpion h en uu onfi ei in obode eg eion f he onepuion in den Honde 955) . uu onfi he been hemied mo fuy o de inhe oioogy of deine ummied in on Toh 985) whhke he uu eiy of oi ode in diffeeniedmoden oiey If in heoei ppohe o modeniion he

e of nomene oied wh o hnge hi ifequenly ombined wh digno of he pemiie oiey ofou ime nd he eon of mniy f he iique of h inPeon 985 5 ff ) e he neigion ondued o deugge h nome in obode eg eion h omewhbed wih mny mehnm nd bodie (uh inuneheme oniion bodie ou of bion) onibuingogehe wh moe febe iude on he p of domei oudeing wih foeign me o he eduion of uh onfi Thied on o he queion of wh eg mehnim ei fo oidnguh uu onf nd how f he pe o obodeeion he eoue o he w Thi n un bing u o hebode queion of he een o whh w o inuionuue oi ey nd eding on fom h how he eionhip beween uue nd oey n be fomued in heoeem f eheone 985 3 fekmp 989) o nopen queion o how f he hypohei of he nomie

uuing of oey n be empy efued gien h mnyuey ondued by ooogi of w onude h he ope ofeg ono eemey mied f ffh 979 ene ndHlnd 989) Up o now howee eg heoy . . h mde



ener and Shade Cr<border Legal Relation 255

paradigm of he loed yem and privae inernaional law prefero define away any awarene of he pluraliy and ambiguie of heinernaional legal world' verbal ommuniaion from Flener)

he ematzaton of te Cltral Conflict in World Societ

The poliial and eonomi dimenion of roborder oial ineraion have been hemaized for he mo par by theorie o international relation ee Riberger and Wolf 987) internationaltem theorie f von Beyme e a. 987) orld tem theorief. Wallerein 974) and aoiaed reearh Hopkn andWallerein 982).

Wherea he heory of inernaional relaion and inernaional

yem heory long harboured he predominan noion ha onlygovernmen and heir repreenave ould be onidered relevanaor in he inenaional yem he uaion oday alo favourhe reognition o indiidual group and organization a atorith a truturing role in the international tem f. Singer 987 2 4f.; zempiel 98 ; Sauvan 987 69ff). Riberger andWolf 987 4) poin ou ha he new onp of nernaionalpolii ough o inlude all equene of inerrelaed aon aro

naional or oeal boundare in o far a hey involve . hemaking or enforemen of deion onernng he apporionmenof value in differen phere of life. Epeially in he field ofinformaion and ommunaon rade and finane quieeviden ha in hi laer ene aion by nonae pare mu alobe laed a polial Hene wha nonae aor do of parular nere o polial ene in he field of roborder eonomiand buine relation

u a polial analy now plae ome re on he gnifane of roborder ineraon beween privae indivdual andbuinee we imilarly beleve imporan ha he oiology oflaw hould alo eek o analye uh ineraon and no uinvegae he pariular law of naion wihn he nernaonalyem. Ineraion beween prvae individual or oganzaonare beoming more and more frequen and hene are o be regardeda no ju relevan in eonomi and poliial erm bu alo whregard o broader ulural and oial faor

The theor o orld oiet} ar ou from a poion ha worldwide ineraion i now an eablhed phenomenon albei wihvariou dioninuiie Senghaa 988) n order for ineraoninvolving parie from differen ulure o ueed he awarene




ha o be eahed ha eah ouny ha own paulaquany o hng need o lean (Luhmann 97 7) Aodngo Luhmann one aoae wh he dea o he wold oey auaon n whh eeyone . . . able hang aheed anomal amoun o leanng o puue hhe own objee aa ange among ange' Th ay Luhmann ( 97 9) heeul o hamonzaon o he neubjee omaon o expea on on all leel o o he de ao oepondene n he hozonwhn whh (oepondng o nonoepondng) expeaonae onued, he expeaon ha ohe' hozon o expea on wll oepond o one own and he expeaon ha ohewll expe he hozon o be denal wh hoe o ohe. To

pu moe onely woldwde neaon poble beaue aommon ba o expeaon ex Alhough he onep o woldoey doe hemaze poblem o neulual ommunaonhe heoy neehele opeae on a ey hgh leel o abaon,makng dul o omulae hypohee whh would be uableo gudng eeah. The onep eem ahe moe o a a amulu o mao oologal eeah (Senghaa 988). Neehele Luhmann ( 97 ) alo pu owad a he on he

uue o expeaon n he wold oe whh ould ee a agude o mooologal enquy. e ubm ha hee a predominnce o cognitie dptie epecttion hoing illingneto le and a decline in normtie precriptie expecttion ithmorl pretenion The deene beween hee mode oexpeaon ay Luhmann le n how hey ea o dl luonmenn neual ene Een dlluonmen ou nomaeexpeaon wll be mananed and mean o peuaon oapplyng anon wll be eoed o wheea ogne expea on ae mplly wllng o lean and neeay hange oolng poblem ay Luhmann hee mode o expeaon aedependng on he uaon noled Thee a geae endeny oadop a nomae aude o uaon whee no mmedae leaeue oppouny o lean ex and o adop a ogne anewhen hee no pope o help o one expe on Senghaaoo ee the groing cognitie netori o the orld. nh enquy egadng he gowh o nedependene he doe ee

o he ole o law paulaly nenaonal law bu he menon only n pang . n h enuy n paula nenaonallaw ha made gea poge n h epe [o he lngpoe (Senghaa 988 27) and doe no go no uhedeal.



n nd Sd, Cro-bordr Lgal Rlation 27

Robon nd Ln 9, nn no ndnn wodym oy, po pm onv o ym o modn wod. Howv o pomp on o w pm y bn pd nd nnd o n n dn no on pod nom nd on . dnHond, 1 9 1 66. no pm dmnd o on o b o d w popy?On poby, w n by bm 1 92, ym w nvn nd, by pndn op o pod, ony o ov mo nd mo p o , wdoy dvopn om o ommnv ony. Com

mnv on wod n b objd b ymony wod ndvo o ovom dn o nom A dd o, nv wod b kn wy om o o, ndym ono wod nd ndn nd mnono onon n p o nom. on w nd o bpod , o, w ny o nommnon nd/o noon do no o p oommnv ony n y d p. W n

ony nd o w p o moooo Sn nd o 1960, nw bn o yn o n ommnon bom bd. Mv, 197, mon m o w o nvnnon on mon pv pon o onon,nd w mk o n mm o pdomnny pyoo, ooo, nopoo nd n ypo.In ommnon dnd ommnonpo on w vby o nonvby bwnmmb o dn op n dn onon Smov nd Po, 1 976 Po, 1 97 To on oy o nvon onnn cultur nd communication linking oj th to ara oj rarch w vy nw. R no n ommnon pmy bn npd by p pobm, . pobm on bvo n on w om noon, w b n m o on , bn o om

o . ky pobm n d o nommnon mommnon o mndndnbb o dn o Mv, 197 Rbn,19: 7.

dvopmn o thori oj intrcultural communication




alo now ad po thouh th ovall ptu tll ath ahtonou on a htly obvd by onhoff 988 f.alo th oplant on th apaadat tat of th thoy nudykunt 98 4 n a fa a th pobl of ntultualounaton dalt wth an bound to th ont tuaton nah patula a thu akn nalaton and thoydvlopnt o dffult . A futh pobl whh a whn to to ahn obod lal laton that uridicalinteraction ha not o fa bn thatd wthn th ontt of ththoy of ntultual ounaton on pton bn a ntatl by Joan B. Kl 988 daln wth ounatvpobl btwn lawy and lnt fo dffnt ultual

bakound.Th fou of duon on ntultual ounaton l

patulaly on onflt on how thy how thy a opdwth and what appoah a takn to th f. Nadl t a. 985; TnTooy 985 Cuhan and SandonKn 985.A a fo of oal aton conlict patly dtnd by ultuaodn to Stlla TnTooy 985 72 and oth . ntultual undtandn and hn pobl onflt ou whn

two ndvdual on o dffnt ultu v a dffntpon to o dffntly ntpt th a ybol aton . n anntultual ontt thn th o to onlt than lydvnt ntt. An alady opl tuaton abatd byabut lak of awan ando th undtandn ofultual bhavoual tandad of lanua o of latonaldnon uh a onfdntalty o tatu

Th ft apt of an analy of ntultual onflt tonvtat th cultural context n whh patula pod ofonflt ou. A uful pont of fn h th noton ofcultural contraint. n tuaton wh ultual ontant alow tolan towad anyon o anythn dffnt and towadadv tnon tnd to b hh that to ay th ato bnftfo th opn onfontaton of da. Convly n tuaton wthhh ultual ontant th onflt thhold lvl tnd ath tob low that pvntv tat a typally otd to

An anaton of onflt and th latonhp wth ul

tu alo nd to tak hd of th pf condition underhich conlict probably arie. ntultual tnon and undtandn ou f any of th patpant n ntultualounaton pltly o pltly at n volaton of oth



ene and Sade Cobod Lgal Rlation 29

exetaon Wee ulual ontan ae ow a eaey gleel o neuy and eal n te neulual nteaton oneely tee a g degee o ultual ontan eealng ee o neuy and elaey low Te oenalo onlt beween ange elately geate n uaton wlow ultual ontan an n oe wt g onant To ut tanoe way e dange o otng an eo o nteaton geate wen tee ae no e ule goenng and gudng eaou eode o neaon TngTooey 98 78

Anote atte o otane n e elaon beween onltand ultue at o te atitud and tatgi adoptd toadconlict TngTooey 98 Nadle e a 98 92 uan

and SandeonKng 98 22 n a ontex w low uualontant te onltng ate wll obably tae u detonontatonal ane wl n a ontext wt g ontan eedonant atttude be debed a one o uentng oaodng onlt

A nube o auto nludng Nade et a 98 Hanett andung 980 ee intcultual ngotiation a layng anneangly otant ole n te eentday wold alo te

any ata andboo on How o do bune n Fox 988 In a onlt tuaton ounaton a a te ean byw onlt gen a oa denon a te nuen oexertng nuene n ont, and a a edu w alow eetoe noled o td ate to eent oe wt o atually oleonlt Negoaton te oe by w atant ounate wt one anote a tey ee o deny beaoualaltenate and endeaou o aee outoe w ae botnddually and uually adantageou

Longdawn out eaton and negotaton eealyaaet o nenatonal oganaton an lead o edeeloent o a oon thid cultu Uee e al 96 69dene a e beaou aten eated aed and leanedby en o deen oete wo ae n e oe o elatng teoete o eon eeo o ea ote

In te ew tee ae aleady any oetal neae wee ua d ultue ad deeoed Te exae ey te ae e Uned

Naon te Euoean oon aet te euenal oeenaong te tan ue nenatonal uden exange enenaonal oune n te ene and te at and edloat ounty n te undetandng o te exeon



260 heory Culture Society

hs hd s o my m ommodo ommo o wo sp p s b h bh osomh w s s bho sys wod ws . od Usm . 196 170.

Emp ssssms o o oos whh dop ommo show hy h d ysd s . Shsoboh 1 969 59. . Ed s so b o h h posss by whh o sd wh hs oos h bom mos Shsoboh 1 969 1 7 1 . y d sysh b odd whh show h s oy mhs psd h so os d o do o

op ms Shsoboh 1 969 1 69. Th s ko ddo sh hs how py s s o s od.

Th sociology o culture whh hs b h sdy s h d o h 1 970s wss h sp sss o h KnerZeitschrit r Soiologie und Soiapsychologie) hs o osd s o o. dh H. Tbk omp hs py d h pobms s wh wo

s m o h oh s sh sk o h soooy o 1 979 41 6. Es sh hs dy b oddo h pobms d by o ssod wh s woks p . Hkm 191 wh my h sAsy d ss 1974 d bod d hs dopd o dwh h sowok sps o do . omp h pod uslnderkinder [mm hd.H oo hoh o o s h swok o wd h h y o s sds d whossbod phom.

P o hs ds h d o w s ys hs h dopm o research in legal culture s Zeitschrit jrRechtssoziologie 195 whh o s dw by hsoooy o w o phom o sos ds. Sh dy h ss o s sd o b bsdsbd ms o ms sh s sys o so o opods d o djdo h ss o h possos

d pb os h wys o d h o po y psbd oms . Bkb 19. A po h s h sh ds o o s s hs dyb od o h soooy o w o omp



essner and Sade Cro-border Legal Relation 6

ultures witout exaining wat appens wen tose ulturesollide tat is to say wit te part played by arious legalbakground features in rossborder legal relations. Neertelessone ust gie redit to te researers into legal ulture for aingpointed out te releane of ulture as a fator in explaining legalpenoena (f. Lewis 985 9 ) een if its signifiane wen setagainst foral legal rules as yet to be deterined An espeiallyiportant aieeent of te legal ulture reseaers in tis regardas been to ake it lear tat een if one akes te assuption aredutionist assuption tey beliee tat eonoi otiesrepresent te predoinant strutural priniple one ust still takeaount of te fat tat een tey are ultiately saped by ultural

arateristis

gl n f Vw

n ontrast to te soiologial literature ost writing witin tefield of law assues a unifority of business praties and enealso of legal needs in all ountries around te world (oldstajn973; Beran and Kaufan 978).

Te line generally taken is tat trading onentions and

te autonoous regulations of arious institutions onernedwit international business (eneral Ters onditions Unifor ustos of te nternational aber of oereNOTERMS EE standard onditions) te judgents ade byinternational ourts of arbitration and also to no sall degree byinternational agreeents (te Hague onention on unifor lawfor te international sale of goods and on ontrats for sutransations Vienna agreeent on unified oerial law) ae all

enouraged te deelopent of a oon priate law oeringworld trade altoug tis ten oes fae to fae wit ariations inpubli business law fro ountry to ountry. Tis approa goes onto say tat i f and in so far as suess is also aieed in aroniingtat publi business law (by eans of te ATT and E) rossborder business relations would ten take plae on a unifor legalbasis

t is possible terefore tat te teses on te diffiulties inoledin interultural ouniation put forward by soiologial resear

annot be applied to te spere of international trade t ay be tattere is now a suffiient aount of unifor law espeially sineUN oerial Law ae into effet on I January 988 and ontop of tat su a ariety of standard lauses and onentions




(marine and overand tranport, redit term, payment ytem) thatthee have dipaed muh of the effet of utura differene. Twoexampe from within the E are the agreement reahed in 1968 onthe ourt phere of uridition and the enforement of ourtdeiion in ivi and ommeria ae, a we a the 1980

agreement on the aw of obigation. There are ao a number of Ediretive deigned to ahieve greater uniformity in private aw,either erving a a bai for onforming egiation in memberountrie or direty being given the fore of aw (ee Merraff,1987; Reih, 1987 Apart from unifiation meaure taken viaguideine and diretive, that i , apart from eondary ommunityaw, private ega reation are ao direty impinged upon by

primary ommunity aw (f. Reih, 1987 The Singe InternaMarket now being panned for i urrenty giving rie to a great deaof effort in unifying pubi buine aw for the entire E area

New type of ator (for exampe, onumer, reaetate purhaer, tourit) whih the unifed aw ha not yet atered for, awe a roborder ega reation outide the buine fied (famiyreationhip, environmenta damage), though outide the ambit ofa lex meratoria (Shmitthoff, 1964 Langen, 1 9 8 1 ; Horn and

Shmitthoff 1 98) ar at lat vrd b privat a. S vn rthere i no need for anyone to be unertain a to whih aw houdappy.

Thi piture, athough referred to in the iterature on aw, doenot propery refet ife in pratie.

(a) If anything, the unifiation of aw o far ahieved appiemore to margina area (Shehtriem, 1987: 35 It i ti

fragmented at preent in the area of private aw and (to ue themetaphor in Ktz, 1986 12 ha ony reated tiny iand of un ifiedaw in a ea of nationa egiation. Thi ao appie to the E, forthe ommunity Private Law i anything but ompetey omprehenive a yet It i frationa, ioated, ak any ytemati overaonept, i random and unduy invoved (Merraff, 1987: 39

Effort to ao unify pub i internationa buine aw are onfinedto the E, and even there they are ony haf way to fruition.

(b) Even in the ae where unified aw appie, it i frequenty

ontratuay exuded (thi i reommended by the eading ermanhandbook for pratitioner f Sandrok, 980: 491 Nor haunified aw brought about the ightet unifiation in udiia



essne and Shade Cro-border Legal elaion 26

pate n the sgnatoy ountes (Honnod 987; Kt 986;Kame 988).

( ) At east as fa as any paty efeed to a aw whh s aen to ts onened pvate ntenatona aw eesents an nseuesouton' (Langen 969 5 9). Domest judges ae sad to akompetene n mattes of ntenatona tade (Beman andKaufman 978)

hee an be no queston then of the pates to ossbode egaeatons havng anythng appoahng the same oentaton tonoms as the ountepats n stty natona affas woud byobsevng the aws of the own ounty. t s mpossbe to te fom

the avaabe teatue whethe thee s a ompete ak of suh nomoentaton meanng that atos fnd themseves n anomstuatons o whethe ts pae s taken by ogntve pattens ofaton Both of these atenatves would appea to ou n pate.

n the sphee of sgnfant ongtem busness ageements atany event thee s some evdene of foms of aton whh onfomto the ogntve mode. One featue n patua whh we woudntepet n ths way s the geat nteest devoted by ega teatue to

onsensua poesses n the shape of negotatons and abtatonpoedues. An mmedate exampe one an te ae ompaatveega studes of the dogmat aspets n the enegotaton ofontatua obgatons (ats of od fustaton of ontat therebu ic anibu ause) whh seek to end moe exbty toossbode busness deangs (Hon 985).

he stuatons desbed hee ae not so unusua that the pnpeof ontatua fdety woud neessay have to be abandoned.Howeve aw teatue evdenty expets the pates to ossbodeontats to be hghy flexbe and wng to ean . t theefoe eavesthe way ea fo ogntve expetatons (whh ae adapted toeaty n the ase of dsappontment Luhmann 972 42).

Othe moe ada popostons ae based on a puasttheoy of the devaton of aw (Stene and Vagts quoted nShanze 986: 0ff.) ntenatona busness aw n ths vew sontnuay podued and hanged by the onsensua eguaton ofeonom affas' (Shanze 986 0ff.) whh means the task of

eatng geate ode s aompshed by nonstate atos. ossbode ega eatons t s aso posted do not foow egaypesbed modes . Sne at the most they ae negotated unde the




shadow of the law they ae eally the esult of lawyes effots topeempt possible legal liabilities by dafting elusion lauses andthe like . Neithe unified law no pivate intenational law they saywould be able to pevent the adjustment and enegotiation of thewoding of ontats. t seems though that the pedominantopinion in the elevant legal liteatue is not pepaed to shift veyfa fom nomative stutues to beome lose to ognitive ones(Sandok 988).

Whee thee is no dispute howeve is ove the geat pat playedby oniliation poedues in the event of ontatual poblems (fthe ontibutions by Hon lossne Mezge Hemann andBaigan Meantoio in Hon 985 also Batels 98 9ff. );

that is by poedues whih pemit a ommonly aepted solutionto be found fo the futue while emoving the peise legal positionfom onsideation. This too is of ouse ou typial ognitivemodel of ation.

On the othe hand anomi situations ae indiated by epots thatunified law is sti l lagely a matte with whih people ae unfamiliain patie (Piltz 987 46; Basedow in Shlehtiem 987 74;Fallon 988) o that it at least leads to divegent intepetations

fom ase to ase. The omplaint has in any ase always been voiedabout pivate intenational law that even lawyes have diffiulty ingiving expet infomation on foeign law. Lay people ae geneallyin the dak as to thei legal positions whih they annot theefoeuse as an oientation fo thei ations. The same applies to publilegislation and egulations whih apat fom being mostly insutable to foeignes in many ases bea no pope elation to oss bode legal onditions (f. Mllende 989).

One ontibution whih omes vey lose to the theses putfowad by soiologial theoies of ommuniation even if it isalmost alone in the legal liteatue is an atile by von Mehen( 969) on the misundestandings aising in ossbode dealings asa esult of ultual diffeenes. A numbe of patial handbookswhih all have the steeotyped title of How to do business in . . . 'an also b e egaded as indiations o f anomi situations

Finally many omplaints ae made of anomi onditions outsidethe aea of business elations in fields suh as the enfoement of

ompensation laims (henobyl Sandoz) touism wok done infoeign ounties o above all disputes in mixed nationalityfamilies.



essner and Shade Cro-border egal Relation 265

Coo o Dvop of Rr op of

Cr Cof d g ro

he approahes to the subjet taken by soiology and the study of

law paint differing pitures of rossborder legal relations Whilethe soioogists pae emphasis on utural onfit and regard interutura negotiation in the deeoping word soiety whih isharaterized by pronouned interdependenes as an importantphenomenon jurists predominantly deote their efforts todisussing the unifiation and harmonization of the aw as modesfor soling the problems arising out of rossborder legal ontrats .Athough phenomena of differing egal ultures and alue onep tions are reognized in the study of aw too there is neertheless a

belief that the assoiated onflit situations an be resoled by legaldeelopments In the ase of diergent alue oneptions forexample the idea is put forward that an internationa ordre publishoud be deeoped (f. Horn 980) One reason for suh anarrowed perspetie oud be that there is a lak of empirial egalsureys in this fied n ases where they do exist suh as theexamination of inestment agreements in international business aw(Shanze 986) the roe of negotiations is propery thematized

Looking at it from the opposite side soiologial work on thesubjet i f it deals with the law at al usually does so marginaly andinstead plaes interultural ommuniation and resulting onflitsat the entre of attention . Yet beause the onflits of ulture buidup within a framework gien a prior struture by the law thehypotheses put forward by researhers on interultural ommuniation do hae to be speified anew in the sphere of legal interation.

4 Negotiation

We work on the premise that the rossborder phenomena whihintensify to produe onfits or interdependenes and strutures ofooperation and reiane an be traed bak to what atorsthemseles do. What we are partiularly interested in is the portionof reality whih those ators plan atiely shape and ommuniatiely oney to others We do not by any means wish to denythat part of reality interdependene in Elias s sense of theexpresion whih deeops behind ators' baks without their

being able to omprehend it but this is not our speifi fous ofattention. We folow what has been termed the negotiated orderapproah' as was deeloped by Strauss (198) aboe al treating



266 Theor Culture Socet

aos as hemselves he eaos of soal suues The negoaedode appoah vews he neplay of negoaons and suues nsuh a way ha, alhough suues do ee he nfluene on

negoaons, s also ulmaely evealed by lose eseah nonegoaons how pesen suues an be abued o he negoaons of he pas and ae hene wha mgh be emed onsoldaonsand sedmenaons of negoaon poesses

A fuhe fundamenal onsdeaon s ha noms n neaonsae no aoded he saus of absolue pespons fo aon andsoues of oenaon, bu s aken o be mpoan fo aos o beable o spefy he epeaons n a manne whh s appopae ohe suaon In ohe wods, we assume ha aos make use of

eave, onsuve and adapve ables n he neaonsneaons ae guded by eveyday heoes whh have eouseo all knds of funds of knowledge and ypfaons, espeallyypfaons of epeaons f Mahes, 976 53f) Ineaonhen, does no onss n he enfoemen of noms, and he mandeemnans of aon ae hese epeaons whh aos hemselves have eaed o seleed

We aep ha ossbode onas and ommunaon do also

ou aodng o noave eses, ha s o say ha hey aepedaed upon sabled suues whh ansend faualondons Howeve, ommunaon oblems also possess aean degee of auonomy They ae no denal wh suualpoblems, no wh he degee o whh suue ae ealedLuhmann, 980 99) Noms depend on beng ed and on bengavaed on he gh oasons n ommunaon poessesoung n he eal wold, ha s, on beng hemaed n eal

suaons In legal maes, hough, hee ae also hemaaonhesholds whh need o be oveome I s a wohwhle eese, nou vew, o sube hese hesholds o empal eamnaon

In onas o he nomave paadgm, he neave paadgmsesses he pa played by sponaney, by eavy, whh s sad omanfes self a all mes n soal aon and o develop by way ofoleakng f Wlson 97) e s appaen fom poblems ofneulual ommunaon ha, beause paes o neaon aeunausomed o eah ohe, oleakng may no neessaly bepossble In he absene of ypal paens of behavou, oles nsuh suaons have o be developed fom sah Ths may ouva he dvelopmen of a ommon hd) ulue An neesngpon n hs egad s Maaulays hess f 985 467ff , now



essner and Shade Cross-border Legal Relations 267

modified however f alanter et a 989) whih he developedwith referene to the legal ulture of the USA Maaulay proposesthat longterm business relations are not based upon the law andindeed hardly on ontratual agreements but on business ulturesderived from reiproal strategi onsiderations whih favour theontinuation of a mutually benefiial relationship

Cntract plannn an cntract aw at bet tan at te marn f mprtant

lnterm cntnn bne relatn Bne peple ten nt plan

eb t reat care n ratn cntract pa mc attentn t te tat awer

carel rat r nr a ea apprac t bne relatnp Tere are

bne cltre enn te r ame n baran an wat be ne

wen tn wrn Tere are reatel ew cntract cae tate an

te tat are ae peca caractertc . t bet rmal ea prcere

al are bt a tep n a larer prce netatn Macaa 985 47

Maaulays explanation for this limited relevane of the law inbusiness dealings is the existene of relational santions whih arisewhenever transations our in a setting of ontinual interrelation ships and interdependenes here is evidently a great interest inmaintaining suh persistent relationships as long as they are

generally satisfatory So it is then that potential onflits aresuppressed or ignored or that ompromises are arrived at in orderto keep these relationships alive Aordingly soial networks andsystems of ommuniation are formed

4 n the Conept o AnomieSine Durkheim ( 9 ) the absene insuffiieny or inappropriateness of the legal andor moral regulation of partiular spheres ofolletive life has been defined as soial anomie. Anomie also ariseswhenever regulations though they do exist no longer orrespond tothe level of development of olletive organiations here is noneed in this ontext to go into the reformulation of the oneptundertaken by Merton ( 949) in order to explain deviant behaviour.t is important however to disuss how normlessness is regarded bysoiologial theory as it urrently stands

Many authors with onerns ranging from miro to maroonvey the impression in the various approahes they are pursuing

that soiety is not atually ordered by norms Normlessness is thenno longer understood as a sign of risis as it was by Durkheim ndeed symboli interationism plaes it s emphasis as disussedabove on the ontinual reinterpretation of ation strutures by




the ator themeve. Sytem theory pont out how norm vadfor oety n t entrety are peterng out n vew of the nreaedgnfane of parta ytem whh ontro themeve (f foreampe Wke 983 Roewtz and Shmank 988). Do uhnew perpetve or do hange takng pae wthn oety meanthat the onept of anome ha had t day

Part of the anwer to th quet on mut undoubtedy be ye. Theprobem of the ntenty of ontro and the enforement of normwhh are approprate to oety derbed dfferenty today fromhow t wa n Durkhem tme (f. Pru 988). Yet a qutemodern onepton of anome an be made a a tate n whh oantegraton akng (Haberma 982) a a probem of entra or

deentra ontroabty (Mayntz 988) a a ak of ommonyhared knowedge (Haberma 982; Haferkamp forthomng) ora a tuaton n whh nttutonazed typfaton have to bereated (Berger Lukmann 99).

Defene n the app aton of norm (whether beaue t tooweak or too trong) are t ondered aordng to our urrentknowedge to arry erou onequene a an aggregate tate ofoety and hene to be of onderabe oooga reevane. The

phere of roborder ea reaton woud appea to be n eatythat aggregate tate at preent whh make t a promng fedof enqury preey beaue uh enqure an draw upon andompement urrent duon The bet onept for drawngtogether the oooga nteret n th phenomenon reman thatof anome.

The nteratve paradgm and the onept of a thrd utureugget that varou tuaton oud are a a reut of anome nthe phere of roborder oa reaton The ator n uhreaton (bune peope hamber of ommere et aw frmourt of arbtraton the European Court of ute gnatoryountre n ytem of unfed aw) have reated ytem of uturaandor ega norm n parta area. The epetaton made here arenormatve yet they admt of ogntve eement to aow adutment to ater for frequent hange n ondton (movement n theword eonomy pota re meaure affetng a ountrytrade) Struture of epetaton are then reated whh d ffer from

the home uture of thoe nvoved whh deveop dfferentnttuton and whh pae partuary hgh demand on atorperona aomphment (hLetungen n Drete 97 8 and pam) Thee hgh demand eude many potenta



essner nd Shde Crossborder Legal Relations 269

priipns or led o nomi reions mong newomers or hosewho only priipe spordilly The ypil or here is he lrgeorgnizion onluding mjor onrs sy, for he exrionnd deliery of rw merils or for he onsruion of urnkeyproje. Is behiour is hrdly now ribuble o ny kind ofulurl ideniy I reeies he die of inernionl bnks ndlrge lw firms whih use qusiuniersl business lnguge ndwhih hrsh ou ny differenes on he leel of ineress rher hnh of lues, worldiews or soil norms .

I is his hird ulure' of inernionl business nd eonomirelions whih hs led he legl lierure o is rosshebordnegle of he ulurl elemens in rossborder legl relions.

Beuse of is lrge normie onen his hird ulure isreepie o legl onrol een hough i does no neessrily need igien is ompeene i n reguling iself (f eidene of he limiedpril need for legl unifiion in Kz 986 8f .; Krmer988: 25ff.). Problems of nomie hrdly rop up mong insidersnd he predominn sruurl priniple is economic rationalit

Apr from h rossborder inerions lso our o nexen whih we re s ye unble o qunify whih would be

regrded s legl relions in domesi onex bu whih ke plein boh legl nd soiologil nomnslnd. The only lierure we re wre of in he fied of lw whih kes up his prerious siuion is he rile by on Mehren lredy menioned(969 255) To opere effeiely in rnsions inoling morehn one legl sysem requires kind of insigh nd feel h perhpsreliely few lwyers he The pries my hold differenonepions of onr een hough boh undersnd he ermsof he greemen

onurring enirely wih he heory o f nomie on Mehrenexpes dein modes of behiour o our in rossborder leglrelions (behiour h would be mos exepionl if hey wereopering solely wihin heir own soiey) Dyody newspperrepors on he frequeny of riminl offenes in inernionl rdewould pper o onfirm his ssumpion s sid h one form ofreion o lk of norm orienion is he formion f subulures prising dein behiour (Dreize 972 24). Furher

ypes o reion resuling from cultural predisposition re nmedby role heory s wihdrwl from he inerion siuion, hesgng of onfs nd he emp o in emnipion i nuonomous orienion (Dreizel, 972 24). Exmples from he




sphee of ossbode ontat an be found fo all these foms ofeation

Withdawal

onflitstaging

manipation

A voiding dealings with people ooganizations in othe ount ies andjouneys aboad

Avoiding ontat with migant wokes ofoeignesgohome politial views

Avoiding o divoe fom maiage tofoeignes

ebtsevie moatoium by thidwoldounties

Abdution of hilden fom thei ountyof esidene by a paent

Fomulation of autonomous noms (lexmercatoria)

Renegotiation of ontats

Maiae ontats between patnes ofdiffeent nationalities.

That one of the foms of eation should be emanipationdemonstates that a ognitive esponse to the lak of nomoientation is by all means onsistent with anomie theoy. The(oletheoetial theoy of anomie desibes the onditions undewhih planned ation inteelations ome about (Hafekamp,fothoming 6 5ff that is to say in whih soial stutuesae eated ognitively by the atos onened themselvesin leaning poesses. This may make the anomie situation inossbode legal elations an ideal field in whih to pusuepoesses of establishing ommon knowledge (Hafekampfothoming 05ff.). ommon knowledge is in fat a peondition fo atos to elate to eah othe in what they do. t is thefoundation on whih a thid ultue is built without having to beas ompehensive as that utue. t is possible fo it to elate

simply to the situation at any given moment, manifesting itself inshaed definitions of the situation and the onvegene of diffeenes of pespetive between the patiipants in inteultualommuniation.



Gessner and Shade, Crossborder egal Relations 27

The Formation o StructuresThe strutures desribed aboe frequenty no onger arry any signsof how they originated, yet this is something one has to know before

a proper assessment of their soia effets an be made Just as thedimensions of a tennis ourt, the height of the net and size of theraquets are geared to a entra uropean physia buid (meaningthat a Japanese person has ess hane from the outset) egaproedures goerning rossborder reations may hae been giendimensions oer whih one of the utures inoed has exerted adominant infuene

There hae been hypotheses for some time aiming the existeneof differing initia onditions for the estabishment of egastrutures, partiuary with regard to deaings touhing upon theaw of nations and its institutions These hypotheses appy toNorthSouth trade indeed aso to the NorthSouth diide withinthe (Guibentif, 988) The foowing questions an be deeopedon the formation of strutures

(a) s there a greater tendeny for onfits of uture to beaeiated or exaerbated by the dominane of the ngish anguage

and AngoSaxon ega methods in internationa ontratuaagreements and arbitration proeedings?

(b) What strutura effets resut from the fat that argeAmerian aw frms are extending their operations to more andmore ountries around the word?

ertainy it is true that not a the strutures in rossborder egareations originated autonomousy. We hae aready spoken ofattempts to estabish norms by the state and een outside the areas

of famiy and probate aw there wi be no denying a ertain amountof signifiane to the ourts at the domesti ee in any partiuarountry In this ontext the disrimination hypothesis needs to bereformuated to the effet that whiheer (ega) uture joreign inthe gien situation may be paed at a disadantage.

Neertheess one must expet there to be a ertain reationship o ftension between disr imination hypotheses and those proposing the(inreasing) ognitie struturing of word soiety To the extentthat the wiingness to earn is institutionazed the idea of disrimination an no onger be onsistenty sustained, or

(a) the German ourts are prepared to a ertain extent to appyforeign aw and een foreign utura norms;



essner and Sade Crossborder egal Relations 27

phlosopal pespeves; () mahemaal moels; (e) elaonshp evelopmen

() heoal eoy (g) ules pespeves; () sysems pespeves also

Loenos ( 1 988) aemp o aheve a genealzaon

5 C Loeno ( 1 988 : ): eoy bules ae ae wh he geaes as hee,

e he ul onssng o ganng a onepual gasp o he ue spes oneulual ommunaon I s howeve , appaen om he seah o a suable

paagm ha he onual ommunaon moel" allows a bee appoah o

be mae o e poblems o neulual ommunaon eanng as oes om

seeng he bass o all ommunave unesanng n a eal onsensus an

emphaszng as oes he pagma an suaonal menson n ommunaon

w n pnple, s always an unean mae6 he em ulual onsans an be ve no ee ypes: ulual

ognve onsans ulual emoonal onsans, an ulual beavoual

onsans (ngoomey, 1985 )

hese auos beleve ha, beause o nease neepenene, saeesoues an e poblem o os whh alenave soluons o onls enal, e

sgnane o neulual negoaons s onnually gowng

8 C aeamp ( 1 980 0) ehavoual epesenaons ae geneae an

nsuons an plans ae ollowe n a onsuve poess w anno ae plae

wou omave ably oweve weneve s epee o anyone ha hey

shoul om someng hey ae also allowe enough leeway by he ohe

papans n ayng ou e eale wo espeally un oeseen umsanes

ase'

Rfr

Ansay uul an Gessne Volma ( 19) atarbeiter i eechaft u echtun e

aels an ( 1 983) Vertragaaug u Streitbeilegug emen Dss

ege, Pee L an Lumann homas ( 1 969) Die geelchaftliche Kotruktioer irklichkeit Fanu Fse

eman, aol J an Kauman Coln (198) he Law o Inenaonal

Commeal ansaons (Le eaoa) arvar teatioal aw oual

19 15eyme Klaus von e al (es) ( 1 98) Politikwiechaft Eie rulegug Ba

: Aueolitik u teatioale Politik Suga Kohlhamme

lanenbug a (1 988) Zum eg esulu pape pepae o

pesenaon a e eeng o he Geman Soologal Assoaon n

Zu, Oobe 1 988

Cushman Donal P an SanesonKng Saah (1985) Naonal an Oganza

onal Culues n Conl esoluon Japan he Une Saes an ugoslava,

n Wllam Guyuns e al (es), Commuicatio, Culture a Orgaizatioal

Procee evely lls Sage

Czempel nsOo ( 1 98 1 ) teatioale Politik. Paebon ShnnghDezel ans Pee (19) Die geellchaftche eie u a eie a er

eellchaft Suga: ne

Duhem, mle (1 91 1 ) De la iviio u travail ocial Pas Alan

Fallon, a (1988) Poblema e genzbesheenen Vebauhese



essne and Shade Crossborder egal Relations 275

o Nobr ad Scmio Cv d 982 Te Trnntionl of

Commercil Trnction Aw Kwr

K, oa 988 aw' Icra Commcaio robm wi

Ci om Div C, ortete ol of ntetionl Bine 9 69

K 986 cvrcug N, Ko, od, ' ,

belZ 50

Kam, A 988 Eroice Privtrectvereineitlicng nittionen Metoen Perektiven oaI d Uvi d

Saaadag, g 969 Vom Iraoa vac m raaioa

adc, ee ritce ocencrif 35860

ag, g 98 Trnntionle ect dbg Vrag c d

Wica

wi i SC 985 aw ad ga C Zeitcn frecoziologie 2 298

oo 988 od k Kommikaio Vdiggb

da m goba Sm a ad o aio a 2 ig o

Grma Socoogica Aocao i c Ocobr 988

ma Nika 9 D Wgca, Arciv fr ect- nSozililooie 5 35

ma N ika 92 ectoziologie bk owo

ma, Nika 980 Kommikao b c i Irakiom,

rbc fr ectoiologie 6 99 2

acaa Swa 985 A mca Viw o Coac iconin evie 6582

a oacm 96 adgoiciakioi icomo

ogic oi o a d Zicenbilnz erSoiologie Vernlngen e Detcen Soziologentge Sga

k

av aic 98 a commcao irc coiio d

ov dici Cier e ociologie conomiqe et clrele 566

az, a 988 Fko im d ori oziar

Dirg a az a d Dferenzierng n

Verelbnigng Zr Enticklng geelcftlicer Teilyteme Frakrad Nw ok Cam

A vo 969 Sgiicac o Ca ad ga Divi or

aoa aacio 258 vo Cammr a d, Privm Genim Fetcr fr M einein big o

o ob K 99 Socil Teory n Socil Srcre Nw ok F

d d 989 Scda k ki Gr Die Zeit 9 5 a 28

Ga Ciia 98 ivac d oic Gmica

rc , 52 Cia rGra ad ad g St nirtcft in er EG adad Nomo

Nad awc a 985 C ad aagm o CoicSiaio Wam Gdk a d, Commnicion Clre n

Orgniztionl Procee vr i Sag

ao Go 985 aw, od ad Socia Cag A iorica

Aaia Teory Cltre Society 23 535



essne and Shade Cross-border Legal Relaions 277

Zeihr r ozioogie ozihoogie 36 399421

ngme, Se ( 1985 w he f Cnf n Ce , n m

kn e l (e, Coiio Cre OrgizioProee eve : Sge

h, z vn ( 1 985 K, Sbk, Kknf k, ' n nhe Ke e (e) Keie Kriioogihe rerbh 2n en eebeg: C

le

Ueem, Jhn e l (963 en n he e f he h Ce, H

Orgizio 22 699

een, Immne (94 The oe or e New k Aem

e

ke, em (1 983 Ezberg e e Kngen: Ahenm

n, hm (93 heen e Inekn n e zghe

kng , pp 549 n Abegppe eefee Sgen (e ,

A gwie erio geehihe irihei Openeehe Veg

olk G is a ieto at he Zentum f uopisheRehtspoitik at the Uniesity of Bemen.Aglk d is a Reseah Assoiate at the Zentum fuopishe Rehtspoitik at the Uniesity of Bemen



The Big Bang and the Law: The

ntenationalization and Restuctuation of the

Legal Field

Yves Dezaay

To a geat extent, te Westen nationstates ave been a onstution of te egisatos. Wie it i s tue tat te istoy of te eationbetween te awyes and state powe as not aways been toubefee, tis pofessiona gouping as aways egaded itsef asinvested wit a etain pubi autoity and esponsibiity. Teiview extends beyond ivi mattes into te vey institutions of testate, wi ae not ony to povide te best guaantee of pesevingte state's quasimonopoy as egads te management of onfit,but ae aso aountabe fo te fomation of soia eations

How ave te awyes, wo fo entuies ave tied tei fate totat of te nationstates, aommodated temseves to te opening

of fonties wi as aompanied te paing in question of aetain numbe of state peogatives? Dissoiated fom te nationstate, wi gave it its autoity and istoia egitimay, is te awondemned eome mee a teniue, ust one moe management too ike a te otes? Wi te ig piests of te aw , weused to teading te oidos of powe and to fasioning wiseompomises between aowed eguations and te exigenies ofpoitis, be abe to adjust to te dispaement of entes of powe at

tis time of intenationaization and deeguation? In puttingtemseves at te sevie of te maket, and beoming ente peneuia sevie povides wo ae moe inteested in eonomietun tan justie, aen't tese new meenaies (ied guns) int e empoy of apita squandeing te stok of egitimay and edibiity buit up by tei genteman awye' pedeessos? In a wod,doesnt te suende of etain oya peogatives in favou of temaket mean tat te awyes ae temseves paadoxiaypoaiming te end of aw'?

Te Cutue & Set (SAG, Lnn Newbuy Pak an Nw De V 7

(1990) 279293



280 heory Culture Socety

At ist sigt it is noting o te kind On te ontay temaket o legal sevies as undegone an uneedented eansion and te lawyes ae oised to eome a sae esoue(Hamton 988 Moeove tis sudden ange in otunes isaomanied y a eovey o estige Some ontinental juistseven tink tat te eaking down o national onties and teonomitant deline o state inteventionism onstitute a geatane o soial enewal Some leading lieal lawyes like Riet(949 ad eviously aused te welae state o eiitating tedeline o te law. Tei eis now eleate te oening o a itialattak against te state as a wole and tey edit tat te 990will tuly e te deade o te juists. Aoding to tem te law is

in te oess o emaniating itsel om te suevision o testate so tat it wil l e ale to eove its eal uose te egulationo a maket eonomy to wi te states temselves must sumit(oenTanugi 985 988

Tis enewal o te law o at least te new oseity o telawyes as not een witout ost. Tee as een a adialeoientation Te ideal o soial law as een killed o elaed yte lex meratora te tansnational law o maket elations . Like a

oen te law s ontnuousl eo t ts wn ses. eold look as gone te law as a moden ae even at te same timeas its new ideas deive tei legitimay om te legal tadition. Buttese new lawyes wo develo te meanisms wi an stutueand egulate intenational inane ae ate all doing mu te sameas tei edeessos wo oused tei legal talents on te teitoial amitions o ules ikng ove te emains o te eudalsystem. Te untionay wants to e aid and so stays wit tePine; ut oseity and even suvival an deend on knowingwen to leave te otetion o one aton o anote Te eentinatuation wit Bussels sown y ontinental and even NotAmeian Lawyes (Tutt 988 indiate tat te old tendenies aestill wit us.

Tese anges tat we ae seeing ave vey onsidealesigniane o te soiology o law and moe widely o tesoiology o te oessions .

n te ist lae outmoded semes o legal tinking do not

easily suvive onete demonstations o te eomosition o tejuidial ield as it aomanies and even ailitates te intenationaliation o inanial makets} ed y new tenology and teamitions it as aoused t is no oinidene tat tougout



Dealay The Big Bang and the Law 28

Euope he legal big bang followed saigh afe he nancal bigbang. Seond i should be said ha uidial innovaions do noappea fully fomed in he mind of he legislao even if pofes

sional myhologies migh peend ohewise Mos ofen espeiallywhen he uidial innovaions ae impoan as is he ase heehey have been povoked aniipaed by a efiguaion of he fieldin whih he poessionals say wha he law is and pu i inopaie. Thus edefiniion of he law omes hough edefiniion ofand by he pofessionals who opeae he new defniions Nex heplay of pofessional and inepofessional (Abbo 988)ompeiion in a onex whee saegies ae as divese asesoues ends o avou he kind of pemanen eomposiion of

he pofessional field whih allows i o be boh auonomous andlosely symbioi wih he eonomi wold (Dealay 986 989a)When eonomi o poliial powe hanges hands i is always hease ha pofessional divesiy will ensue a eady supply of hosewho an speak he new language and who ae eage o ake hoseoppouniies ha ome hei way. The finanial pedaos who aeesuuing he eonomi eain do no have o look fa befoehey ae suounded by all he legal alen ha hey need.

The analysis of he globaliaion of he make in legal sevieshows new ligh on o he old quesion of he auonomy o if onepefes he singulaiy of naional uidial ulues. This global iaion is fo he mos pa an Ameianiaion. Aiving in Euopeand he Fa Eas in he wake of hei mulinaional liens NohAmeian pofessional fims soon ealied ha hee wee poenialmakes ha hey wee well able o exploi (Labaon 988 Rie989) The Wall See law fim invened ove a enuy ago in

esponse o he demands of Ameian finane and indusy hasbeome a model fo simila dvelopmens eveywhee as he loallawyes in a suggle fo suvival feel ha hey also mus adop hemodel of he corporate law rm (CampbellSmih 985). Suhhanges ae no limied o business law alone. These foeign pofessional paies only hive if hey se off dominofashion aomplee emodelling whih gadually exends houghou heomplee ensemble of suues and expeaions whih haaeie a legal ulue. would be wong howeve o hink of his

as a simple mae of oloniaion . The meamophosis in Euopeanlegal paie ould no have oued if i had no also beenpoweed fom he inside by a new geneaion of lawyes puepodus of an aademi meioay whose ambiions would be




azd only by a nw dal whh would do away wth th slfpodung habts and plgs of th gntlman lawys Thunsupulous ambt on of th yuppie layer suppotd by a goodhnal ommand of th law, maks thm th pft auxlas ooday's robber baron th fnanal pdatos who ha aladyansfomd h fnanal landsap of th nw dad

u fo nnaona Commrc

n f hs nwoms a oftn dnound by th lds asuga lgal npnus who pay mo atnton o th bottomine han o th o pofssonal sponsbls, thy aaful not o fogt wh th pmay duts l omptly at

th s of th lnts ntss, thy a wokng towadsh onsuton of nasngly mo sophstatd judalmhansms fo th famng and gulaton of ntnaonalonom xhang Phaps ths s th shap of th futu; n anyn s la that ths statgs funton both to pott thpofssonal monopoly and to spond to th maktng mpatsof an poh n whh th majo onom atos a thmslssahng fo nw uls of ngagmnt 6

onmpoay adan n h law ptanng to ntnatonaltad a both numous and ongnt ods of ondut, lkhos whh ha bn adoptd, und th ags of th ntdNaons, fo ntnatonal ntpss, th hamonzaton ofaountng podus (OPA), th s of ntnatonal ommalabtag Ths dlopmnts that a so many sgns of th busnssommuny s gulaton , a n thmsls y dffnt fomth wlfastat modl of gulaton thy am to supplant . Tads,

and onom atos n gnal, nd gulats and sutsbaus thy a th bass of onnons, nsttutonal foms, andh hamony btwn hm W an s at ths pont hat a thooughundsandng of how lgtmat soal uls a podud an bual fo h xplanaton of how ontadtoy tndns anspng up n h fd of busnss law On th on hand, w an s allth sgns of a banalzaton of lgal ss whh ha bom juston so of fnanal ss among oths, and whh a just assubjt o th log of poft and omptton on th oth hand, th

gal patons, and oftn th lnts, a y muh onndwth ontbutng n a pu knd of way to th dlopmnt of thlaw tslf, th stuggls a about pnpls, and th s atnolmnt n natonal and ntnatonal dsusson about th




management of oganization Thei eal ambition i to oupy atategi and intemediay poition a muh elating to intenaltanation in the field of eonomi powe a to thoe that mehwith the ield of politial powe a poition whih wa peiouly the piilege of the buine finanie the banke whoaw themele a the buine elite. Poiting fom the lak ofinolement of the polit iian and fom the abene of wide oialfoe the intenational and multipofeional netwok whihmay be infomal unontolled een haoti to a degee andwithout any legitimay othe than that baed on tehnial expetieand without any motie othe than pofit een if it doe go by theathe moe modet name of the pofeional fee ontituted by

thee new funtionaie atually ee to poide ome egulation ofeonomi atiity.

Thi new intenational maket in onultany ha expeiened aphenomenal gowth a a onequene of the oboleene of manyof the etablihed goenmental mehanim fo the faming ofeonomi atiity t ha beome the uible in whih the new uleand intitution of intenational apitalim ae fomed. t i not j uta oinidene that the globalization of the maket in eie to

ommee nd indut flwed n fm te lbltn fapital The ame goe fo the legal big bang whih followed onfom that i n the i ty . Thee new flow of eonomi exhange ouldnot be utained without the expet aitane of the pofeionalboke who diagnoe and ealuate ommeial entepie etablihing finanial and legal tutue in the poe and eenunheitatingly lending a hand in the eoganization of podution(Dezalay 989a) At the ame time the inheent logi of theituation a the eonomi game ule hange in aodane withthei expet ealuation impel thee apotle of the new eonomiode to onolidate and legitimize thei powe. Thei polifeationtheefoe ontitute a motie foe an d i th e bet indiato of theimpotane of the poe of homogenization of global eonomipae The longtem ultual ignifiane of thi hould not obuethe mateial benefit whih dietly aue to thee boke. Fo thiexite the appetite and ambition whih italize the new maket inommeial eie Thi i epeially the ae fo lawye who

hae been een taditionally a expet in both the analyi andontution of poedual fom of oial elation een if teyae not exatly alone in thi field.



Dezaay The Bg Bang and the La 285

N Fo of Coptton and t Acclaton of Cang

he urdzaon of he new ommeral order leads oward he renroduon of ompeon and mare mperaves whn heword of he aw (Re 989b) he epanson of eonom avyand of demands upon he law resuls n a general spng apar ofnaona professonal sandards whh all reguaed and eveneluded unrammeled ompeon whn he aw (Karp 988)he openng and epanson of he mare n legal serves hasunleashed a proess of homogenzaon and of neronneonbeween naonal legal sysems whh unl now have sronglypreserved her own denes he breang down of barrersfavours he sronges performers n hs ase he grea Norh

Ameran frms and fores he ohers o algn hemselves on hermodel f hey wsh o survve

he rbulaons of med prae' n he UK or of heprofesson of aocat-conseil' n Frane wl herefore be only loalepsodes n a resruurng of he mare for professona serves oommere and ndusry hs resruurng wl affe all hedeveoped eonomes and hrow naona boundares no quesonus as muh as he dvson of ass and profs among he dfferen

aegores of professonals: awyers aounans sobroersmanagemen onsuans and so on Eah of hese epers whosesls are as muh n ompeon as omplemenary aspre ooupy he prv leged poson of advsor o eonom power. Snehe urn of he enury when hey beame he rgh hands of suhunsrupulous magnaes as J.P. Morgan or JD Roefeller haplae has been ouped by laers on Wall Sree her onnenalounerpars have never been n ha poson b he moreambous among hem loo forward o he sngle European mareof 992

n forunaely for hem hey are no he only onenders Aparfrom he maor Wall Sree frms who a presen seem o have avrual monopoly as far as bg bsness s onerned here arepleny of new frms ha are aang he less presgous b farlarger mare for legal and fnanal serves o small and medumszed enerprses Od esablshed frms of aounans now prveyhemselves as aud spealss or fnanal engneers Suppored by

he srures whh have been developed hrogh he formdablemare peneraon o f he maor aounng frms hese newomersmae no sere of her desre o ae bsness from Eropean lawfrms who hus fnd hemselves augh n a rossfre




The peeminene of Noh Ameian fim in he field of inenaional aw and he genealiaion of he mode of he opoaeawye wihin Euopean legal ulue ould inline u owad aninepeaion in em of elaion of powe a dominan eonomyexpo and impoe i legal ehnology, in he ame way a imanufaued podu, i language and i ulue Thi eading idouble oo imple and make oo lile of he inenal ogi of hepofeional field The dominaion of lawye in he phee ofbuine law i above al he effe of a hioial inelude Aenuy befoe hei Euopean olleague, Ameian awye hadbeome ega enepeneu , eaing law faoie o a o povidea bee evie fo hei lien The ue of he Ameian mode

i pimaily ha of a onenaion and diviion of juidial abouappopiae and adequae o he expanion of induial apialim(awal 984) Thei heada ha enabled he Wall See awyeand invemen banke o be a he foefon of he poe of heinenaionaiaion of apial, and a he ame ime o be onideable benefiiaie of i Labaon 988 Rie, 989). I i aloao he Alani, heefoe, ha we an ee he fi ign of animpoding juidial yem, due o he ombined effe of a mui

pliaion of podue and a anfomaion in demand. The modelof he la irm fahioned in epone o ommeial demand, haended o evolve a he ame ime a he make in legal evie . Thequaniaive ineae in buine and poduion ha aued aqualiaive hange make impeaive have invaded he eain ofhe law The exploion of he make i n legal evie ha ovefownhe inena ono mehanim dealing wih ompeiion andonenaion he eu ha been he emegene of he megalawfim alane and Palay, 988) whih no longe heiae o engagein elene ompeiion fo boh lien and aff n peading welbeyond hei oiginal eioy, hee megafim have lealyhelped o aeleae he diffuion of he phenomenon of heommeialiaion of legal paie Bu he ondiion wee ipe fohi o happen

A N Gnraon o nrprnural Lars

The onjunion whih an be obeved, houghou he We,

beween powa demogaphi end and he pead of upeioeduaion o he middle lae, ha onibued in no mal meaueo he deveopmen of wha awye now offe and o he definiion of pofeional exelene Tadiionally he aining and



Dezaay The Big Bang and the La 287

euitment of awyes, even in ounties with a odified egasystem foowed a quasiaistoati mode of epodution basedon appentieship soia seetion and a igoous poitis ofnumerus ausus

(Abe 988) The spead of the aademi modeenouaged a moe meitoati ogi whee good mannes andsoia onnetions ost thei impotane in favou of tehniaompetene (Dezaay et a, 989) Ove the ast twenty yeas, themao Westen ounties have seen the emegene of a new kind ofawye distinguished fom thei pedeessos as muh by theiappetite fo suess as by the esoues that they ae abe tomobiize they ey ess on soia onnetions and the eipoaganting of favous assia haateistis of the insuated wod

of the aw and pesent themseves moe as tehnia epets who aesue of thei ompetene and quite eady to put it into patie As aesut of this the aw omes to esembe ess and ess a ub fogentemen and moe and moe a business ike any othe

This hange in attitudes goes togethe with a edefinition o f theientee The gowth and espeiay the quaitative tansfomationthat has ome ove opoate ega depatments often the onesto bea the bunt of media attention as suh affais as Bhopa and

the Amooadiz woud indiate efets a modifiation inbehaviou with egad to having eouse to the aw. Ameianstyeitigiousness has ossed the Atanti Individuas and ommeiaoganizations even moe ae ineasingy wiing to go to out tosette thei onfits o athe to put pessue on thei tadingpatnes in ode to negotiate fom a moe advantageous position .

The fiee battes in whih the OPA (Rie, 989a; Wae 989)have been invoved ae typia of these new foms of tatiay

aggessive eouse to the aw. We an see hee one of the effets ofthe beaking apat, unde the impat of vaious itia hanges, ofoa netwoks of business eades who woud fomey haveensued that thei onfits wee not aied in pubi sine this mighthave endangeed the ongtem pesona eationships on whihthe satisfatoy ondut of business depended (Boudieu and SaintMatin 978) The disappeaane of the mode of thebusiness notabe oinides with the deine of the patiian awyedisdainfu of ideas ike maketing The aggession and tehnique

of new geneations of yuppie awyes' is moe suited to theunsupuous pedatos who henefoth wi take the font of thefinania and eonomi stage.




Coral Lgaon ndr h Law o h arkI appeas oday ha he esuuaion of he ega fied aound heaxis of ommeia jusie is ievesibe is diffiu o say whahe ongem effes of his wi be. A he vey mos one an poino eain dynamis and onadiions wihin he sysem as i isueny deveoping. The dawing ogehe of vaious juidiasysems an be onased o hei divesifiaion agains whih anbe seen he beaking down of naiona j udiia sysems in he fae ofpossibe unifiaion . Whee soiey has a fas and a sow ane hesame foows fo jusie. The od pinipe of one equa jusie foa is ineasingy beahed by he auonomiaion, even he quasipivaiaion of a sysem of business jusie whih has beome

goba.eay he ous pofi fom his suge in iigaion bu hey ae

no he ony ones; aenaive foums fo he esouion of on flis noaby he vaious foms of abiaion o new foms ofpaajudiia mediaion rentaudge mini-trials e) whihaow he business ommuniy o ake ono ove he managemenof diffeenes beween is membes, have pogessed o heequivaen of eouse o sae juisdiion, if no beyond i The

suess of hese diffeen foms of piae usie is moeove suhha he judiia auhoiies ae aaed by he idea of going fo asaegy simia o he one adoped by he moneay auhoiies inhe fae of he apid deeopmen of euomoney he deeguaionof hei juisdiions so as o aa a ienee whih ohewisemigh esape hem. o sugge agains he deveopmen of pivaejusie hee ae hose heefoe who woud advoae ha saejusie shoud piaie isef, giving o he paies he possibiliy ofhoosing hei judge hei aw and avoiding any advese pubiiy(Deaay, 989). i s a quesion hee of esabishing a so of jusie arte (auaey efeed o as he muidoo ouhouse)The judiia monopoy oe he esouion of onfi (moeheoeia han ea now, espeiay in he business seo) isepaed by a siuaion whee judges and juisdiions ae in heiun paed i n ompeiion wih ohe modes of onfi esouionThe iigan goes shopping and hooses beween diffeen modes, inpaie ending up wih one paiua bend ahe han anohe

Fuhemoe even when he paies deide o submi hemsees o ajudge his does no auay mean ha his figue wi pass ajudgemen on hei diffeene. Ony a sma minoiy of ases wiauay go hei fu em. n mos ases, i is a quesin of a aiaeouse whih funions as an added agumen in he paae nego



Dalay Th Bg Bang and th La 289

tatns btwn t pats. alant 983) as poposd tnologsm ltgoaton to dsb ts mltlayd nolmntn bot t udal poss and pat ngotaton.

Ts upton of omptton wtn t sp of st s notonly latd to t gowt of supply and dmand n t makt folgal ss. At t sam tm as ts makt as bn opnd tonw podus and nw lnts t as also tndd to mg nto tn lag makt fo pofssonal xpts n gnal and ts sw udal podts om nto omptton wt ot foms ofpofssonal faltaton ( ' instissmnts d orm' EymadDunt and Tnot 983). T nasd omptton wtnt fld of onsultany tn bonds pon t lawys. T last

dads a sn managmnt duaton flous and ts astown a wol ss of xpts n markting, prsonnlmanagmnt, inancial nginring t. onto t labou makt.T pusut of suss by ts nwoms bot as ndduals andas psntats of nw foms of knowldg as bn laglysponsbl fo lang away t old managmnt pats of tpdssos togt wt t stutus of soablty onntd totm wt ts latt w fomal as wt ogand paton

ag o nfomal as wt t mmbsp of onty lubs o tlk. f ystday's wots a patally dsappad fom tonom sn (o at last a bn ontd nto xpts) tnw s pofssonals wt banks aountants o onsultants now psnt tmsls n t mdatng ol of nt mday btwn onom agnts. As a sult of ts t ntwokstat ty mak up t tnqus and t atonalts a allnold n t famng and gulaton of t ontmpoay fomsof poduton and xang. Tus t s tat t law and ts pattons no long a t monopoly o t fomal gulaton ofsoal latons

T nuson of ts nw tnqus and ts nw pofssonals nto t fomly su ttoy of t lawys dos notow man t nd of t law. Qut t oppost n fat foby a paadoxal fft alady dmonstatd by Wb wn analysd t nstumntalaton of t law ts xtnalomptton lads to t nfomnt of t tnalty and

spfty of t law. Fad wt ts omptton on t tan ofngotaton and mdaton btwn onom atos t ommal lawys safgad a tan pmay by fallng bak to daland uspudntal statgs T statgs of dal ayngfo xampl pftd by Skaddn Aps on balf of t opoat



290 oy Cultur Soty

raiders and now exported to Europe, an be desribed as aggressive if not exessive. Su deveopments ontribute not ony to teprosperity of awyers but aso to te durabiity of te aw and to i tsrevaorization witin te fied of power from wi it annot strayfar witout endangering its very existene. t is ertainy true tattese new awyers and te meanisms tat tey are perfeting arevery different from preeding generations of urists wit teironern for soia ustie. But te aw is no different from otersoia institut ions wi ony endure by transforming temseves inte wake of poitia anges. Te aw, espeiay as it reates tobusiness is at te forefront of tings now. Te question we annotanswer is ow ong tings wi remain tus.

No

Ths ate was tansate by y yne

The eman eampe s pbaby the ms nse hee sts ha pe

mh f the nepnnng f smas egme, an f a ng tme wee tay

teate as seants (eshemeye, 9) In any eent, t an be sa that the

eatnshp wth the state s n f th y t the sa hsty the pfessns(eshemeye 986 age, 989)

2 wth ates hae been f the e f 0 peent pe annm, een 50 peent n

the speaze aea f pate esttng

As Deen Manet 984) has wtten, f the aw espns t the nteests

f apta ths s nt bease f sme n f sttay etemne atmatsm, bt

bease f the nessant pata eeyay w f pattnes wh ae seeng t

satsfy the wn an the ents' nteests

Th e emtn f baes between tang, stbng an asng, whh

happene n Otbe 2 986 e t a yeang epansn n ega w , wth

the awyes baey abe t pe The hange f the awyes has me athefm the new ntenatna eement , ae egatn an new tats Intenatn

asatn as f nwege f the ntes aws It makes t steffent

t pen banhes ass the w The neasng mpety f the

tansatns themsees an the habts bght nt Lnn by the new entants

espeay fm the U S . hae ae t the awye's a ' ( amptn, 988; see as

Deaay, 989b; T 989)

5 T A whh pesents tsef as the gan an mthpee f ths

ne w geneatn, pbshes a htpaae f the bggest ea s an the bes t pa awyes

eey mnth Qte a few f them pe themsees n hang passe the mn

as a yea ma6 Nte that the l ees the eam f the x n the

tte f A eman' s 989) ate Nee f tansnatna aw f tansnatna

meges'

e has sggeste ( 986) that the egee f fmasm f sa eatns s



Deaay Bg Bang and t La 29

uncn e snce sepes e pnss. One busness wye s

s Te e scussn beween e epesenes eens n essy s

necessy uc' be, 1 ). Te ppse s s e nee e

w s e ess n n epc wen busness s wee s ee s y

es. In s e, we cn ec w e cn Ls, e, se e 1 74 cs: nee s ny ney, becuse I nee en ney nyne I

n' sc w ce n n, 1).

. y scs n Lnn e ncesny wn cpsns beween e

sees n e cuneps n e U . cces se e en s e

ey ce esebe se nsnc cusns, u ee e

pn eences' pbe, ). nes n e enc B e ess

nce bu e ecn s e se In n e, ene, ttaz vt sen yu seybes') e s B eens e e ne e

pessn w e uen ny eupn e w pessns, n

se e enc la w be be ce up esc n nenncpen' L ee e nence, N. 24 nuy, 1).

. Ts s pcuy ue se enc ces w e pn, n eec

e new e w pu n quesn e esn psns pee wn e

e ecnc pwe, especy se wc ee e cn pub c ns u

ns. Bu e pnce e n e ync su n be e

ese Te nence e ne upen e wc s en ne

epn n usy e c nsns wn e pessns, wc e e

e e y n nce, e Une n, n een eny, ny cuycn n cceee e pcess eun, s uc nen s een, wc

s ce n e we e cses e senes. Te bes p s s nny e ese nsns n specc upe, bu ey nese esees

s n e U wee ey e beses uc e eepe ne n

y, ).

Ts sees ppy especy e e us cses nn e On pns s ee especy e wenwn cs e e ne e Beque c

Ren, 1 s c, 1)

. I s been suese we e nw ps e e e Repubc ees

n we e enee e epe nubes T, 1 )

12 . pen ws ey uc eneny . . . . ece by e

cpe ensps, e esbse pcces n esn e cpeessus n wee n, n un, e encc n e cpes u Besse

w u npes n e espece es, e w s cuse nse n

pcce ss, n esbsn senuen cpensn syses, n n

peecn e ysque n e nness ee pessns' eens,

1 )

1. scussn cnc w n s , see Lebee 1).

14 pncpe wc y cespns n ny een e sc ey

u usce c. Dey, ).

ce une cnns cpen, usce n ues e n ne

unucbe One sn s, n es, cn be seen n e s ws jues'pubse by T ca a

16 . Tese een ces en, n ny een, ee n ec e espe y

e unn s eens, 1 1 , 1 ) wc pe e we y

seces e busness cun y Te e w s see s wn en




hemeve wa h ba aey f he m a al pemae (Laba,

1988; Rhfe 1989

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Deaay The Bg Bang and the La 293

Glne, M n Pl, T 988 he Gowth oj Law Fims Msn Inse

Lel Ses

Gwl, G (e 98 he New High iests awyes i ost-Ciil Wa meia.Wesp: Geenw Pess

mpn, C 988 A ehkn Gwh Re' Fiaial imes 0 Obeemn, A 989 Nees Tnsnnl Lw Tnsnnl Mee

Fiaial mes 8 Mh

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Deembe

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he Pbl, Law ad oial Iquiy 3

Lbn, S 988 US Lw ms pn Reh Glbl Clenele', New Yokimes M

Lebee, C 989 The Lw ns esh Aes n Ins' Fiaial imes

8 M Mne, D 98 Lw n Cpl: he Rle Lel m n Lel As',

Iteatioal Joual oj the oiolog oj Law

, S 988 The Cnl Tnsnnl Cpl n he Demzn he nennl Se, Joual oj Law ad oiety 5

Pllk 989 U S Lw ms, Chn 99 ee, e Thell Gn e n

Une pe', Wall teet Joual 6 Sepembe

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l

Re R 989b Lwes Cme e e w h Cmpen, Fiaial mes

lRe, R 989 US ms Pnee he Re Glbl Pes, Fiaial mes

5 Sepembe

Rpe, F 99 e d/i du doit. Ps LGD

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Ren, M 988 Tkee lAmn he meia LawyeReshemee, D 93 Lawyes ad hei oiety Cmbe, Mss :

Unes Pess

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Yves Dezalay a Reeah Felow a he ene Naonae de aRehehe Senfque Vaueon.



Disjuncture an Difference in the GlobalCultural Economy

A rju Appadurai

The enta pobem of today' goba inteation i the tenonbetween utua homogeniation and utua heteogeniation. Aat aay of empiia fat oud be bought to bea on the ide ofthe homogeniation agument and muh of it ha ome fom the

eft end of the petum of media tudie (Hameink 98Matteat 98 Shie 976) and ome fom othe e appeaing pepetie (a 985 ye 988). Mot often the homogeniation agument ubpeiate into eithe an agument aboutAmeianiation o an agument about ommoditiation' andey often the two agument ae oey inked. What theeagument fai to onide i that at eat a apidy a foe fomaiou metopoie ae bought into new oietie they tend to

beome indigenied in one o othe way thi i tue of mui andhouing tye a muh a it i tue of iene and teoimpetae and ontitution The dynami of uh indigeniationhae ut begun to be expoed in a ophitiated manne (Babe987 Fed 988 Hanne 987 989 y 988 Nio 989Yohimoto 989) and muh moe need to be done But it i wothnotiing that fo the peope of ian Jaya ndoneianiation may bemoe woiome than Ameianiation a Japaniation may be foKoean ndianiation fo Si ankan Vietnamiation fo theambodian Ruianiation fo the peope of Soiet Amenia andthe Bati Repubi . Suh a it o f atenatie fea to Ameianiation oud be geaty expanded but it i not a hapee inentoyfo poitie of mae ae thee i away a fea of utua abop tion by poitie of age ae epeiay thoe that ae nea by. Oneman' imagined ommunity (Andeon 98) i anothe man' poi tia pion .

Thi aa dynami whih ha widepead goba manifeta

tion i ao tied to the eationhip between nation and tae to

Theory Cuure Socety SAG d, Nwbr ar ad Nw li, V

1 990) 953 0



296 Theory Cultue Soety

wi I ll etun lte in ti ey. o te oent let u notett te iplifition of tee ny foe nd fe) of oogeniztion n lo be eploited by ntiontte in eltion to tei own

inoitie, by poing globl ooditiztion o pitli, ooe ote u etenl eney) oe el tn te tet of itown egeoni ttegie

Te new globl ultul eonoy to be undetood ople, ovelpping diuntive ode, wi nnot ny longebe undetood in te of eiting entepeipey odel eventoe tt igt ount fo ult ipe ente nd peipeie). Noi it ueptible to iple odel of pu nd pull in te of igtion teoy) o of uplue nd defiit in tditionl odel of

blne of tde), o of onue nd podue in ot neoMit teoie of developent). Even te ot ople ndfleible teoie of globl developent wi ve oe out of teMit tdition Ain, 980 Mndel, 978 Wlletein, 974Wolf 982) e indequtely quiky, nd tey ve not oe tote wit wt L nd Uy 987) ve eently lleddiognized pitli. e opleity of te uent globleonoy to do wit etin fundentl diuntue between

eonoy ultue nd poit wi we ve bey begun toteoize.

I popoe tt n eleenty fewok fo eploing udiuntue i to look t te eltionip between five dienion ofglobl ultul flow wi n be teed ) etnope; b)edipe; ) tenope; d) finnpe; nd e) ideope. I ue te wi t te oon uffi pe to indite fit of l l tttee e not obetively given eltion wi look te e fo

evey ngle of viion, but te tt tey e deeply pepetivlontut, infleted vey u by te itoil linguiti nd politil itutedne of diffeent ot of to : ntiontte, ultintionl dipoi ounitie, well ubntionl goupingnd oveent wete eligiou, politil o eonoi), nd evenintite fetofe goup, u villge, neigboood ndfilie I ndeed, te individul to i te lt lou of ti pepetivl et of lndpe, fo tee lndpe e eventully nvigtedby gent wo bot epeiene nd ontitute lge fotion in

pt by tei own ene of wt tee lndpe offe. Teelndpe tu, e te building blok of wt etending BeneditAndeon, I would like to ll igined wold, tt i, teultiple wold wi e ontituted by te itoilly ituted



Appadura Derence in the Global Cultural Econom 297

magnaons of persons and groups spread around he globe(Appadura 989) An mporan fa of he world we lve n odays ha many persons on he globe lve n suh magned worlds' and

no us n magned ommunes and hus are able o ones andsomemes even subver he magned worlds' of he offal mndand of he enrepreneural menaly ha surround hem. The suffxsape also allows us o pon o he flud rregular shapes of heselandsapes shapes whh haraere nernaonal apal asdeeply as hey do nernaonal lohng syles

By ehnosape I mean he landsape of persons who onsuehe shfng world n whh we lve ourss mmgrans refugeesexles gues workers and oher movng groups and persons on

sue an essenal feaure of he world and appear o affe hepols of and beween naons o a hhero unpreedened degreeThs s no o say ha here are no anywhere relavely sableommunes and neworks of knshp of frendshp of work andof lesure as well as of brh resdene and oher flave forms Bu s o say ha he warp of hese sables s everywhere shohrough wh he woof of human moon as more persons andgroups deal wh he reales of havng o move or he fanases of

wanng o move Wha s more boh hese reales as wel l as hesefanases now funon on larger sales as men and women fromvllages n I nda hnk no us of movng o Poona or Madras buof movng o Duba and Houson and refugees from Sr Lanka fndhemselves n Souh Inda as well as n anada jus as he Hmongare drven o London as well as o Phladelpha. And as nerna onal apal shfs s needs as produon and ehnology generaedfferen needs as naonsaes shf her poles on refugee popu

laons hese movng groups an never afford o le her magnaons res oo long even f hey wshed o .By ehnosape I mean he global onfguraon also ever

flud of ehnology and of he fa ha ehnology boh hgh andlow boh mehanal and nformaonal now moves a hgh speedsaross varous knds of prevously mpervous boundares Manyounres now are he roos of mulnaonal enerprse a huge seelomplex n Lbya may nvolve neress from Inda hna Russaand Japan provdng dfferen omponens of new ehnologal

onfguraons The odd dsrbuon of ehnologes and hus hepeulares of hese ehnosapes are nreasngly drven no byany obvous eonomes of sale of polal onrol or of markeraonaly bu of nreasngly omplex relaonshps beween




money flows, poltal possbltes and the avalablty of both lowand hghlysklled labor. So, whle Inda exports waters andhauffeurs to uba and Sharah, t also exports software engneers

to the Unted States (ndentured brefly to TataBurroughs or theWorld Bank), then laundered through the State epartment tobeome wealthy resdent alens, who are n turn obets ofsedutve messages to nvest ther money and knowhow n federaland state proets n Inda The global eonomy an stll bedesrbed n terms of tradtonal ndators' (as the World Bankontnues to do) and studed n terms of tradtonal omparsons (asn Proet L nk at the Unversty of Pennsylvana), but the omplated tehnosapes (and the shftng ethnosapes), whh underle

these ndators' and omparsons' are further out of the reah ofthe queen of the soal senes' than ever before How s one tomake a meanngful omparson of wages n Japan and the Un tedStates, or of real estate oss n New York and Tokyo wthouttakng sophstated aount of the very omplex fsal and nvest ment flows that lnk the two eonomes through a global grd ofurreny speulaton and aptal transfer?

Thus t s useful to speak as well of fnansapes', sne the

dsposton of global aptal s now a ore mysterous, rapd anddffult landsape to folow than ever before as urreny markets,natonal stok exhanges, and ommodty speulatons move egamones through natonal turnst les at blndng speed, wth vast absolute mplatons for small dfferenes n perentage ponts and t meunts But the rtal pont s ha the global relatonshp betweenethnosapes, tehnosapes and fnansapes s deeply dsuntve andprofoundly unpredtable sne eah of these landsapes s subet

to ts own onstrants and nentves (some poltal , some nformatonal and some tehnoenvronmenal), at the same me as eahats as a onstrant and a parameer for movements n he other.Thus, even an elementary model of global polal eonomy musttake nto aount the shftng relatonshp between perspetves onhuman ovement, ehnologal flow, and fnanal transfers,whh an aommodae ther deeply dsuntve relatonshps wthone another

But upon these dsuntures (whh hardly form a smple,mehanal global nfrasruture' n any ase) are what I have alledmedasapes and deosapes, though the later two are loselyrelated landsapes of ages. Medasapes refer both to thedstrbuton of the eletron apabltes to produe and dssemnate



Appadai Derence in he Global Culural Econom 299

infomation (newspapes magazines television stations film po dtion stdios et. ) whih ae now available to a gowing nmbeof pivate and pbli inteests thoghot the wold and to theimages of the wold eated by these media These images of thewold involve many ompliated infletions depending on theimode (domentay o entetainment) thei hadwae (eletoni opeeletoni) thei adienes (loal national o tansnational)and the inteests of those who own and ontol them. What is mostimpotant abot these mediasapes is that they povide (espeially inthei television fim and assette foms) lage and omplex epetoies of images naatives and ethnosapes to viewes thoghotthe wold in whih the wold of ommodities and the wold of

news and politis ae pofondly mixed What this means is thatmany adienes thoghot the wold expeiene the media themselves as a ompliated and inteonneted epetoie of pintellloid eletoni seens and billboads The lines between theealisti and the fitional landsapes they see ae bled so thatthe fthe away these adienes ae fom the diet expeienes ofmetopolitan life the moe likely they ae to onstt imaginedwolds whih ae himeial aestheti even fantasti obets

patilaly if assessed by the iteia of some othe pespetivesome othe imagined wold

Mediasapes whethe poded by pivate o state inteeststend to be imageenteed naativebased aonts of stips ofeality and what they offe to those who expeiene and tansfomthem is a seies of elements (sh as haates plots and textalfoms) ot of whih sipts an be fomed of imagined lives theiown as well as those of othes living in othe plaes These siptsan and do get disaggegated into omplex sets of metaphos bywhih people live (Lakoff and Johnson 980) as they help toonstitte naatives of the othe and potonaatives of possiblelives fantasies whih old beome pologemena to the desie foaqisition and movement

deossapes ae also onatenations of images bt they aeoften dietly politial and feqently have to do with the ideologies of states and the onteideologies of movements expliitlyoiented to apting state powe o a piee of it. These ideosapes

ae omposed of elements of the Enlightenment woldview whihonsists of a onatenation of ideas tems and images inldingfeedom welfae ights soveeignty epesentation andthe mastetem demoay . The mastenaative of the




nlightenment (nd its mny vints in nglnd, Fne nd theUnited Sttes) ws onstuted with etin intenl logi ndpesupposed etin eltionship between eding, epesenttionnd the publi sphee (fo the dynmis of this poess in the elyhistoy of the U nited Sttes, see Wne, 99) But thei dispooss the wold, espeilly sine the nineteenth entuy hsloosened the intenl oheene whih held these tems nd imgestogethe in uoAmein mstentive nd povidedinsted loosely stutued synoption of politis, in whih dif feent ntionsttes s pt of thei evolution, hve ognized theipolitil ultues ound diffeent keywods (Willims, 976)

As esult of the diffeentil dispo of these keywods the poli

til ntives tht goven ommunition between elites ndfollowings i n diffeent pts of the wold involve poblems of both semnti nd pgmti ntue semnti to the extent tht wods(nd thei lexil equivlents) equie eful tnsltion fomontext to ontext in thei globl movements nd pgmti to theextent tht the use of these wods by politil tos nd theiudienes my be subet to vey di ffeent sets of ontextul onven tions tht medite thei tnsltion into publi politis Suh

onventions e no ony ttes of he nue of pot heoi(viz wht does the ging hinese ledeship men when it efes tothe dnges of hoolignis? Wht does the South Koen ledeship men when it speks of disipline s the key to demotiindustil gowth?).

These onventions lso involve the f moe subtle question ofwht sets of ommunitive genes e vlued in wht wy (news ppes vesus inem fo exmple) nd wht sots of pgmtigene onventions goven the olletive edings of diffeent kindsof text So, while n ndin udiene my be ttentive to theesonnes of politil speeh in tems of some key wods ndphses eminisent of Hindi inem Koen udiene myespond to the subtle odings of Buddhist o neoonfuin hetoil sttegy enoded in politil doument The vey eltionshipof eding to heing nd seeing my vy in impotnt wys thtdetemine the mophology of these diffeent ideospes s theyshpe themselves in diffeent ntionl nd tnsntionl ontexts.

This globlly vible synesthesi hs hdly even been noted, butit demnds ugent nlysis Thus demoy s lely beome mstetem, with poweful ehoes fom Hiti nd Polnd to theSoviet Union nd hin, but it sits t the ente of viety



Appadua Derene in the Global Cultural Eonom 0

of deosapes (omposed of dstntve pagmat onfguatons ofough tanslatons' of othe ental tems fom the voabulay ofthe nlghtenment). Ths eates eve new temnologal kaledosopes as states (and the goups that seek to aptue them) seek topafy populatons whose own ethnosapes ae n moton andwhose medasapes may eate sevee poblems fo the deosapeswth whh they ae pesented The fludty of deosapes s omplated n patula by the gowng daspoas (both voluntay andnvoluntay) of ntelletuals who ontnuously net new meanngsteams nto the dsouse of demoay n dffeent pats of thewold.

Ths extended temnologal dsusson of the fve tems have

oned sets the bass fo a tentatve fomulaton about the ondtonsunde whh uent global flows ou the our in and through

the groing disuntures beteen ethnosapes, tehnosapes inansapes mediasapes and deosapes Ths fomulaton the oe ofmy model of global ultual flow needs some explanaton. Fstpeople mahney money mages and deas now follow neasngly nonsomoph paths of ouse at all peods n humanhstoy thee have been some dsuntues between the flows of

these thngs but the shee speed sale and volume of eah of theseflows s now so geat that the dsuntues have beome ental tothe polts of global ultue. The apanese ae notoously hosptable to deas and ae steeotyped as nlned to expot (all) andmpot (some) goods but they ae also notoously losed to mmgaton lke the Swss the Swedes and the Sauds et the Swss andSauds aept populatons of guestwokes thus eatng labodaspoas of Tuks talans and othe ummedteanean goups.Some suh guestwoke goups mantan ontnuous ontat wththe homenatons l ke he Tuks but othes l ke hghlevel SouthAsan mgants tend to dese lves n the new homes asng anewthe poblem of epoduton n a detetoaled ontext

Detetoalaton n geneal s one of the ental foes of themoden wold sne t bngs labong populatons nto the lowelass setos and spaes of elatvely wealthy soetes whle sometmes eatng exaggeated and ntensfed senses of tsm oattahment to polts n the homestae Detetoalaton

whethe of Hndus Skhs Palestnans o kanans s now at theoe of a vaety of global fundamentalsms nludng slamand Hndu fundamentalsm. n the Hndu ase fo example (Appadua and Bekendge fothomng) t s lea that the oveseas



302 Theo, Cultue Societ

moemet of Idias has bee expoited by a aiety of iteestsboth withi ad outside Idia to ceate a compicated etwok offiaces ad eigious idetificatios i which the pobems ofcutua epoductio fo Hidus aboad has become tied to the

poitics of Hidu fudametaism at homeAt the same time deteitoiaizatio ceates ew makets fo

fim compaies at impessaios ad tae agecies who thie othe eed of the deteitoiaized popuatio fo cotact with itshomead. Natuay these ieted homeads which costitutethe mediascapes of deteitoiaized goups ca ofte become sufficiety fatastic ad oesided that they poide the mateia foew ideoscapes i which ethic coficts ca begi to eupt The

ceatio of Khaista' a ieted homead of the detei toiaized Sikh popuatio of gad aada ad the UitedStates is oe exampe of the boody potetia i such mediascapesas they iteact with the itea cooiaisms (Hechte 974) ofthe atiostate The West Bak Namibia ad itea ae othetheates fo the eactmet of the boody egotiatio betwee existig atiostates ad aious deteitoiaized goupigs

The idea of deteitoiaizatio may aso be appied to moey ad

fiace as moey maages seek the best makets fo thei iestmets idepedet of atioa boudaies I tu these moemets of moies ae the basis of ew kids of cofict as LosAgeeos woy about the Japaese buyig up thei city adpeope i Bombay woy about the ich Aabs fom the uf Stateswho hae ot oy tasfomed the pices of magoes i Bombaybut hae aso substatiay ateed the pofie of hotes estauatsad othe seices i the eyes of the oca popuatio just as theycotiue to do i Lodo. Yet most esidets of Bombay ae ambiaet about the Aab pesece thee fo the fip side of theipesece is the absece of fieds ad kisme eaig big moey ithe Midde ast ad bigig back both moey ad uxuy commodities to Bombay ad othe cities i Idia Such commodities tasfom cosume taste i these cit ies ad aso ofte ed up smuggedthough ai ad sea pots ad pedded i the gay makets ofBombays steets I these gay makets some membes of Bombays middecasses ad of its umpepoetaiat ca buy some of

these goods agig fom catos of Maboo cigaettes to OdSpice shaig ceam ad tapes of Madoa Siiay gay outesofte subsidized by the mooightig actiities of saios dipomatsad aiie stewadesses who get to moe i ad out of the couty



Appaduai, Derence in the Global Cultural Econom 0

egualy, keep the gay makets of Bombay, Madas and auttafiled with goods not only fom the West, but also fom the Middleast, Hong Kong and Singapoe

t is this fetie gound of deteitoiaization, in whih money,ommodities and pesons ae invoved in easelessly hasing eahothe aond the wold , that the mediasapes and ideosapes of themoden wod find thei fatued and fagmented ountepat Fothe ideas and images podued by mass media often ae ony patiaguides to the goods and expeienes that deteitoialized popuations tansfe to one anothe n Mia Nai's billiant film, ndiaCabare we see the multiple oops of this fatued deteitoialization as young women, baey ompetent in Bombay's metopolitan

glitz, ome to seek thei fotunes as abaet danes and postitutesin Bombay, entetaining men in lubs with dane fomats deivedwholy fom the puient dane sequenes of Hindi films Thesesenes ate in tun to ideas about Westen and foeign women andthei looseness', while they povide tawdy aee alibis fo thesewomen Some of these women ome fom Keaa, whee abaetlubs and the ponogapi fim industy have blossomed, patly inesponse to the puses and tastes of Kealites etuned fom the

Midde ast, whee thei diaspoi ives away fom women distotthei vey sense of what the elations between men and women mightbe These tagedies of displaement ould etainly be eplayed in amoe detailed analysis of the elations between the Japanese andeman sex tous to Thailand and the tagedies of the sex tade inBangkok, and in othe simia loops whih tie togethe fantasiesabout the othe, the onvenienes and sedutions of tavel, theeonomis of gobal tade and the butal mobility fantasies that

dominate gende politis in many pats of Asia and the wold atlageWhile fa moe ould be said about the ultual polit is of detei

toialization and the lage soiology of displaement that itexpesses, it i s appopiate at this untue to bing in the ole of thenationstate in the disuntive global eonomy of ultue today Theelationship between states and nations is eveywhee an embattledone t is possibe to say that in many soieties, the nation and thestate have beome one anothe's poets That is, while nations (omoe popey goups with ideas about nationhood) seek to aptueo oopt states and state powe, states simultaneously seek toaptue and monopolize ideas about nationhood (Bauah, 986;hatteee, 986; Nandy, 989. n geneal, sepaatist, tansna




iona movemens, inuding hose whih have inuded error inheir mehods, exemify naions in searh of saes Sikhs, amiSri Lankans, Basques, Moros, Quebeois, eah of hese reresenimagined ommuniies whih seek o reae saes of heir own orarve iees ou of exising saes. Saes, on he oher hand, areeverywhere seeking o monooize he mora resoures of ommu niy, eiher by fay aiming erfe oevaiy beween naion andsae, or by sysemaiay museumizing and reresening a hegrous wihin hem in a variey of heriage oiis ha seemsremarkaby uniform hroughou he word (Hander, 988;Herzfed, 982; MQueen, 988). Here, naiona and inernaionamediasaes are exoied by naionsaes o aify searaiss or

even he oenia fissiarousness of a ideas of differene.Tyiay, onemorary naionsaes do his by exerising axo nomia onro over differene; by reaing various kinds of inernaiona seae o domesiae differene; and by seduing smagrous wih he fanasy of sefdisay on some sor of goba orosmooian sage. One imoran new feaure of goba uuraoiis ied o he disjunive reaionshis beween he variousandsaes disussed earier, is ha sae and naion are a eahs

hroas, and he hyhen ha inks he is now ess an ion ofonjunure han an index of disjunure. his disjunive reaionshi beween naion and sae has wo eves a he eve of any givennaionsae, i means ha here is a bae of he imaginaion, wihsae and naion seeking o annibaie one anoher. Here is he seedbed of brua searaisms, majoriarianisms ha seem o haveaeared from nowhere, and miroidenies ha have beomeoiia rojes wihin he naionsae. A anoher eve, hisdisjunive reaionshi is deey enanged wih he goba disjun ures disussed hroughou his essay ideas of naionhood aear obe seadiy inreasing in sae and reguary rossing exising saeboundaries someimes, as wih he Kurds beause reviousideniies srehed aross as naiona saes, or as wih heTamis in Sri Lanka, he dorman hreads of a ransnaionadiasora have been aivaed o ignie he irooiis of a naionsae.

In disussing he uura oiis ha have subvered he hyhen

ha inks he naion o he sae, i is eseiay imoran no oforge is mooring in he irreguariies ha now haraerizedisorganized aia (Lash and Urry 987 Kohari, 989). isbeause abor, finane and ehnoogy are now so widey searad



Appaduai Drnc in th Global Cultural Economy 05

that the olatilities that undelie moements o nationhood (aslage as tansnational slam on the one hand o as small as themoement o the ukhas o a sepaate state in the Nothast o

ndia) gind against the ulneabilitities hih haateie the elationships beteen states. States ind themseles pessed to stayopen by the oes o media tehnology and tael hih hadueled onsumeism thoughout the old and hae ineased theaing een in the nonWesten old o ne ommodities andspetales. On the othe hand these y aings an beomeaught up in ne ethnosapes mediasapes and eentually ideosapes suh as demoay in hina that the state annot toleateas theats to its on ontol oe ideas o nationhood and people

hood States thoughout the old ae unde siege espeially heeontests oe the ideosapes o demoay ae iee and undamental and hee thee ae adial disjuntues beteen ideosapesand tehnosapes (as in the ase o ey small ounties that lakontempoay tehnologies o podution and inomation); obeteen ideosapes and inansapes (as in ounties suh as Mexioo Bail hee intenational lending inluenes national politis toa ey lage degee); o beteen ideosapes and ethnosapes (as in

Beiut hee diaspoi loal and tansloal iliations ae suiidallyat battle); o beteen ideosapes and mediasapes (as in manyounties in the Middle ast and Asia) hee the liestylesepesented on both national and intenational TV and inemaompletely oehelm and undemine the hetoi o nationalpolitis: in the ndian ase the myth o the labeaking heo hasemeged to mediate this naked stuggle beteen the pieties and theealities o ndian politis hih has gon ineasingly butalied

and oupt (Vahani 989)The tansnational moement o the matialats patiulalythough Asia as mediated by the Hollyood and Hongkong ilmindusties (Zailli othoming) is a ih illustation o the ays inhih longstanding matial ats taditions eomulated to meetthe antasies o ontempoay (sometimes lumpen) youth populations eate ne ultues o masulinity and iolene hih ae intun the fuel o ineased iolene in national and intenationalpolitis. Suh iolene is in tun the spu to an ineasingly apid and

amoal ams tade hih penetates the entie old. The oldide spead o the AK47 and the Ui in ilms in opoate andstate seuity in teo and in polie and militay atiity is aeminde that appaently simple tehnial uniomities oten




oneal an ineaingly oplex et of loop, lining iage ofiolene to apiation fo ounity in oe iagined wold.

Retuning then to the ethnoape with whih I began, theental paadox of ethni politi in today wold i that piodia,(whethe of language o in olo o neighbohood o of inhip)hae beoe globalized. That i , entient whoe geatet foe iin thei ability to ignite intiay into a politial entient and tunloality into a taging gound fo identity, hae beoe pead oeat and iegula pae, a goup oe, yet tay lined to oneanothe though ophitiated edia apabilitie. Thi i not to denythat uh piodia ae often the podut of inented tadition(Hobbaw and Range, 98) o etopetie affiat ion, but to

ephaize that beaue of the diuntie and untable inteplayof oee, edia, national poliie and onue fantaie,ethniity, one a genie ontained in the bottle of oe ot ofloality (howee lage) ha now beoe a global foe, foeelipping in and though the a between tate and bode

But the elationhip between the ultual and eonoi leel ofthi new et of global dijuntue i not a iple oneway teet inwhih the te of global ultual politi ae et wholly by, o

onfned wholly wihin, the iiitude of intenationa fow oftehnology labo and fnane, deanding only a odet odifia tion of exiting neoMaxit odel of uneen deelopent andtatefoation Thee i a deepe hange, itelf dien by thediuntue between all the landape I hae diued, andontituted by thei ontinuouly fluid and unetain inteplay,whih onen the elationhip between podution and onuption in today global eonoy. Hee I begin with Max' faou(and often ined) iew of the fetihi of the oodity, andugget that thi fetihi ha been eplaed in the wold at lage(now eeing the wold a one, lage, inteatie yte, opoed ofany oplex ubyte) by two utually uppotie deen dant, the ft of whih I all podution fetihi, and the eondof whih I a l the fetihi of the onue.

By podution fetihi I ean an illuion eated by onte poay tannational podution loi, whih a tanloalapital, tannational eaningflow, global anageent and often

faaway woe (engaged in aiou ind of highteh putt ing outopeation) in the idio and petale of loal (oetie eenwoe) ontol, national podutiity and teitoial oeeignty.To the extent that aiou ind of Fee Tade Zone hae beoe



Appadurai Derence in the Global Cultural Econom 307

the model for prodution at large epeially of highteh ommo ditie prodution ha itelf beome a fetih making not oial rela tion a uh but the relation of prodution whih are inreaingly

trannational The loality (both in the ene of he loal fatory orite of prodution and in the extended ene of the nationtate)beome a fetih whih diguie the globally dipered fore thatatually drive the prodution proe Thi generate alienation(in Marx ene) twie intenified for it oial ene i nowompounded by a ompliated patial dynami whih i inreainglyglobal

A for the fetihim of the onumer mean to indiate here thatthe onumer ha been tranformed through ommodity flow (and

the mediaape epeially of advertiing that aompany them)into a ign both in Baudrillard ene of a imularum whih onlyaymptotially approahe the form of a real oial agent; and in theene of a mak for the real eat of ageny whih i not theonumer but the produer and the many fore that ontituteprodution lobal advertiing i the key tehnology for the world wide diemination of a plethora of reative and ulturally wellhoen idea of onumer ageny Thee image of ageny are

inreaingly ditortion of a world of merhandiing o ubtle thatthe onumer i onitently helped to believe that he or he i anator where in fat he or he i at bet a hooer

The globalization of ulture i not the ame a it homogenization but globalization involve the ue of a variety of intrumentof homogenization (armament advertiing tehnique languagehegemonie lothing tyle and the like) whih are aborbed intoloal politial and ultural eonomie only to be repatriated a

heterogeneou dialogue of national overeignty free enterpriefundamentalim et in whih the tate play an inreainglydeliate role too muh openne to global flow and the nationtatei threatened by revolt the hina yndrome too little and thetate exit the international tage a Burma Albania and NorthKorea in variou way have done n general the tate ha beomethe arbiter of thi repatriation o derence (in the form of goodign logan tyle et) But thi repatriation or export of thedeign and ommoditie o f differene ontinuouly exaerbate the internal politi of maoritarianim and homogenization whih imot frequently played out in debate over heritage

Thu the entral feature of global ulture today i the politi ofthe mutual effort of amene and differene to annibalize one




anothe and thus to poaim thei suesfu hiaking of the twinnlightenment ideas o the tiumphanty univesa and the esiienty patiua This mutua annibaiation shows its ugy fae in

iots in efugeefows in statesponsoed totue and in ethnoide(with o without state suppot) ts bighte side is in the epansionof many individua hoios o hope and antasy in the gobaspead of oa ehydation theapy and othe owteh instumentsof webeing i n the suseptibiity eve o South Afia to the foeof goba opinion in the inabiity o the Poish state to epess itsown wokingasses and in the gowth of a wide ange of pogessie tansnationa aianes. ampes of both sots oud be muti pied. The itia point is that both sides of the oin o gobautua poess today ae poduts o the iinitey vaied mutuaontest of sameness and dieene on a stage haateied byadia disuntues between diffeent sots o goba fows and theunetain andsapes eated in and though these disuntues

NtA ongr vsion of is ssa aas in ub Cutue ( Sring 990 Tis

ng vrn ss sn fman ctx f a tffc nari isoria is, an aws o sm f is imiaions fo s f

ra forms mor gnral

On mao ion is ri amsn, wos ( 98 ssa on ainsi

bwn osmnism an a aiaism as in man was, insir is ssa

owvr, ba bwn Jamsn ( 986 an Ama ( 98 in Text sws

a rain of a gbaiing Mais narraiv, in ra mas, is i ffi

rrio in M wn ff in is n, is bgin a rsring f

Mais naraiv (b srssin lags an isnrs a man Mariss mig fin

aborrn S a sring as o avi angrs of obiaing iffnwiin i r wo , of iing soia frn (as sm n osmoniss

sm inin o an f raining naraiv ari f Maris raiin,

in favo of gar anin o glbal fagmnaion, nrain an iffrn

Ts ias a arg mo f in a bo I am rn wrking on, na

iv nil Imdig Wd Imgiti d Diutue i the Gbutu my

RfrAma, A ( 98 Jamsns Rri f Ornss an Naina Algor" "

i Text 25

Amin S (980 C d Nti Hiticy d i the Cut Cii. Nw Yr

an onon Mon Rviw



Appadura, Dieence in the Global Cultual Economy 09

Andrn ) maged Commute Refecto o the Og ad pead ofatoam Lndn: Vr

Appadra, A ) lba hnap: N and Qr fr a Trannana

Anhrply' n (d ), teveto thopoogy of the Peet

Appadra, A and rnrd CA (frhmn Taatoa Cutue the Makg The a da Dapoa the ted tate Lndn r

arbr, K ) Ppar Ar n Afra' fca tude Revew )

arah, S 6) mmran, hn Cnf and Pa Trm, Aam

a uvey 26 I .

Char, P 6) atoat Thought ad the Cooa Wod DevatveDcoue Lndn d

d, S ) N n Wrd a', Pubc Cutue ) : .

an, r ) The d of Cutue Towad a Geeatve thopoory: Unvry f Cafrna

amn, C ) Cutua Autoomy Goba Commucato Nw r:Lnman

andr, ) atoam ad the Potc of Cutue Quebec adn:

Unvry f Wnn

annr, U ) Th Wrd n Cran ,' fca 4): 46-.

annr, U ) N n h lba mn, Pubc Cutue 2): 66.

hr, 4) tea Cooam The Cetc Fge Bth atoaDeveopmet ry and An Unry f Cafrna

rfd, 2) Ou Oce Moe Fokoe deoogy ad the Makg ofModeGeece. An: Unry f Ta

bbawm, and anr, T (d) ) The veto of Tadto Nw rClmba U nvry Pr

vy, ) Tradn and Dffrn n h Japan a da', PubcCuue ) : 2

yr, P ) deo gh ahmadu Nw r Knpf

Jamn, 4) Pmdrnm, r h Cra L f La Capam' , eweft Revew 46 (JlyA): -2.

amn, 6) Thrd Wrd Lrar n h ra f lNana Capa

m, oca Tet (a): 6

Khar, ) tate gat Democacy each of Humae Goveace

Nw r: Nw rnLaff, and Jhnn ) Metapho We Lve By Cha and Lndn:

Unry f Cha

Lah, S and Urry J ) The d of Ogazed Captam adn Unvry

f Wnn

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Sprn: 6

and, ) ate Captam Lndn: Vr

aar, A ) Taatoa ad Thd Wod The tugge fo Cutue.Sh ady, A rn and ary

Nandy, A ) Th Pla Cr f h ndan Sa' Daedau 4) : 26.N, ) y Trp A' , Ctcm Heey ad tepetato CH :

22

Shr, 6) Commucato ad Cutua Domato Wh Pan, N:

nrnana Ar and Sn



3 0 Theor, Culture Societ

Vacan L (989) Naate, lease an Iey n te H n m: An Anayssf e Otse ma , A tess, e Annenbe S mmncan,

Te Unesy f ennyana

Waestein I ( 974) Te Mden Wld-ysem 2 mes) New an

Lnn Acaemc essWane ( 1 990) Te Lees f e Republ Publan and e Publ pee

ambe, A Haa

Wiams, ( 1 976) Keywds New

Wf, ( 1982) Eupe and e Peple Wu Hsy eeley Unesity f

alifnia

smt (1989 Te stmen an ass Imaes n apan, Publ Culue1(2) 825

Za, (Ftcmn) Resnin te y: A Inan aal A an ts

anAsan bcs n A ecene, e), Pdung e Pslnal

Taee Publ Culue n nda

Arju Appadurai eahe Anhopoogy and Souh Aian Sudie ahe Unieiy of Pennylania He i auho of Worship andConlict Under Colonial Rule ( 98 ) and edio of The Social Lie oThings (ambidge Unieiy Pe 986)



Being in the Wold Globalization andLocalization

Jonathan Friedman

roducio

From 970 to 980 the popuation of North Amerian ndiansinreased from 700000 to 4 mi ion inuding the reation ofsevera new tr ibes The word network of stokmarkets are overapi

taied and odged on the futuating brink of the threatening rashof 990 The governments are there to stem disaster by means ofmassive redit whatever probem that may sove n the Easternbo arge sae ethni mobiiation threatens the monoithi fae ofempire whie presenting new and even ess manageabe probemsThe same Tshirt designs from Aapuo Maora or Hawaii; thesame wath and omputer ones with different names even uiones the nostagi turn in the tourist trade atering to a searh for

roots even if argey simuara and the western searh for the experiene of otherness Ethni and utura fragmentation andmodernist homogeniation are not two arguments two opposingvews of what is happening in the word today but two onstitutivetrends of goba reaity The duaist entraied word of the doubeEastWest hegemony is fragmenting poitiay and uturay butthe homogeneity of apitaism remains as intat and as systemati asever The utura and by impiation inteetua fragmentation ofthe word has undermined any attempt at a singe interpretation ofthe urrent situation We have been served everything from post industriaism ate apitaism and postmodernism (as a pureyutura phenomenon expressive of an evoution of westernapitaist soiety) to more sinister traditionaist representations ofthe deine of western iviiation of reeping narissism moradeay et For years there has been a rampaging batte amonginteetuas onerning the pros and ons of postmodernity whieimperiaism theorists have beome addited admirers of a sorts of

soia movements and the deveopment eites have shifted interests

Teor Cuure oiet Lnn, Newbury Pr n New Delh) , V l 7( 990), 3 328



1 2 Theory, Culure Sociey

fom questons o develoment to hose o human ghts anddemoay. And the enand Baudel ente ontnues to analyselong waves thee has been a gowng nteest n olde vlatonshe se and all and n ultue and denty. The ntensve ateof deny s he hallma o he esent eod. Rushdes ononaon wh undamentalsm hghlghs he volatle natue o hsdeseate negoaton o selhood; the vey onsumton ofmodens lteaue s suddenly a dangeous at lobal deentalaton s tanamoun o ulual enassane beaton and seldetemnaton hysteal anas and neasng bodeonflts all go hand n hand wh an eveneasng multnaonalaton of wold maet oduts. The ntelay between he wold

mae and ultual dentty between loal and global oessesbeween onsumton and ultual stateges s a of one attemo dsove he logs nvolved n hs aaent haos.

Negoang Sefood and onsumng esres

The am of ths dsusson s to eloe onsumon as an aset ofboade ulual sateges o seldenon and selfmanenaneMy use o the wod ulual s equvalent to sey as n a

se tuue o ee eese n a se stategy oonsumton that denes the onous o a se dentysae suh and suh a . . n) a sum of oduts onfguednto an aangemen that eesses what am. t s to be et nmnd that the uently onventonal use of the onet ultue oefe o mas aadgms o semot odes would yeld esultswhh ae dameally oosed to he ams that have set out snehey mly the esene o a ele ealty that ovdes a ee

fo the oganaon of soal lfe and though On the ontayom ths eseve mas aadgms and semot odes ae allabsaons fom soal odus whethe dess fashons o fomsof dsouse. As suh they meely efle the oduts fom whhthey ae abstated but annot geneae those odus. Saegesof onsumon an only be uly gased when we undestand thesef way n whh dese s onsttuted. And we shall asume ohe me beng ha the latte s a dynam ase of he fomaon ofesonhood o selfhood.

Ths agument aallels Boudeus modellng of the elatonbeween habitu and ate between the duably nsalledgeneave nle o egulated movsaton' 977 78) andsef saeges of onsumon But whle Boudeu seems o



Friedmn, Globalization and ocalization

minin rionlis perspeive on prie whereby i isulimely reduible o he umuion of ulurl pi, i.e. ofpower, we hve suggesed h his is nmoun o eonomism ndfils o ke ino oun he nonrionl onsiuion of desireThus he (no so) expliily Veblenesque model of a Distinctionmy ell us gre del bou he role of ulurl differeniion inhe definiion of soil posiion proess whereby priulrlss' deermined habitus disinguishes iself in he uurlmrkeple by idenifying iself wih lerly defined se ofprodus nd iviies lifesyle.

Caqu onon s fn , nspaabmn pa ss pops aonns

qu o sa poson ans sym s onons qu s auss un yte erece posons ns, s pa ou qu a sngu

ou qu ns pas n paru ou quo soppos n

soa s n m ans a n (ouu, 199: 9 1

Bu his kind of model nno oun for he more speulrspes of pilis onsumpion in generl bsed on he desire fornew ideniies nd ompnying sregies h render ny priulr se of onsumer bsed disinions obsolee fer relivelyshor periods of sbiliy. mpbells insighful nlysis of herelion beween modern individulism, romniism nd onsumerism supplies lrger frme neessry o ny undersnding ofstrats o osumpto tat spay a staty tat aot

grsped in he erms se ou by Bourdieu.

T a of onvnonaaon an omanaon s psonay

on psson of a of ass an apa rprouon n gnra

a ynam onaon bwn snon an vouon, bwn o an sf mags bwn any an boman (man,

1989: 129

The ommon ground in hese pprohes o onsumpion is heexplii onneion beween selfidenifiion nd onsumpion.The former my be onsious , semen bou he relionbeween self nd world, or i my be ken for grned spe ofeverydy life, i .e . of predefined ideniy is from his poin of

deprure h i is possible o envisge onsumpion s n speof more generl sregy or se of sregies for he esblishmenndor minenne of selfhood. Oher pries of ulurl selfonsiuion ehni, lss, gender reigious pin nd lohed




bodies produe and onsue speifi obets and onstrut lifespaes These are higher order odes of hannelling onsuption tospeifi ends The latter is a eans of identifiation.

uggl fo Aunc

ery soia and ultural oeent is a onsuer or at least ustdefine itsef in relation o the world of goods as a nononsuerConsuption within the bounds of the world syste is always aonsuption of identity analized by a negotiation between sefdefinition and the array of possibilities offered by the apitaistarket The old saying you are what you eat one a haraterization of a ulgar eologia iew of huanity is strikingly

aurate when i t i s understood as a thoroughly soial at. For eatings an at of selfidentifiation as is all onsuption. Proteins andaories aside onsuption the libidinous half of soia reprodution is a signifiant part of the differential definition of soialgroups and indiiduals. The at of identifiation the engageent ofthe person in a higher proet is in one sense an at of pure exis tential authentiity but to the degree that it iplies a onsuptionof selfdefining sybols that are not selfprodued but obtained in

t markt a t atntty ndrmnd by objtatonand potentia deontextualization. Thus while engageent authentiates its onsuption deauthentiates. The only authenti atinside of suh a syste is an at that enopasses both the authentiand its oodifiation i.e an engaged yniis a distaniationthat is siultaneously at one with the world.

a sape

es sapeurs of the Peoples Republi of the ongo and other siilargroups reruit their ebers priarily fro he lower ranks of thepartially eployed if not lupenproletariat inhabiting Brazzailleand the seond largest ity of Pointe Noire The doinant ethnigroup is Bakongo signifiant in so far as this forer ruling group ofsoutherners whih identifies itself as the ost iilized ie westerngroup in th e ongo has been politially displaed by the Mbohi ofthe North The latter represent a region whih was ery uhoutside of diret Frenh adinistration and whih did not undergo

the oerialization and onentrated issionary atiity of theSouth As suh Bakongo onsider the to be bakward if notbarbarian at least at a ertain lee of disourse sine in realityreations between north and south are ore oplex es sapeurs



Fiedman Globalization and Localization 5

pogess though a system o f age gades whih begins i n Bazzaillewith the aquisition of uopean eadytowea impots and whihthen takes them to Pais whee they aumulate by any means

aailable famous designe lothes fom Fane and highest ankedItaly at temendous expense. An oasional etun to Bazzaille Pais in the ongo ente in the peiphey the only endoit not tohae had its name Afianized by the eolutionay national goen ment to pefom he dans ds grs with the geat name labelsthat ae sown into the lapels of a aket and displayed aodingly aspat of the itual of status.

It should be kept in mind hee that suh atiities ae an extemefom of a moe geneal ultual stategy In Bazzaille thee ae two

kinds of oke one podued loally unde liene and onsumed inbottles and anothe moe expensie impoted in ans fomHolland The onsumption of oke in Bazzaille is loallysignifiant ! To be someone o to expess one's position is to displaythe impoted an in the windshield of ones a. Distintion is notsimply show but is genuine ago' whih always omes fom theoutside a soue of wellbeing and fetility and a sign of powe. So intems of westen ategoies it might appea as the ideal type of the

kind of Veblenesque anking outlined in Boudieus La Distinctionbut it is in eality muh moe than that. A ongolese an identifyeeyone's soial ank in a owd by thei outwad appeaane. It isonly by gaining some insight into the elation between loalstutues of desie and identity and the politial and eonomiontext that one an undestand why a uopean pofesso ofphysis omplained that she gained he pestige not fom heaademi posit ion but fom the fat that she inested all he saings

in the aquisition of a feet of taxis.At one leel la sap seems to be a ommentay on modenonsumeism. The Fenh wod is deied fom the eb s saprwhih means the at of dessing eegantly onnoting the fneu ofou own soiety the othedieted dandy (ampbell 987;Fiedman 989) . La SAP in its ongolese esion is an institutionsocit ds ambiancurs t prsonns !gants. But this is no ynialstatement on hypeonsumeism no punk paody of middlelassideals. While the dandy may hae been othedieted his patieof selfidentifiation was ey muh a question of the manipulationof appeaanes . And while the bodeline naissism inoled in thismay hae been suh that the dandy was elatiely bound to the gazeof the othe' fo his own wellbeing this entie wold of atiity




ourred and our again today in a lager univere in whihappearane and being are quite ditin rom one another i. e . wherethere i in priniple at leat a real peron beneath the uae.Suh i not the ae or the ongolee where tendentiallyappearane and being are idential you are what you wear. Notbeaue lothe make the man but beaue lothe are the immediate expreion o the degree o lieore poeed by a peronand lieore i everywhere and alway external. onumption olothing i enompaed by a global trategy o linkage to the orethat provide not only wealth but alo health and politial power.ongolee mediine i very muh oued on method omaintaining or inreaing low o omi ore to the body in order

to maintain good health and deend the peron againt withrat.Wetern mediine like any powerul ubtane are not ymbol orbut apet o od. Similarly lothing i not a ymbol o oialpoition but a onrete manietaion o uh poition .

The trategy o eldeinit ion in pe i in no ene ynial nori there a ditaning on the part o he partiipant rom theommodity a uh ine the ommodity i not a uh' in thi kindo trategy. onumpion i a lie and death ruggle or pyhi and

oial uvival t om th tr pro here a undamental deperaion at the bottom o thi aivity i i perhap relatedto the tate o nariiti nonbeing generated by a oial rii oelontitution.

Cmmn f p v n rnc?

Cmmn y vr?

L n pys bnh

Cmmn y v?

P y v, s D v

Pr y v?

Jy vis cmn

Cmmn y v?

(fm Kua Kua by J Mssm n n n 98 95

A a triving ae wellbeing in a moe geneal ene and oalled argo ult o any mil lenarim whoe goal i i to oveome alak in the preent via he imporation o li eoe om the outidelaventure a i i alled he geat move o Pari iniiating he

speur into the highe aegory pariien might be underood athe expreion o a millenaian wih a indiaed in the abovevere. But thi dream i immediaely deoyed by the ealitie oPai or the ongolee. Living in qualor and eeking out a bare



Friedman Globalization and Localization 7

subsisene al and any ash is hanneled ino he insalmenpurhase of he grea names in menswear from shirs and soks orousers suis and shoes If onsumpion for us onsiss in heonsruion o f ifespaes for ourseles for la sape i onsiss in heonsiuion of presige preisely wihou he ifesye whih suhgarmens are mean o manifes . Thus i mus be ha he saisfaiongained does no ie in he ifesye experiene bu in he onsiuionof sef for ohers he appearane of es grands' he powerfu eiesAnd his sraegy of aquisiion is no simpy a raional manipulaion of appearanes

Ns smms vns mm s gs q n vns enn tt e

(Gn 198 61

The organizaion of la sape is suh ha immigrans parisiens'aemp o aumuae la gamme' he se of famous name hauouure ha is neessary o make he desene' o Brazzaie wherehe danse des griffes' mus be performed o demonsrae hefamous abes aquired The laer is aomplished by sewing helabels ono he jake ape where hey an be exhibied for ohers I

i s noeworhy ha he word gamme' means sale indiaing heranked naure of presige onsumpion This enormouslyosmopolian sraegy has is immediae effes in he produion ofa ear saus demaraion.

qn vnt ysn, e gaa sgn l s

vs q nhee s sysme e vs s Sesvns,

nmmnt s Gn, 9 152

La sape is no a ongoese inenion a odds wih he ery fabriof ha soiey On he onrary i is a mere exaggeraion of asraegy of presige aumulaion bu one whih fundamenaynegaes is inernal logi I is hus a formua for suess and apoenial hrea o he rea power sruure While as we haeargued he aua sraegies of onsumpion are generaed by aform of ideniy ery differen from ha o be found in he modernWes he poliial impiaions hae a lear hisoria parale in

European hisory

th n rns ee e t mh nn: he we es ess s

hr n h hs the hghe, sme emey s n se he L w e n

ngr bmng th vt hs Gntmn (nwy, 56 22




But if the outome of this onfronttion rn in fvour of the newonsumers nd demortiztion of onsumption, in the ongo thesme kind of tivity poses more struturl thret sine no suhdemortiztion is in the offing. On the ontrry, lumpen proletrin dndyism is not hep imittion of the rel thing, but onsumption of the highest orders of sttus, tht , s suh , strikes tthe hert of elite sttus itself from the bottom of soiety

saal la s ql sagt s sors arrs q as

ora q ls aort ar o ssm asm s la

ss s os ors atgor ls mt q o rss t fasa o

ara s'ar qls so ats a qls sgr

oablm as la sot Cogolas (Gaolo 98: 88

The uropen onsumer revolution reted mjor thret to system of ss sttus whih ws previously impervious to imittion,but it resulted in vst system of rnking in whih the originls , la

haute couture re the unssible entre i n the lothing of soilposition a sape on the other hnd , is thus very expensive ssulton the rnk order of soiety nd not merely on its symboismuropen dndyism ws n individuisti ffir, prtil mni

pution of sttus symbols nd rules of etiquette. e dndysstrtegy ws to subtly pss into the higher rnks. a sape is, in itssystemti gernk grding nd expiit disourse of prestige, subversion of the ulturl lssifition of poitil order. And it i sogil tht it is the produt not of western revot ginst fshion,but o f Third World hypermodernity in whih fshion is not merelyrepresenttive but onstitutive of soi identity.

The speil kind of onsumption tt we hve desribed herennot be seprted out s distint sphere of tivity seprte,from the more generl strtegies tht hrterize modern on goese soiety s n interntionl phenomenon. The sapeur is not fneur beuse he is, in struturl terms, uthenti, i.e. his identityis univol. The outwrd pperne tht he pproprites is not mere projet to fool the publi to pper s something other thnhimself. t is his very essene t is this qulity tht renders it exotito the westerner, for whom this pprent nrissism ought to beopenly ynil, even in its despertion But the point is tht the

nrissist whose identty prtkes of lrger osmology of lifeforesis n uthenti lothing frek nd not trikster. J

f la sape is speifi expression of more generl prxis ofonsumption, te ltter is i n it s turn n expression of prxis of self



Friedman Globalization and ocalization 3 9

identifiation and sefmaintenane whih defines the nature ofpowe wellbeing and sikness Over and above the seven offiialhurhes there are ninetyfive sets in Brazzavile whose piniplefuntions ae therapeuti ven the hurhes are vey muh engagedin what is aled traditional mediine And there is eary noundersupply of patients No is it unusua for pratitioners to donthe white attire of western dotors and to flaunt western equipmentand even mediines where possibe. This is not mere status seekingno a eognition of a supposed superiority (in a sientifi sense) ofwestern tehnique but a real identifiation with higher and thusmore powerful forms and substanes It woud appear that utsineased dramatialy in the 970s after having delined in the

960s wave of modenism There is ertainly evidene that a largepeentage of the population is not wel and needs the soure oflifefore and protetion frm withraft that an be povided bythe ut groups

ven business entepises make use of suh magial soures

On on mo po n pa avo (q j a n n pa X Mo

as j o on o a noma pp

o a n mon a n ( ) Savoava n pa ao

mn po m pog pog mon aa na ama

on on (bn a am a o) ba own

(a qo n Dvag 19 50)

There is a ommon ore in these different domains of pratieThere is an appropriation of modernity by means of a set of trans

formed traditiona praties transformed by the integration of theongo into the Frenh fran zone of the word eonomy In all ofthis there is the invariant ore whereby the maintenane andaumuation of sef is dependent upon aess to external ifeforeoming from the gods anestors (aso gods) from Europe theheavenly soure of suh fore If the flow of fore is disturbed fragmentation ensues withraft and onflit abound and fetishismand utism reah epidemi proportions a massive and desperateattempt to survive

Au4

The Ainu are a welknown ethni minority of Japan traditionalydesribed by anthropologists in the general ategory of hunters and



320 Thor Culur Soc

gatherers, primarily inhabiting the northern island of Hokkaido.When disussing the present situation it is usually laimed that Ainuulture has largely disappeared and they exist as a poorly aulturated and eonomially and politially marginal minority. Reenthistorial work would, howeer, indiate that the Ainu were at onetime a hierarhial soiety with a mixed eonomy and that their present status, inluding the image of the huntergatherer is a produtof the long and painful integration of Hokkaido into the Meii stateFor the Japanese the Ainu do not hae ethni status, simply beauseno suh status exists. All the inhabitants of the territory of Japan,Nihonin, are ariations of the Wai n people, some more deelopedthan others. Ainu, as other depried groups, are simply outasts , a

soial and not a ultural definition Their position an only behanged in Japanese offiial ideology ia a fuller integration into thelarger eonomy and soiety They must, in other words, entermodernity as the Japanese define it There are many Ainu whoattempt to do this, who deny their Ainu identty and attempt tobeome Japanese, whih, of ourse, would imply onsumingJapanese This strategy has not been generally suessful , primarilybeause of disrimination against Ainu, for if, offiially, Ainu are

as Wain as any other Japanese the are tl outat, .e. thersoial position, their aboriginal Japanese status, funtions as effetiely as any ethni stigmatization Of the Ainu 60 perent dependon welfare to a greater or a lesser degree. As their lands were lost tothe Japanese, they most often work for others, in agriulture andrelated industries, and in tourism and serie setors Theunemployment rate is .2 perent.

During the 970s an Ainu ultural moement deeloped, whoseaim has been to gain reognition as a separate ethni group . There isno interest in politial autonomy, but rather aeptane on equalterms with the maority population. While this might appear simplefor the weste obserer, it is a ery serious problem for a statewhose ery legitimay is threatened by the existene of multiethniity. The Ainu strategy is deidedy ethni They hae established shools for the teahing of language and traditions to thosewho hae lost them, and, not least, for their hildren. But they domuh more than that n seeral areas they hae established tradi

tional illage strutures for the expressed purpose of produingtraditional handrafted goods and haing tourists ome and witnesstheir traditional lifestyle. Although Ainu lie in Japanese housestoday, they hae built traditional Ainu houses, chs where



Fiedma Globalization and Localization 2

impotat viage ativitie uh a teahig of hitoy adaguage taditioa dae weavig ad woodavig ou o aweeky bai . May itua ativitie ae ao hed hee ad it i uuato advetie thei ouee i ode to get touit attedae adewpape oveage Touit ae ivited ot oy to buy Aiupodut but to ee how they ae made eve to ea how they aemade ad to expeimet i makig them themeve. They a aohea about Aiu mythoogy itua ad hitoy tate Aiu food adive i Aiu home epeiay whe the few boadig houe aefu.

Touit podutio ad dipay ha beome a eta poe ithe oiou eotutio of Aiu idetity t emphaie the

dititive otet of Aiu ethiity fo Japaee touit i aotext whee uh peifiity i offiiay itepeted a a meevaiatio of Japaee utue ad ot a epaate idetity. Thepeetatio of Aiu efhood i a poitia itumet i theotitutio of that efhood

My pea p that he A pepe have e t eae ha e t

bee a pete ha beg a A e a epe e g.

tea e ha t e e t he pe a ha exaty what happegag he A peple tay. They ae eage t kw abt e te vae

hg eveythg. They have bee avg etay ay yea w

Thee hg p the etha w ( Ievew w th Au eae

beg 99

Oe might upet that paig that idetity o the maket woudhave a deauthetiatig effet but hee agai a i the obveeae of the ogoee ommodifiatio i eompaed by the

age authetiatig pojet

Evey A a a Kb a We ake avg beae we at tp. t

bl. I we a ake a pt we we t thk thee ayhg wg

wh h ( Ievew Nbta 988 Sbeg 99)

The etie touit poet of the Aiu a be ee fom thipepetive i .e a maifetatio via a ommodity fom of a age

otitutive poe of utua idetity oe that mut of oue bemaifeted fo othe if it i to have ay ea exitee t i idefiig themeve fo the Japaee thei igifiat Othe thatthey etabih thei peifiity.




They ae aagg Au eva whee pepe a ae u f We eu wn pee yu knw. The e a aa way a he

pepe ue aa g ue whe hey pepae he . Nw be

abe ea Au f we a ue u a uvae pe p y We

have have aea whee we a uvae u w eea. . . . Ou f feva

ae vey ppua a pepe e a ve Nh v a ea. They ay

u f vey ay a hey w ee he e e hee a ea.

A e we edy e eun n pp, Akw ndkde (Ievew wh Au eae, Sbeg 990

While food festials publiized ituals ouses in handiaftsand the sale of Ainu poduts in selfonsiously oganized illagesfotouists eates a publi image fo the Ainu it is also instu

mental in eeating o pehaps eating a taditional ultue Thedemand fo land to gow Ainu ops the eial of a geat manyituals and othe atiities the enaissane of Ainu histoy andlanguage annot be dissoiated fom the touist based stategy

he u vage hwh ha u a eeah ee f he vega

f uua a aa vaee he Au way fe The v ha

he v age ha eve a fa ee wh pbe pve eue

vau aay bae ave. (Ievew wh Au eae Sjbeg

990)

The Ainu would appea to be as eteme as the sapeurs in theistategy een if thei ontents ae diametially opposed to oneanothe Just as we might suspet the appaent hypeonsumptionism of the latte the fomes oientation to the touist maketwould seem to be nothing shot of ultual suiide And this is notsimply a westen intelletual position

The Hawaiian ultual moement fo eample is adamantly

antitouist Thei stuggle fo the eial of a taditional way of li feis pat of a stuggle fo soeeignty whih might enable Hawaiianultue to be ealized on the gound It is a moement that began inthe 90s as an attempt to eestablish ultual identity and ights toland whih would enable them to patise that ultue afte moethan a entuy of soial disintegation and ultual genoideesulting fom the foible integation of the islands into an epand ing Ameian hegemony Following the deline of the Hawaiian

monahys autonomy a oup d'etat made oe the islands to theAmeian missionayplante lass in 892 The massie impot offoeign plantation wokes fom Asia made the aleady dwindlingHawaiian population a minoity in thei own land Thei ultue and



Fiedman Globalization and ocalization 323

anguage wee fobidden and stigmatied As most Hawaiians bythe midtwentieth entuy wee patHawaiians they often hose toidentify as pathinese patFiipino patWhite As Hawaiibeame thooughy Ameianied Hawaiian ultua identity

agey disappeaed unti the end of the 960s when as we haveagued esewhee the deine of Ameian and Westen hegemonyin the wold system led to a deine of modenist identity in genea he fagmentation of the wold system is expessed at one leve inthe esugene of oal ultual identities ethniities and subnationalisms. he Hawaiian movement is vey muh pat of thispoess And sine the touist industy has been the absolutelydominant foe in Hawaii following the demise of the pantation

eonomy an industy whih does not expess Hawaiian stategiesbut whih has done moe to dispae them than any peviousolonial eonomy the movement defines itsef in stong oppositionto that industy

ontempoay Hawaiians do not fee a need to advetise theioa utue. It has aeady been thooughy advetised andontinues to be depited in the media ontoled by an enomousindusty speialied in imaging and ommodifying all aspets of

Hawaiian tadition Hawaiians ae autely awae of the potentiadeauthentiating powe of ommodifiation he onstitution ofHawaiian identity exudes touism and espeially the obetifiation of Hawaiianess implied by touist ommeialiationWesten inteetua sympathies ae onguent with Hawaiianattitudes. Hawaiians do not wish to be onsumed as domestiatedexotia and the West has podued a massive amount of itiaiteatue on soaled onsume utue Both we and the Hawaiianswould appea to shae a simia yniism with espet to the

ommeia podut. But then both the Hawaiians and ousevesonfont suh poduts as extenaities he Ainu ontol thepodution of thei ultuefoothes hei aim is not simply to selommodities but to pesent thei identity as they oneive it in odeto have it eognied by the age wold. hey expeiene theipoduts as extensions of themselves

rforo of Bworld d Glob Pro

ongoese onsume modenity to stengthen themselves he Ainupodue taditional goods in ode to eate themselves he fomeappopiate otheness while the latte podue selfhood fo othesHawaiians podue selfhood fo themseves. In moe onete




ems he sapeurs a he boom o a hieahy o anked webeingdeined as imoed ieoe deseaey sugge o aoiaehe ae ia he aumuaion o wha aea o us as he signs o saus bu whih o hem ae he subsane o ie The eb se

aunir is oen used o he sapeurs eeing o he use o beah oighen he skin bu aso o he moe genea whiening ee osaus mobiiy . Fo he ongoese ideniy is ey muh ouside ohe body ouside o he soiey To eaie onese is o beome un

grand and he ae is maniesed in i s highes om in h e bes ohe Wes he mos moden and aes desgn and he eas aessibe.To obain a Voo o Saab in his an one monooy woud uybe a saus ou The aie o ideniy hee is he aumuaion o

oheness.The Ainu unike he ongoese hae no soeeigny bu ae an

oessed minoiy whose ehniiy is oiiay denied They aedesibed as abe desendans o a ooWajin eoe whih hassine eoed ino a gea moden naion. eain Bakongo aeben on being Paisians hei Ainu ouneas ae siing obeome Ainu. a sape is abou beoming moden o one s owneoe he Ainu moemen is abou beoming Ainu o moden

Jaanese. The onas is one o symeia inesion onsumion o modeniy s oduion o adiion oheened s . seened igimage o Pais s sugge o and ighs . The onasin saegies o ideniy woud sugges is no simy a quesion ouua dieene bu o goba osiion . Boudieu migh ehasbe inoked hee in eeing o he way in whih dieen ondi ionso exisen geneae dieen suues o habius The seiioeies o hese dieen saegies is o ouse ohed inuua seiiiy bu hink i migh we be agued ha he

saegies hemsees an be aouned o by he aiuaoagoba aiuaions wihin whih hey emege This does noimy ha oa uua saegies ae no uia bu ha o undesand he saegies hemsees i is neessay o aoun o heihisoia emegene. ongoese soiey was oay inegaed as anaeady hieahia sysem based on monooy oe imoedesige goods ino a oonia sysem whih was omeeyomaibe wih he ome whie beoming he majo soue o

oa weah and weae is imoan o noe hee ha whieongoese soiey was adiay ansomed houghou onaand ooniaizaion he esuan odu onains essenia aseso anshi and esonhood whih eesen a oninuiy wih he



Frdman, Globalization and Localization 32

past, and whh gnrat stratgs xprss of a nonmodrnorganzaton of xstn. h Anu wr dfatd and thr landxpropratd as th rsult of th unfaton of th formrlyfragmntd poltal systms of that sland group hr poltalautonomy dsappard n thr ntgraton as a stgmatzd lowrast n th nw naton stat. Hawaans wr also dfatd,ulturally, soally and dmographally, by Brtsh and spallyAmran olonal xpanson. Whl th pross hr annot bompard wth that of th Anu, th rsults wr suh thatHawaans bam a stgmatzd mnorty n thr own land, assto whh thy all but lost, along wth thr tradtons and languag.For both th Anu and Hawaans, as opposd to th ongols,

tradtonal ultur s xprnd as xtrnal, as a past whh hasbn lost and must b rgand. hy ar both ntgratd nto aargr modrn soty that s not thr own hs fundamntalruptur has not ourrd n th ongo.

I would argu, thn, that th dffrns among th abostratgs annot b aountd for by smply rfrrng to dffrntstabl ultural paradgms as Sahns has bn wont to argu. On thontrary, a onsdraton of th hstoral matral would sm to

mply that radal hangs ha ndd ourrd. h arlytratur on ontat Hawa ndats that th onsumpton ofWstrn goods by th hf lass was an allonsumng pastmBfor 82 Amran mrhants ngagd n th hna trad,

eee p the a a wa bgg wth the evethg f p

thg a the te t aage b a tabe he fae

a ag hp a g the tt t eep the peatg pt at a feve

heat ag the Hawaa hef A the hef wee t w abt bg f

the ha t aaw at ha t pa f the g the gave pte. (Kea, 968 89)

Lsts of tms mportd nlud fn broadloth, hns slks,ashmr, lads drsss, and thr s an salaton of typs andqualts' .

Evee that e bg bette a bette g a h a the have t

ee w e whe e w t (Ba 82 -3

Whl suh goods ar ry muh monopolzd by th hfs nwhat appars as a knd of status omptton a numbr of wstrnand hns goods fnd thr way nto th lowr ranks (Morgan




948 68) The image of the enthuiati aumuation of Wetenand hinee good i eminient of enta Afia en theadoption of uopean name the identifiation ith hat ioneied a the oue of poe o mn i ommon to both Thu

the deiption fom the peiod 8 7 9 of the Haaiian king menmight ing tue fo many othe pat of the gobe.

he e au the K hue ha w a uket wh baye

Se the we whte ht e watat a e wee ae.

(Ma 98 68

ay ontat Haaii poide a mode of the aumuation of

eten identity ia at of onumption of both good and name .hief attempt to ident ify a oey a poibe ith the mn hihi embodied in uh impot and hih a uh i imutaneouy anaumuation of tatu (in ou tem). But the diintegation of theHaaiian poity and the maginaization of the Haaiian in theoonia etting podue the kind of uptue efeed to aboeheeby a epaate identity emege in ondition of tigmatizedpoety.

he hueh v at a pvey eve pae wth h taabue he Hawaa hh pauay wth the a paye

bak eb w hueh pea a tuaey uae wh

et pay. he e hete the a ea ubbh a ha tha

ehe beauu pbaby vey heathu the the up heap ay

t be a quay bu at ea they ae ee a eabe the weae be

veay ee the t pat (Beaehe 939: 3

Ia ha buht he he ay yea Whe h e ha ee

e up he wea ut ae h 20 yea a he aea whh

ha py w wea ut Pee aque h ehbh byhav a auy va a eah May

A he ha a he he we ae heae (Beaehe 939 323

Haaiian in the eay pat of thi entuy a minoity in a mut i ethni oiety deeop a ene of thei on utue of geneoity ofeipoa feating of egaitaianim and the extended famiy athey ae ineaingy integated into the age oiety. Food a thetuff of oia eation among Haaiian aquie a peia aue

hie thing impoted and the tapping of modenity oe eymuh of thei funtion

Wh he eea ue Hawaa have eay bee evepe



Fiedman Globalzation and Localization 32

wth that uu haze whh vehang the glen age f awaan gy Thu

n ne p awaan fay n whh thee ttle f f any uth

wheneve thee nt nugh f t g aun the l awaan the

equet he hlen t peten they ae eatng the eae whh the

awaan lve The fay thu f t tah n the gen age f nt n thegen f Agan anthe e awaan fn f abutng he egenea·

tn f the en awaan t h ve f tange an et f Th

nfant attbute h wn vg t the fat that he pepae h wn f

hef Beaglehe 3 38)

Hee we find the oe of a developing ethniity a stategy o selfpodution and onsumption whih appeas to be the foundation ofmoden Hawaiian identity and a stategy fo ultual ebith This

selfdieted ness is not something intinsially Hawaiian but thespeifi podut of the global tansfomation of the loal soiety

Coluo

Fo seveal yeas now thee has been an ongoing eoneptual ization of poesses of podution and espeially onsumption asmoe than simply mateial aspets of subsistene. Following a lineof agument that began with the eognition that goods ae buildingbloks of li fewolds we have suggested as have othes that theyan be futhe undestood as onstituents of selfhood of soialidentity. Fom this point of view the patie of identityenompasses a patie of onsumption and even podution. If wefuthe assume a global histoial fame of efeene it s possible todetet and even to aount fo the diffeenes among boad lassesof stategies of identity and theefoe of onsumption andpodution as well as thei tansfomations in time This is the aseat least to the extent that the diffeent stategies of identity whih

ae always loal ust as thei subsumed foms of onsumption andpodution have emeged in inteation with one anothe in theglobal aena

No

. One ght even euly quetn the vaty f Bueu ffeenta e

a apple t h wn epa ata whee aetaly ppe atege ae

ften epeente by tatta ffeene f a e netenate natue peentv 2 peent an whee t f the efne atege f tye elate t a'

nge n the 50 peent ange at bet u t be that ultua entfan nt

leay lne t a ptn an that whateve n age thee ae u f the

n f yte pee




2 Th n xap h n apa

hn akng n pw b a n avaab an

nnana ak

3 Skng a Ma A h p a ng an wh an h

Thnq n Bazzav H wa h Tk gn h nh an v n

wn wh h ana n H na an na nha n n

vpng a ab an an xp h hp bng ab

Swn a n a w n nvan H nv n n nan

h n n bng n bna, a pnn wh w b

pnb Th ag n b bnan p, a n

wh a pbl a, a nnn ha gh nab h abh h wn

n Tappng n a a a : xpan wh bh

Swh an vn Aan a a ank w abv h ab nh

p an wh Swn, gn h a Pan n, aa wh

havn 4 Th aa h An ba n h v pan, b a

npbh a h K Sbg (990) whh a wh An a

n a an whh pv a ban ana h ha anhp

bwn An an apan

Rfn

Bagh E (1939) me Mde Hawaiia Hn Unv Hawa,

Rah Pbl an N 1 9

B, P. (1977) La Diii Pa Mn gh aan Dnn Rg, 1984)B P ( 1 979) Ouie j a Ther j raie abg: abg

Unv P.

Ba P ( 182123) bk ha B Ba Spag Ban

an Sg a Hawaan an an ann, 20 Mah 8 2 1 1 J 1823 pp Hawaan Mn hn S ba, Hn

apb , (987) The Rmai Ehi ad he iri j Mde umerismO Bakw

vag R ( 1 977) L Oe e Ndki e L 'erereeur La eie ererie

gaie Brazzaie Pa Oan J (1989) Th npn Mn Cuure ad Hir 41 1 729

Gana J (1984) Ere ari e Bag Pa n Gg Pp

Hanwa, J (175) a n Ta n A Jura jEigh Da Jue nn

Kkna, RS ( 1 99) The Hawaiia Kigdm Hn Unv Hawa

P

Mgan T ( 1 948) Hawaii: A Ceur jEmi Chage abg,

MA Hava Unv P

Sbg K (990) M An', npbh Ph h, pan

Anhpg, Unv n

Jonaan Frdan is Proessor o Antroology at Lund University, Sweden.



ADS as a Globalizing Panic

John O'Nel

n the present ontet of HV AS knowedge marked as t s bythe absene of a vane dsovery t fas to the soa and heathsenes broady oneved to devse nsttutona responses to ASthat w ontan both the ness and our soa responses to t Hereof ourse ontanment s sought on two eves and t may be that a

onsderabe fton s nvoved n hopng that the HV vrus s so tospeak irus sociologicus. Whe t s doubtfu that the vrus anearn sooogy t s ertany true that sooogy annot remandeoogay gnorant of vroogy. But ths n turn means that thesoa senes n genera are obged to rethnk themseves beforethey an be adapted readymade to the new mtatons whhHV/ A S mposes not ony upon our seua ondut but upon arange of professoa behavor where ontat wth AS s

nvoved Ths s espeay the ase sne the professonazaton ofthe soa senes ke that of the meda senes has proeeded nterms of an deooga demaraton between fatua knowedge andmora knowedge that whe honored by hardne sentsts of etherl s n fat breahed by deveopments n the botehnoogalsenes that have reopened the fronter of ethoega enury Thesoa senes no onger have any neutra ground n these mattersand ths s partuary the ase wth those who suffer from ASsne they obge us to reoneve our soa poes and our mora

vaues regardng trust and ommuntyAthough AS s a reatvey reent phenomenon and despte

the ompety of the vrooga and epdemooga dmensonsof the HV vrus t may be sad that we have aured a onsderabe knowedge of t n the short span of tte over fve yearsresearh (Roya Soety of anada 988; Spurgeon 988; Feeand Fo 988; Atman 987; Daedalus 989; New EngandJourna of Pub Poy 988; The Milbank Quarterl 986;

Ornsten 989). ndeed AS has moved uy through a ye

Toy, Cultu ocy (AE, Lnn Newbr Pr n New Delh), Vl 7( 990, 32932



33 Thor, Cultur Socit

of fist stage of elative ignoane folloed by intensive eseahand disovey to a plateau hee e ae aiting fo the beakthough hih ould pemit us to ounteat the HV vius bymeans of a vaine. This state of affais has only been ahievedthough a onsideable pae of biomedial eseah (Scinticmrican 988 Dadalus 989) and the involvement of govenmental health agenies fom the fedeal to muniipal level inludinghospitals linis gay ommunity oganizations AS okshopshotlines and pamphleteeing in addition to a onstant epotage ofAS infomation in nespapes and on television AS has evengeneated its on at foms in theate film and folk at (Cim 988 Watney 98) All these ativities then have ombated soial

ignoane ith soial aaeness As a ne stage of onsieneaising AS aaeness is no poeted to euit even peadolesent hilden The adinal vitues of ontempoay sexualitizenship ae exemplified in ou aaeness of the paties ofontaeption and abotion as ell as the ahievement ofopulation and the avoidane of AS t should be obseved thatby the same token a geat deal of seula faith is involved in theassumption that aaeness' hih vaies fom setlike

membeship to glaning though myad mno pamphlets illalte sexual ondut to any geat extent. Safe' sex is not so easilyinstitut ionalized if only beause the onept of sex' is itself not to beundestood outside of any extaodinay ange of soial behaviohee exitement' may pelude safety' in any fom.

ant to ague that despite hat e aleady kno about HVand AS any futhe development in ou knoledge and thepedagogies to be devised in publi eduation pogams is onfontedith the phenomenon shall all sociall structurd caalignoranc. Hee hat have in mind is a numbe of fatos thatdetemine bodily onduts as neessaily ilfully and desiablymattes of unknoing ' of spontaneity' of passion' of desie ' o of fun' phantasy'. n shot e use ou lothing eatingdinking and sexual behavio to ahieve elationships and endexpe ienes that may be onsideed moal o immoal ational o non ational ompetitive o ommunal safe o isk. t is not ou taskto pusue the ultual lass and gende and age vaiations that

opeate hee although these opeate upon the soial stutue ofanal knoledge and ignoane (O'Neill 1985a). No have e toeount the histoial and ideologial shifts in the odes that dessou bodily ondut povided e do not ovelook them t must



ONei ADS as a Globalizing panic 3 3

suffie to atiuate with egad to AIS the foowing eements thatondition a stutue of ignoane whih in tun geneates the feaof AIS upon whih so muh pubi enegy is expended

. the aie may not be known to him/hesef due to the atenypeiod of up to eight yeas;

2. the ange of isk behaios may not be known to potentiaitims;

3 the HIV aie may not be known to him/hesef;4 the pusuit of epidemioogia knowedge egading the HIV

ius ma y onfit wi th th e ii ights affoding nonknowedge ofpesons' behaio an d assoiations; and

5 the ode of ii ights may guaantee nonknowedge ofpesons o ways that peent o onfit with media poie edua tiona empoyment paties of testing and identifiation of AISpesons'

In tun within the genea popuation ana ignoane may beaued in suh expeienes and settings as (a) sex; (b) dugs; ()aoho; (d) at paties; (e) at onets ubs; and (f) on the steet in

aeys in as The speifi behaioa odes defining these expeienes whee eason goes on hoiday so to speak wi ayaoding to membeship in a aiety of settings and patiesshaped by (a) age goup; (b) sexua ideoogy e.g. onsumptieathe than epodutie sex; () sexua identifiation i.e.homosexua esbian bisexua and/o heteosexua; (d) eigiousbeiefs; (e) ethniity; and (f) soioeonomi ass i.e. ee ofeduation inome and pofessiona ideoogy.

Thee exists an enomous bias in the soia sienes against thestudy of the ways in whih ou ignoane misinfomation anddeeption is soiay stutued. Fo this eason ou enightenmentwith egad to sexua behaio poeeds muh moe sowy than thedeieane pomised to us by ou pesent ationaist bias towadsknowedge If we ae to make any pogess in deising sexuapedagogies to espond to sexuay tansmitted diseases (ST)speifi empiia and ethnogaphi data on the soia stutue ofana ignoane as I hae outined it must be gatheed (Rubin

984; awfod 977). In pat suh infomation is aeadyaaiabe in mateia oeted fom the standpoint of the soio ogy of attitudes beiefs and opinions. What an be said howeeis that those who ae east eduated and most soioeonomiay




undepivileged in vitue of la aial and olonial tatu willbea the bunt of potitut ion dug and HV infeted bth in theuban aea of the wold whih ontitute a fouth wold' of oialpoblem wheeve they ae ituated

With thee emak in mind hall tun now to the developmentof a famewok fo the tudy of ADS whih et national and loalonen in the ontext of the global politial eonomy (Law andil l 988) Fom thi tandpoint AD S mut be onideed a oneof a numbe of pani of a politial eonomi finanial andnatual' ot to whih the global ode epond with vayingtategie of uade entimentality o foe. By a globalizing panic

undetand any patie that tavee the wold to edue the

wold and it ultual diveity to the genei of oaola touimfoeign aid medial aid militay defene pot touim fahionand the intenational money maket (O'Neill 988a) Sine theepatie ae neve quite tabilized thei dynami inlude deglobalizing tendenie whih will be einibed by the global ytem atheat to the wold ode Some nation may onide themelveto be the pime agent in thi wold ode while othe an onlymaintain an aligned tatu o ele ae allowed to enjoy a toy

natonalty like that of anada w an aa to n oto upply neutality funtion on behalf of the wold ode Theglobalizing pani that onfm the wold ode ely heavily uponthe media and televiion newpape magazine film and doumentaie to peulaize the inopoation of all oietie in a ingleglobal ytem deigned to oveome all intenal diviion if not toexpand into an i ntegalati empie Suh a viion i onfimed foexample by the pefomane of hemial expeiment unde thegavityfee ondition of pae flight whih may enhane the futuediovey of an A DS vaine Thu exual patie that would notbe toleated within the oial ytem of the pae apule nevethele povide ideologial jutifiation fo global mediine quetfo a pefet expeimental envionment Futhemoe the elativelyghettoized exuality of gay and blak and ipani V dug uefind it pojetion in the tay heaven of the heoe of allAmeian iene wa and mediine Meantime thi mediine ilagely unavailable to the poo in the United State and the oalled

Thid Wold whoe infant ae avaged by dieae and death amidtpopulation that ae ontinuouly upooted by famine flood andwafae By the ame token media image fom thi pat of the



ONeill, IDS as a Globalizing panic

world are exploited on behalf of the promise of the global orderwhose own politial eonomy is largely responsible for the naturaldisasters that raage the third world.

The sexual eonomy, whih must b e treated as the framework forany grasp of the politial eonomy of AIDS is subjet to eery othersubsystem of the global eonomy and national politial eonomyt is so when i t appears most disengaged beause its disengagementelebrates the proesses of disenfranhisement elsewhere in thesoiety, ie. the degradation of gendered eonomies, of family andof hurh authority, as well as of any politis grounded in theseommunities When the general will is sexualized, politis ispriatized when politis is priatized, the general will is idiotized.

The politis of desire is the desire politis of a global eonomy whihentirely esapes artiulation in the speehlessness of sexualizeddesire. Meantime in the West, the postmodern insistene on ulturalfragmentation implodes all differenes and redues eerything toshifts in fashion and its onstant reision of the spatiotemporalorder of global apitalism whih itself remains lass and olonial innature and annot be thought in terms of the shibboleths of sexism,raism or antihumanism whih i t has outlawed at the same that i t is

the priniple soure of these ery phenomena beause reformism onthese issues is anything but reolutionary.

It might be argued that post modernism elebrates a phantasmatieonomy of sex and power while remaining tied to the market forglobal rok, drugs and fashion and to the onert politis whoseeanesent sentimentality reflets and deepens the global exploitation (ONeill, 988b). From this standpoint, post modernism is thelassless' ulture of a globalizing eonomy that exports its

industr ial basis wheneer labor is heapest while diiding its internaleonomy into rih and poor serie setors n these setors atiitiesare neither ommunity nor selfbuilding . ere the politial eonomyof the signifier without sign (family, lass, rae, gender) is operatieSine there is nothing at the enter of a doughnut or of a dress,ariety is eerything. Sine money has no absolute alue, ariety isthe only norm . In this ulture, those who look for signs are traditionalists, semanti fools, or semioti idiotis they are out ofstyle, out of touh. Nothing looks worse on teleision than

nationalism, fundamentalism and antiolonialism with theirmurders, their staring hildren, their destrution and immolationThe same is true of the images of domesti poerty, urban deay,



334 Theo, Cultue Societ

eray ad aeao ha are foaed hou ay aemp ompae he ass sysem To be s o be ou' he game ofgoba ruao

The goba eoomy s oered equay h he promoo ofdduasm ad s sexuazed erasure s prmary pos arehose of orporae dey hh ur osrps a aggressedduay ped agas hsorher o aure ad ommuyThe ae youg auag reas ad hedos rerus oorporae apasm ad s osmopoa uure are he dos ofgoba meda uure They moe ke gods ad goddesses amdshe debrs of urba rme ad desoao oae ooasm adhe fe ad deah srugges of hgheh mede ar ad

ommuao' To hs ed goba uure s perfey usexua' e s a samesexuure hose ehooga frasruure s dffere beg or emapaed h respe o smae ad femae proagoss (ONe 985a h 4) ur hsmoouure refguraes sef as dfferee' by meas of sagos pursus of prof sex drugs peae heah use adprogress Here ers are hyperme a ase hh udesexeue ome ho hae proe hey a be ers h he

agos uure of goba hh ehoogy ad orporaeapasm Tha s hy s mpora ha femaes o be exudedfrom he busess ad soa see professos ad espeay hahey o be exuded from he poe ad mary fores obaapasm s usexua ad offers eery proshe ad hera peu ad o he moobodes requred o sere s ay of feAgas hs promse ADS may be udersood o osue apoea goba pa o o fros; amey (a) a cisis ojlegitimation a he ee of goba usexua uure; ad (b) a cisis

ojoppotunit he herapeu apparaus of he efare sae adhe eraoa meda order ADS hreaes o produe a cisisoj cultual legitimation beause emps hghy ommeddduas o hdra from he usexua uure of gobaapasm ad o reoue s spef deooges ha (a) sex s hemos mae expresso of freedom ad hoe he markesoey; (b) sex s osumpe ad o eessary produe;() sex s gederess ufamed assess ad homeess; (d)

sexua repars are aaabe hrough he bomeda ad psyharseres of he herapeu sae; ad (e) a hgh rsk behaor obehaf of goba apasm be suppored by s prophya ad proshe ehooges hose umae am s o



O'eill ADS as a Globalizing panic 335

immunize i s members gins he enironmen of heir own riskbehior

The experiene of AS pnis he sexul ulure of globlpilism in seerl wys n he firs ple i hs disppoined'hose who were mos ommied o is ideology of sexul freedomTo is redi he gy ommuniy hs lerned h is sexuliy nnobe plyed ou in he nonymous inimy nd exrordinrily highres of sul on whih were enoyed in he bh houses Thisreeluion hs ken effe preisely beuse gys in fonsiued qusiommuniy mrked by leels of liery ndorgnizionl skill s beyond wh n be found in he V drug lleys(Brnd 988; Almn 988) Howeer heerosexuls' he been

emped o urn gins he gy ommuniy in number of wys hhreen o degrde he iil righs hieble in pilisdemories Business eduionl nd medil insiuions he llbeen srined by he fer of AS A he her of hese delegiimizing srins in he soil order is he immedie lk of nyine gins HV whih would s i were immunize he soieygins is own responses o wh shll ll AFRADS. Shor of ine AS onsiues pni boh on he indiidul life leel

nd on olleie leel where AFRAS hreens o underminehe order of iil liberies To he exen h pni spredsespeilly where AFRAS or he fer of AS generesseondry fundmenlis nd reisionis pnis he sexuleonomy of globl pilism is hreened wih risis olegiimion The AS pni howeer srikes mos deeply ino helegiimion proess when i promps he generl populion in rionlized indusril soiey o quesion he probbiliy lue of

sienifi knowledge wih demnds for bsolue eriny or for heimmedie ilbiliy of drugs suh s AZT where he experimenlonrols nd linil ess properly required my be shoriruiedby he lmor for immedie reduion of suffering fsrking'hope despie he neessrily uious pe of reserh Here modernmedil knowledge is priulrly exposed sine rionl experimen plebo pries nd he ehioegl issues in pienonsen reel he oss s well s he benefis of our ommimen ohe indusri order. This order is hreened less by proposls o

gheoize AS piens howeer poliilly rude suh suggesionmy be hn by ny loss of ommimen o he proools of hemedilizion of helh nd hppiness (O'eill 986) As hingssnd here is onsiderble need o emp some relignmen




between ommunity based mediine opoate eseah andnational medial eseah

At the ey wost the A S pani theatens the libeal ode ofglobal apitalism with a ebabaization' of its soial bondHitheto it was possible to sustain the global phantasy of a soialode without deep ommitment as in the figue of the Ameianxpess man whose editability lies in his edit and whose faith liesin the fition of a ad that would make him at home in the homelesswold of global apitalism Will the Ameian xpess adguaantee immunity against foeign HV tests and een if it did anwe be sue that Ameian xpess will issue its peious ads athome to pesons without a pio H V test O will those who ay

the Ameian xpess ad haing passed an H V test onstitute anew biologial ode of eligible apitalists Howee bizae suhquestions may seem they aleady hae thei ountepat in theexpeiment with ASfee singles lubs What is extaodinay insuh esponses is that they theaten to etun the apitalist ode to apurit rule that is to etun us to a soial ode founded upon aontagion model of soial elations athe than on the pesentontat model of soiety that has been the engine of ou exta

odinaily globaliing histoy f this wee the ultiate onsequeneof the AS pani global apitalism would hae sueeded in ebabaizing itself beause of an unfotunate ontingeny in its sexualultue athe than beause of its othe phantasied theats ofintestella babaism

AS pesents a crii o opportunit in the global ultue of lateapitalism peisely beause its immediate eatues namely (a)autotoxiity; (b) fatality; and () absene o aine enew demandsupon the theapeuti state and its biomedial appaatus to poideinteim ae soiolegal immunity and a aine To do this thesoial and health sienes hae aleady been euited to funishethial eonomisti and pedagogial disouses onfeenespamphlets multidisiplinay eseah and media teatments to thepubli Hee the supply o AS knowledge and pedagogy to thepubli whose feas demand it eates a peet symbiosis betweenstate powe as knowledge on the one hand and knowledge asindiidual powepowelessness on the othe hand. ndiiduals

attempt to lean that only they an stop AS o dinkingdiingo waste wheeas these ae ultual omplexes podued by and{e)podutie of the ideologial and theapeuti ultue in whihthey lie n this poess indiiduals lean that




emanipatory ideologies of the absolute autonomy of the indiidualin all matters of seuality and reprodution annot be pursuedoutside of a framework of institution law and morality whih inturn require large alloations of publi energy. They thereby raisethe question whih we annot onsider here of their ownalloatie position with in the politial eonomy of nation states. Atthis leel we must surely ask how this indiidualized seualeonomy funtions within the new global politial eonomy

The rises of global ulture are at one etraordinarily nationstatebuilding at least with respet to the leels of the therapeutiapparatus of the state and transnational on the eonomi andpolitial leel depending upon shifts in the multinational orporate

agenda. Of ourse these two leels interat so that globalapitalism responds to its own ransstate atiities through thenation state and een through a layer of international ageniesSeen in this ontet AS is again simultaneously a globalizingpani and a national state epidemi mobilizing goernment healthinstitutions from the muniipal leel all the way to the World HealthOrganization (hristakis 986 989. As a global pani ASbeomes a further harge upon the Third World whereas US A DS

s rinially an adaned enomy uban male (age 2040 yearanal partner hazard with drug users and biseual males asseondary transmitters. US AS has benifited from the same traderoutes as other seually transmitted diseases But gay subulturehas been a highly artiulate ideologial element in North Ameriansoiety. The imperial dominane of Amerian apitalism within theglobal system of ourse diffuses Amerian lifestyle ideologiesthrough global mass ulture tourism ommerial and militarytrael.

Thus the global health system is only the promissory side of aworld disease system Eah generates the other Here one againthere is a potential for a rebarbarization of the global order throughquarantine orders immunization ontrol and raism itness theonstrut o f AfroAIS The onept of AfroAS is marelouslysuited to proet on to world history so to speak an Afrooriginfor AS whereas the soioeonomi onditions of blaks andHispanis in the United States and its dependenies are learly the

prinipal soure of Amerian disease rime and poerty. Similarlyin Afria where AS is a widespread heteroseual trouble onemust take into aount shifts in marriage praties due to urban



O'Neill A IDS as a Globalizing panic 339

migation povety and a fagile medial infastutue befoeaializing' the disease (Fotin 987 histakis 988) Yet theseah fo a Simianbased H V endosed by the Scientiic A merican(ssex and Kanki 988) inspies hopes of natualizing a olonial

and lass histoy whose ovewhelming dimensions annot possiblybe edued by the biomedial sienes Sine Ameias intenalblak population is the immediate soue of vitually inoganizableand ineduable V dug uses who ae in tun viewed as thepinipal tansmittes in the heteosexualization of AS a thidisis looms within the US medial system inasmuh as so manymillions of Ameians ae without any medial oveage but ouldhadly ontinue to be ignoed should thei deaths be attibutable to

AS As we have said AS as a global pandemi puts onsideable stess on the intenational (wold) health ode

The U nited States and Afia ae the two epientes of the ASpandemi with espetively 204 and 50 ases pe million despitehuge diffeenes in soioeonomi and soiomedial infastutues. Yet these two entes annot be teated in the same wayas though the one wee the shadow of the othe no an they beallowed to dift apat . n the meantime the wold medial ode will

have to eappaise its foundations bui lt upon Westen biomediineand the olonial powe of its opoate phamaologial institutions(Hunt 988; heneih and heneih 97 Navao 976)National states will vay in thei apaity to sustain the osts ofA S whee these ae pediated upon a puely medial stategy thatpesupposes no state intevention with espet to high isk sexualand naoti behavio These ounties may also take diffeentstanes upon Ameian effots to medialize AS just as they mayo may not oopeate with Ameian effots to polie the inte

national ode on suh othe issues as immigation o envionmentalpollution Similaly it may not be possible to impose allegedly inte national standads of medial and soial siene eseah aossultues whose definition of illness ommunity and knowledge aeknown to vay. To do so emboils suh eseah in ounte hagesof a medial impeialism with whih olonial ounties ae aleadyfamilia (histakis 986 989).

t is a oneit of the Ameian politial ode that beyond its

bodes life is eveywhee shot nasty and butish despite thefat that its own uban sene answes at least as well to suh desiption as any foeign ultue to whih it is thought to apply. US AS




ntenfe the etha ontent of Amean utue n unpeedentedway beaue t theaten to p oe the a wa whh epaatethe h fom the poo, the ubub fom the nne ty and famyfe fom nddua fetye that haenge t By the ame token,

ne th p age ha agey ben a ontut of the meda oeageof AIDS , the tate theapeut ompe ha mutaneouy aheeda ondeabe ontanment of the epdem a one that by andage epone to t admntate nttuton wthout angeoutonay hange to ou fundamenta etha and potaonttuton. So ong a we ae abe to mudde aong n th fahon,we aod the mot atatoph enao enaged a an effet ofthe goba aage of AIDS. Hee, of oue, the utmate beakdown

woud be n the class system a an mmunooga ode and thedetuton of the meda ytem pedated upon uh an odeShot of uh a onfagaton, we may epet a pot to dento ate pot n the hope of peeng the heath of oety byafng t pnpe of haty to goup peeaton. To theetent that th enao deeop, the goba ode w haeoaped nto a babaou onft of natona booga ete eaheekng to peee t own puty wht tyng to emnate the othe

a a pobe ontamnant (O'Ne 985b)

No

h paper ha beee r earer preea a he eh eraa

Ser e r Se a Srra Se Uver Brh

Cba Vaver 3 Ag 988 a he her Cre Se Ceree

Gba Fre he Br, Aberee Sepeber 988, a we a he Pb

Ae ere Cera he B 25 Ober 988

Rfcs

Aa e ( 98) A D in te Mind f A meric ew Yr Ahr Pre

Aa e (988) Lega hrgh aer AS a he Ga

Mvee pp 30-5 Ezabeh Fee a ae M F (e AD: teBurden f Htr Beree Cara Uver Pre

Bra Ae M ( 988) A S Fr Sa Hr Sa P pp

Ezabeh Fee a ae M F (e, A D te Burden f Hitr Beree

Cara Uver Pre

Chra ha A ( 986 eraa Ape A S a H V fe

Cnfrntn A D Directin fr ublic Helt Helt Cre nd ReercWahg aa Aae Pre

Chra, ha A (988 he Eha eg a AS Vae ra

Ara Htin Center Reprt 8(3 3



ONe AIDS as a Globalizing panic 4

hrak Nha A ( 989) Repg a Pae Ieraa Iere

AI r Daealus (prg) 3-3

rawr Rber (977) Y are ager Yr Heah he Iegy a

P V Bag Inernainal urnal jHealh Services 7() 38

r ga (e ) ( 988) A IDS: Culural A nalsis, Culural Acivism abrge

MA MIT PreDaealus ( 989) pea e vg wh AI (prg)

Ehrereh B a Ehreeh J ( 97 ) The American Healh Empire: Pwer,Precs an Pliics New Yrk Ra He

Eex Max a Kak Phy J ( 988) The Org he AI Vr ScienicA merican (Ober) 7

ee Ezabeh a x ae M (988) A IDS The Burens jHisr Berkeey

ara Uvery Pre

r Are J. (987) The P AI Keya' Thir Wrl Quarerl9(3) 97-9.

H hare (988) AI a apa Mee Mnhl Review(Jaary) -25

aw av a G ephe (e) (988) The Glbal Pliical Ecnm:Perspecives Prblems an Plicies New Yrk Harveer Pre.

ke Thy W ( 989) Screens jPwer Ielg Dminain an Resisence inInjrmainal Scie Urbaa Uvery I Pre

The Milbank Quarerl (98) pea e AI The Pb e a

Epe' (ppee )

Navarr Vee ( 97) Meicine Uner Capialism New Yrk Pr

ew Englan ual j Public Plic ( 988) pea e AI ( ) ONe Jh ( 985a) ive Bies: The Human Shape j Me Scie Ihaa

re Uvery Pre.

ONe Jh (985b) T K he re? Buein j he Grauae Schl jIneainal Relains N 3 Nggaa eraa Uvery Japa

O' Ne Jh ( 98) The Meaza a r' Canaian Review jScilg an A nhrplg 23(3) 35-.

ONe Jh (988a) Tehre a he pear Ehy

pp 7-35 I .H Ag (e) Ehnici in a Technlgical Age E

Uvery Abera.

O Ne J h ( 988b) Reg a Per he rkhea B Be

a Jae Ther Culure Scie 5(2-3) 93-58.

Ore Mhae ( 989) A IDS in Canaa Knwlege, Behaviur an A iues jAuls Tr U very Tr Pre

Rya ey aaa ( 988) A IDS A Perspecivejr Canaians Oawa Rya

ey aaa

Rb Gaye ( 98) Thkg ex Ne r a Raa Thery P

exay' pp 273 9 are Vae (e ) Pleasure anDanger EplringFemale Seuali Rege.

Scienic A merican (988) Wha ee Kw ab AI 259 (/ber)

prge av (988) Unersaning A IDS: A Canaian Sraeg Tr Key

Prer Bk

reher Pa A ( 988a) A I Geer a Bea re rre

e r Meag' pp. 92 Ezabeh ee a ae M x ()

A IDS he Burens j Hisr Berkeey ara Uvery Pre




Tee au A. ( 988b Boea souse a Epe o Sgiao

. Ci (e. A : Cutua A ai, Cutua tiim Cabge M A MT

ess.

Waey So (98 g i gap A a t MiaMeapois Uvesty o Mesota Pess

Oll i Profeor of Soiology at York Univerity, TorontoHi publiation inlude Fie Bodies (ornell Unierity Pre98)



The Two ace o Sociology Global or

National?

Bryan S Tuer

ouo

Sine is foma inepion in he fis haf of he nineeenh enuy,soioogy has been geneay impiiy oaed in a ension oonadiion beween a siene of paiua naionsaes and a

siene of goba o uniesa poesses. I deeoped ambiguousyas a siene of he speifi soieies of he indusia wod and as asiene of humaniy Ahough he oabuay of soioogy isypiay ouhed a a suffiieny absa ee o sugges ha i is asiene of uniesa soia poesses (aion' suuaion',nom' o soia sysem' ) , in paie soioogy has been deeopedo expain and undesand oa o naiona desinies Fom asoioogy of knowedge poin of iew, we migh be supised if his

naionaisi pupose wee absen Paadoxiay we migh agueha he geae he soioogis he moe oa he pupose nameyha soioogy deeoped by biian insighs ino onee issues ofoa apiais deeopmen wish o expoe hese paadoxeshough a ommenay on eain assia soioogiss, bu hebuden of his examinaion wi fous on Fane and emany up ohe Fis Wod Wa.

Pey Bysshe Sheey one agued in his A Deee o oetr in82 ha poes wee he hieophans of an unappehendedinspiaion' beause hey possessed a supeio imaginaionAhough I woud no wan o aim suh heoi powes fo soiogiss we shoud a eas expe ha soioogy woud efe, ifpossibe soone ahe han ae he majo ensions and deeop mens of gien soieies Sine he moden wod is isef subje ohe onadioy ensions of gobaizaion and oaizaionseuaizaion and fundamenaizaion of modenizaion and pos modenizaion we shoud expe o see hese onadiions

Tory Cutur Soty (SAGE Loo Nwbuy Pa a Nw lh Vol.

(1990 33358




refeted in te oneptua apparatu o oioogy ite. Mypurpoe in ti paper i tereore to eamine te reationipbetween te emergene o a unieraiti onept o itienip andgoba notion o umanity and imutaneouy to reiew teariou way in wi oioogy a been impiated in tee gobadeeopment

e Gene o Socolog

Atoug te idea tat oioogy i a produt o te Fren andindutria reoution but mediated by te tree prinipa ideoogieo modern poiti (namey oneratim iberaim and oiaim)i ontroeria (Nibet 96) it doe proide an initiay ueu

paradigm or onidering te argument tat oioogy embodie atenion between a goba iene o umanity and a oa diipinein te erie o te nationtate Te probem i tat wie oioogy may ae been a repone to te unieraiti impiation obot reoution it beame intitutionaied oten witin teontet o te eponentia growt o nationa iger eduationytem in te potwar period under te aupie o te tate. I it agoba iene o umanity or impiity te tudy o oa truture

o te nationa ommunity Wr o t Amiaato ooioogy W. E . Moore ( 966) depored te deine o a tradition oEuropean oioogy wi originay regarded te diipine a tetudy o umanity and noted tat te deeopment o te wordinto a goba ytem migt bring about a reia o oioogy wit agoba perpetie Moore identified a number o aia oioogit wo eary ad a iion o a goba iene (Ibn Kadunomte urkeim and Spener) but uriouy enoug negeted todiu audeHenri de SaintSimon (60825). From teantage point o te emerging (re)uniiation o Europe andinreaing awarene o modern gobaity (Roberton 98 ;Roberton and irio 985) SaintSimon ommentary on tereationip between indutriaim and uman gobaiation aproed to be etraordinariy preient.

A an indiidua SaintSimon wa perety paed to eperienete reoutionary impiation o i own epo A member o teFren aritoray wo ered briefy in te Fren army during te

Amerian war o independene e wa ubequenty arreted in 93 and inaniay ruined by reoutionary ange Hi aiure toeure pubi reognition ed eentuay o an unueu uiideattempt in 823 wen e ot ime in te ead een time He



Turner, To Faces o Sociolog 345

miraulously survived only to die two years later after an atak ofgastroenteritis. He left behind him a genuine following and a bodyof work whih proved ruial for the foundation of both soiology

and soialism beause it diretly influened Durkheim (ouldner, 958 ; Lukes, 973) and Marx (Rattansi, 982).I n his philosophial works he advoated positivism as an antidote

to metaphysial speulation, but the ore of SaintSimon' s substantive soiology was dominated by the analysis of industrialism Infat SaintSimon's oneptualization of soial hange antiipatedHerbert Spener' s soiology beause SaintSimon wanted to draw asharp ontrast between militaristi and industrial systems In thefeudal systems of the Middle Ages, the lerial lass enjoyed

politial and ideologial dominane, beause the hurh was aninstitution whih provided soial ohesion With the development ofindustrialism , mi litaristi virtues and monasti virtues of asetiismease to be soially relevant as the soial system turns from theprodution of war to the prodution of useful things, through theorganization of the sienes and arts in the interests of humanity.The old style of militaristi politis is to be replaed by a system ofooperative administration in whih the traditional parasiti lasses

will be replaed by the new' lasses of engineers and industrialistsWhile SaintSimon worked with an idealtypial dihotomy ofmilitaristitheologial and paifiindustrial systems, hereognized that in speifi ases these two systems ould overlap andontinue to persist in given soieties Thus, in De la rorganisationde la socit europenne whih he published with Augustin Thierryin 84, he ritiized the militaristi dimension of England's soialonstitution whih was ombined with industrialism. In order to

establish a European peae, it would be neessary to urtail thisaggressive aspet of English soial organization by uniting Engandand Frane under a ommon parliamenary system (Taylor, 975 3036).

These features of SaintSimonian soiology are relatively wellknown Perhaps what is far more interesting is SaintSimon's visionof an integrated system of European states, the international spreadof industrialism and the emergene of a global ulture. SaintSimon's view of industrialism reating an international order whihwill undermine the legay of provinialism is important from ourpoint of view preisely beause he saw an intimate onnetionbetween the growh of globalism and a hange in the nature of soialsiene The sholars of Europe were already forming soial bonds



346 Thor, Cultur Socit

whih woud haenge the ahai foms of oa onsiousness heagued in L rganisatur of 89 Soioogy was to beome thesiene of the new industiaism whie a eigion of humanity woudepae the deaying foe of athoiism t is this aspet of Saint Simon's teahing whih stuk Dukheim foefuy. An eonomiindustiaism wi not in itsef be suffiient to eate a new moabasis to uopean soieties whih ae in a state of disaay with theoapse of the moa authoity of the papay. n the Nouvauchristianism SaintSimon sought the pinipes whih woudpoide the notion of uniesa unity to bing the sepaate uopeannations into a moay oheent system n his study of SaintSimon Dukheim fundamentay suppoted this nomatie featue of

goba soiaism but he thought intenationay oganized pofes siona goups woud be neessay to sponso and ay these noms

The notion that thee ae impotant and at times paadoxiaeations between goba industiaism seuaized histianityosmopoitan soioogy and soiaism beame a pesistent featue ofthe egay of assia soioogy. SaintSimon's ideas aboutpositiism and soioogy wee taken up by August omte(798857) in his Cours d philosophi whee in oume fou in

838 we find the fist sefonsious fen to soioogy omeeaboated the idea of deeoping soioogy as the pinnae of thepositie sienes and a uniesa eigion as the ohesie foe ofontempoay sienes omte wote to za Nihoas the andVizie of the Ottoman mpie and the head of the Jesuit ode toenouage them to aept the new positie uniesaism Againfoowing SaintSimon omte took the uniesaism andhieahia authoity of the Roman athoi huh as modes ofoganization fo the new ode The new eigion of Humanitywoud hae ituas saints and aendas ike the od faith but itwoud be eoutionized by the spiit of positiism (Koakowski968)

This simutaneous onen fo a siene of soiety and theunifiation of humanity (o at east as a ist step the integation of apeaefu uope) was futhe deeoped by Nemis Fuste deouanges and Dukheim who egaded the uniesaism ofmediea Roman athoiism as midway between the pantheism of

Rome and th e osmopoitanism of th e new industia ode In theTh Elmntar Forms o th Rligious L Dukheim agued thatmoden soieties woud hae to disoe a new set of uniesaysignifiant moa bonds These nomatie eements wee neessay



Turner, To Faces oj Sociolog 47

to urb the impat of utilitarianism indiidualism whih wasanother feature of the new order of industrialism Tragiallyurkheim , in response to erman nationalism and as a onsequeneof the deastation of the First World War on the young men of theurkheim moement or shool, ame to see nationalist rituals andsymbols, rather than professionalism, as the key feature of the newintegratie system replaing hristianity These nationalist senti ments, espeially in Qui a oulu la guerre? ( 9 5) and Allemagneaudessus de tout ( 9 5) were also a reation against the dangerousideas of Heinrih on Treitshke on panermanism We aninterpret urkheim' s soiology, espeially his soiology of moralsand eduation, as an attempt to proide Frenh soiety with an

analytial paradigm whih would ontribute to the restoration ofsoial oherene, whih urkheim thought was threatened by thehedonisti materialism and anomie of rapid industrialization npart, urkheims interest in the problems of soial order inadaned soieties under onditions of organi solidarity had beenoasioned by the risis of the FranoPrussian war The Frenhdefeat ontributed to his sense of patriotism (ukes , 97 : 4 ) .While i t is probably an eaggeration to assert that the raison dtre

of his sientifi researh in soiology was the welding of Frane intoa well organized and well integrated nation (Mithell, 9 : 87), it islear that the idea of nationalism as a modern ersion of moretraditional soures of the conscience collectie runs throughout hiswork.

The inolement of many uropean intelletuals in th e euphoriawhih embraed the opening of the First World War as a panaeafor the risis of uropean ulture and as an antedote to ultural

nihilism snuffed out muh of the uniersalisti legay of nineteenth entury positiism But while the slaughter of 948 made theprospets of international agreements look remote, oer a longerperiod of time the twin themes of nationalism and osmopolitanismwere interwoen in urkheim's soiology and that of his followersn 900 at the position Unierselle in Paris, urkheim offereda leture to a ongress on problems of solidarity in modern soietiesin whih he reognized the urrent fore of national sentiment,but argued that there was also a new and broader soial trend

towards uropean solidarity and towards humanity (Hayward,959). The theme was also eplored by Marel Mauss in a deelopment of urkheim's ideas in Soiologie politique: la nationet l internationalisme (Mauss , 9689, Vol ). In short, the




heme of SainSimonian inenaionalism oninued in Dukheimian soiology despie he devasaions of wa.

Uvl/ ocl

We an define modenizaion in ems of he emegene of onepsof inenaionalism and osmopolianism in so fa as hey beakwih he limiaions, naowness and povinialism of adiion nhis espe, univesalism is bound up wih he gowh of he iy,wih ading opoaions, wih univesi ies and wih he emegeneof a money eonomy The poje of modenizaion is abou heondiions whih give ise o he absa iizen. The disappeaaneof saus as he pimay axis of soial hieahy and he developmen

of noions of ona wee iial poesses whih pepaed hegound fo he elaboaion of moden noions of univesalisiiizenship (Tune, 986, 988). is pefely appopiae heefoe ha Jgen Habemas should laim in The hiloophicalDicoure o Modeity ha Wih Kan, he moden age isinauguaed' (Habemas, 987 260), and i is equally appopiaeha he wo essays whih have dawn mos aenion in he eendisussions of modeniy and pos modeniy have been Wha is

nnmn? nd 'Id o n to om osmo polian poin of view , whih wee boh published in he BerlinicheMonatchrt in 784. As a heois of modeniy, Kan wasineesed in he developmenal possibiliies of a univesalisimoaliy, whih would funion as an aenaive o o eplaemenof (offiial) hisianiy

These poliial' wiings show ha Kans iial wiings onphilosophial issues wee no emoe fom he soial and poliial

issuesof his ime On he onay, hey may be seen as esponses o

he eosion of he univesalism of hisian moaliy agains hebakgound of he Ameian and Fenh evouions. In his aileon univesal hisoy, heefoe, Kan efleed upon he globalimpliaions of he ansiion of human soieies fom babaism oivil soiey a heme ommon o Enlighenmen philosophesand subsequenly developed of ouse, via Feguson and Hegel, byMax ino a hisoia maeialism of wold soiey In ode oundesand his aspe of Kans aile, we should pehaps noe ha

dee zu eine allgemeinen eshihe an be anslaed as ageneal nomaive paadigm fo wold hisoy, while imwebgelihe Absih ould be plausibly endeed as fom hesandpoin of global iizenship In sho, hee is a paallel



Turner To Faces o Sociolog 49

between SaintSimon's ision of an integrated Europe in the ontext of an expanding humanity and Kants essays on uniersahistory enightenment and perpetua peae (Bek 988) Thisparae or onergene is hardy surprising gien the fat that theywere both responding to the (argey impiit) ideas of goba itizenship in the Frenh Reoution Thus Kant argued thatwhie neessity ompeed humanity to surrender indiidua(natura) freedoms in order to form a ii union the highestgoa of Nature was the formation of a perfet human ommunitySuh a goba ommunity oud ony be possibe in a ontext ofinternationa reguation of states. This idea Kant reognized wasfantastia' (from the perspetie nationaisti obeties) but

utimatey neessary if humanity were to progress beyond theondition of perpetua war The fina soution to the Hobbesianstate of nature was the reation of an internationa order of mutuareguation

If Kant inaugurated the modern age then aording toHabermas it was with Hege ( 0 8 ) that modernity beame aprobem beause it was in Heges theory of the eoution of aword spirit that the onsteation of rationaity onsiousness of

historia time and modernity beame isibe and sefonsiousytheorized For Hege the History of the Word is nothing but thedeeopment of the dea of Freedom (Hege 956 456) through aseries of diaetia strugges towards sefreaization through thereek word the Roman period and the erman word For Hegereigion and in partiuar reformed hristianity payed a ruiapart in the emergene of modern subjetiity and indiiduaism nthe subetiity of hristian spirituaity Hege saw the origins of

modern onsiousness but hristianity in modern times hadbeome fragmented and oud no onger funtion as a ommonmoraity and a uniersa ision. With the growing diision of abourand the ompetitieness of bourgeois soiety ii soiety akedoherene and this aienation had separated indiiduas from theommon ream A new ii reigion was required to repaehristianity and to express the new ee of uniersaism andfreedom whih was impiit in modern soiety n ommon with hisontemporaries Hege ombined this iew of hristianity with an

ideaization of the reek pois as a period in whih there was nofundamenta aienation between the priate indiidua and thepubi arena n his ater work Hege moed inreasingy towards aseuar iew of poitia integration beieing that a ii reigion




might deeop to proide the neessary integration for a deeopedsoia system (Pant 973).

t is we known that Hegeianism had entirey ontraditoryimpiations and as a resut diided eary into onseratie RightHegeians and the soaed Young Hegeians of the eft. On the onehand Hege's ideas justified the ritique of hristianity as ony apartia reaization of the uniersa spirit of freedom and egitimizeda reoutionary ritiism of the partiuarities and imitations ofmodern times as an antiipation of a new eap into the future On theother hand Hegeianism proided a reoniiation of the presentand the past beause modern institutions are the fuest reaizationof the ourse of history. Hege s sogan the rea is the rationa was

taken to mean that what exists now (for exampe the Prussian state)is the embodiment of the highest form of rationaity This ambiguitypermitted Popper to ause Hege of instigating the New Tribaism(Popper 945 30) whie other shoars hae argued that there wasnothing in the text of hiloophie de Reht to ustify suh anassertion (Knox 940)

The fat is that we annot understand the ontraditory themes oferman soia phiosophy without an understanding of the soia

struture of the erman states in the eriod ooin the renhReoution Before the Reoution the erman ruing asses andthe ourt had ooked towards Frane for a mode of iiized tasteand behaiour. This preferene for Frenh high uture had drien amajor utura wedge between the ourt the midde asses and thepeasantry ermany was sti a oetion of sma diided andfragmented ities prinipaities and states. n utura terms thisprodued a narrow smatown mentaity whih ideaized the irtuesof sefgoerning towns against the externa threat of absoutism.The peuiarity of eighteenthentury ermany howeer was thatthis ery oaism aso proided the roots of a rapid deeopment ofinterest in goba uture on the part of offiias in the bureauray.The erman state bureauray aso typiay inuded teahers andergymen and thus there was an audiene for a more uniersaistiuture This bureaurati state struture proided the institutionaontext for the deeopment of the ideas of Bildung of eduationon the part of the tate empoyees of the midde asses. There was

howeer no nationa utura entre in the erman states and it wasin the absene of a nationa enter and a nationa pubi thaterman iterary aspirations ame to fous on humanity as a whoe'(Bendix 977: 26)



Tue To Faces o Sociolog 35

Ate the Reolutio the eduated elites eithe looked towadsglad fo a model of libealism whih might poide a alte atie to eolutioay teo o they otiued to deelop otiosabout idiidual ultiatio selfeduatio ad aestheti efie met as a alteatie to patial politis. Thei moal wold iewimplied a itiism of the aistoay whose ultue was thought tobe based o blood spots heay dikig ad sexual immoalitywithout ee ejetig soial iequality as suh The liteatue of themiddle lasses efleted thei de fato eoiliatio with the woldi tems of the itues of diligee estait ad ethial efiemetThese alues of the Bildungsburgertum implied a ambiguity aboutpowe poltis beause the eduated middle lasses feaed eo

lutioay teo fom below ad authoitaia egulatio fomaboe Hee they esaped' ito selfultiatio The deelopmetof haate' was a alteatie to politial stuggle emayi espose to the iolee of the Feh teo wites like oetheembaed lassial humaism ad hoped fo the deelopmet of aidealized global itizey ( Weltbrgertum). This otext led Max toobsee that what Fae had ahieed i the field of eolutioaypolitis it was left to emay to big about i the sphee of

philosophy Hee i the German deolog ad the Critique oegels hilosoph o Right we see Max attemptig to tasedthe limitatios of ema idealism though the deelopmet of amateialisti itepetatio of wold histoy whih would equieMaxism to go beyod the ostaits of a meely bougeois oep tio of a uiesalisti iil soiety

Max a ebe o o Hso

Max's legay to Hegelia idealism is too well kow to equieelaboatio (Aiei 968). The uiesal deelopmet of theabsolute spiit beame the histoial deelopmet of the podutioof the mateial oditios of existee i whih ude apitalism thepogessie haate of histoial deelopmet is mometaily losti the alieatio of labou fom the meas ad objets ofpodutio Howee fom the otaditios of apitalism thepoletaiat emeges as the uiesal lass of histoial hageHowee if we look at Max as a theoist of modeity we a see

the otiuatio of Kat ad Hegel Fo example Thee aspetshaateize apitalism aodig to Max the atioalizatio of thewold the atioalizatio of huma atio ad the uiesalizatioof itehuma otat' (Aiei 968 62). Max's iew of




aptasm was as a esut paadoxa. aptasm subodnated themaoty o the popuaton to a e o enoed msey butaptasm aso destoyed oa tadton povna sentments andthe enhanted gaden o mag and supestton Though tsunvesa mpuse aptasm made hstoy nto wodhstoy. nthe German deolog Max and nges amed that aptasm

pe wl hy he f e na a ae all ve nan

an evey nval ebe f he epenen f he afan f h wan

n he whe wl h eyng he a na exvene epaae

nan. Max an Enge 965 75-6

Ths vew o the wod dynamsm o the aptast eonomy wasuthe ustated by the noton that Asa was haatezed by tsstatonaness and ak o goba sgnane. ndeed the Asatmode o poduton peuded the possbty o ntena hange(Tune 978) t was the Btsh mpe wth ts aways pvatepopety system newspapes and ompettve ommodtes whhwoud stat the evouton n Asa. Beause the wokes have nostake n the natona eonomy the nteests ae n eaty

osmopotan Natonasm and patotsm ae thus eatonayoes whh w wthe away wth the goba deveopment oaptasm. Natona sentment s a bougeos deve to dvde thegobal onsousness o the wokes (Davs 965 Koakowsk 974).

Athough Max was ovety wtng about the goba expanson oa aptast wodsystem we an aso ntepet Max as a theost omodenty. Ths ntepetaton o Max has been deveoped eentyby Masha Beman (982) n Al That i Solid Melts into Air

Beman wants to show that modenst wtes and Max onvegebut aso that the tensons and ontadtons o modensm as anexpeene ae podued by aptasm as anaysed by Max Bemaneads modensm om wthn a Maxst paadgm

gge hw haae enege ngh an anxee png he

ve an an en en e eene an naabe

pee gwh an pge; expann han ee beyn la

nanal an a bn he valy an ene eaph f a

vale n he ae he w ae p e en eveyhn g

(Bean 982 2 )

Max s etany a bant theost o modenty espeay n



Turner wo a of Soolog 5

identifying the destrutive eonomi origins of modern progressand thus in desribing the dark side (the blood and pain) of hangeHowever there remains the suspiion that Marxs aount ofmoderniation is inextriably a desription of Westerniation, andtherefore that his view of global history is a general history ofthe West. In this respet Marxism may share preisely the limitations onventionally assoiated with funtionalist theories fdevelopment. Marx had little or no appreiation for the universalism for example of Islam and he harateristially regardedAsiati soieties as uniformly stagnant. His aount of theprogress of world history in developmental stages from barbarism to ivil soiety was the legay of a Western Enlighten

ment Even Marxs view of European history was inesapablyshaped by the erman experiene of historial hange. Thus Marxsversion of Hegel s view o f the world history was a strange ombination of a global vision with a distintive Orientalist perspetive onthe origins of rational apitalism. In this regard there is little toseparate Marxs aount of apitalist aumulation in the Westfrom Webers perspetive on the revolution fore of Westernrational apitalism in the Gnral Eonom Htor

In Weber the globaliation fore of apitalism was translated intoa theory of global rationaliation The ombination of Protestantasetiism and Western rationalism has produed an irresistiblefe whh will slowly but surely onvert the world into a regulatedand organied soial system within whih there will be litt le room fortradit ion magi or harisma The demystifiation of the world wil lmake everything in priniple subjet to rational alulationAlthough many ultures have antiipated suh hanges only in

postalvinisti Europe and in the Protestant ultures of NorthAmeria has the full fore of the spirit of instrumental rationalismome to full bloom.

Weber ombined a vision of this global proess towards a singleworld rationality with a lear view of the fat that the soial sieneshad to serve a national erman purpose. In his own researh therewas a ontinuous ommitment to erman nationalist objetives Inthe 890s he ondemned the use of Polish and other agriulturalworkers in East Prussia whih he felt represented a longterm threat

to the ultural integrity of ermany (Tribe 983). In his Freiburgaddress on The National State and Eonomi Poliy (Weber 980) it is lear that eonomis has a diret ontribution to make tothe reation of a strong erman state Weber's interest in the



34 Theory, Cltre Soety

Russian revoution was at east party inspired by a traditionaerman fear of ossa avary penetrating ermany via te fatpains of eastern urope. Weber desribed te First Word War asgreat and wonderfu (Kser, 988 8) atoug e did not support te expansion of ermany via for exampe te annexation ofBegium Weber's persistent and overt invovement in te nationapoitis of erman ife obviousy raises issues about te onven tiona interpretations of Weber's dotrine of vaueneutraity Wit out entering into tis epistemoogia issue it is important to eep inmind te fat tat Weber's statements on te issue of soioogy inreation to pratia poitis arose in te ontext of is onfrontationwit te Minister of duation onerning te autonomy of

university professors in te Prussian university system (Weber 973) Te vaueneutraity dotrine is tus more a statement aboutuniversity organization tan about te ondut of soioogiainquiry; it did not proibit Weber from diret statements aboutarmy foreign or domesti poiy.

llul d oolog of Koldg

t oud be obeted tat my anaysis so far as merey stated an

bviu s ppsitin abut the scigy knwege namey tatsoioogists migt be expeted to refet nationa goas and obe tives espeiay during periods of soia risis. n ontintentaurope espeiay were a ermani university system is inoperatio n university aademis are essentiay ivi servants woseresear is expeted in part at east to foow governmentaobetives and assumptions n te Neterands for exampe mostfauty members onsider it perfety appropriate tat te government soud deide te roe of university resear in ut soiety'(Pi ips 986: 65) Tis situation means tat te notion of aa demi freedom' wi ave very different meanings and impiationsin different university traditions and strutures n te ontext ofgovernment dominated university systems it is ardy possibe tosee wat Manneim 's notion foowing Afred Weber of te free foating inteigentsia' or soiay unattaed inteetuas' (ozrehwebene ntegenz) oud mean (Manneim 986) Onewoud expet universitybased aademisasiviservants to refet

nationa indeed nationaisti goas n so far as assia soioogydeveoped a goba vision of reaity it may be tat tis viewdepended more on marginaized and aienated Jewis soars(ureim Simme Benamin Adorno and so fort) tan on anyoter soia group.



Tune Two Fa o Soolog 355

Yet the all ng' of a soologst s also to wde and boade goalswhh would nlude n pnple a ommtment to the unesalsthaate of the dsplne the global featues of ntelletual lfesome noton of sene as a set of pates and ommtments oeand aboe natonal and loal obetes. The ey soology ofknowledge whh agues that soologal knowledge wll be asdetemned by soal poesses as any othe ype of knowledgepemts us to eflet selfonsously on the oaton of a soologstto a global ptue of a sene of humanty n the ontext of theoften oet stans towads a loal o Lttle England' ew ofealty. Soology should on these gounds eflet ths bfuatonbetween a global ew of soology and a ommtment to natonally

spefed eseah tagets.Whle ths obseaton s ntodued as an optmst' obsea

ton on the lmtatons and pospets of soology as a global seneof humanty t has also to be eognzed how fequently soologyand soologsts hae seed entely loal auses. In emanysoology adapted elately suessfully to Naz ondtons(Rammstedt 986) Amean soology has been fequently oopted to see natonalst foegnpoly objets n the poet

amelot affa; majo soology textbooks tend to exhbt loalews of the ontent of the dsplne (oulson and Rddell 970);and ey few mao soologsts hae wtten about soologalpoblems n an ntenatonal let alone a global ontext oexample Pasons's soology s oeshadowed by the dlemma ofhs oet ommtment to Amean demoat alues (Holton andTune 986) and hs lea ntenton to wte a geneal theoy ofaton whh would be eleant to the human ommtment as suh

O to take a ey dffeent example despte the global haate ofthe analytal questons of Habemas's soal phlosophy hsomments on atual soetes (whh ae n any ase athe ae) tendto be paohal n the fous on Westen aptalst soetes(Habemas 979)

Coluo: F-d CWe an expet a deluge of publatons n the 990s on fndesleeeythng. Matn Jay has to some extent paed the way

pematuely pehaps wth fndesle soalsm (988). Thee aeetanly some nteestng possble paallels between 890 and 990.Thee s ou sense of mpendng doom ths tme eologal athethan neessaly mltast although t would be foolhady topelude the possblty of an eomltay dsaste. The geenhouse



356 Theory Cltre Soety

effet the destution of the oone laye the beaup of EastenEuope the Aids epidemi fundamentalist evivals in the woldeligions the geying of the industial soieties and woldwideeligioethni onflits and ommuna vioene offe a dauntingpitue of global atastophe. Many vesions of nihilism andoultual deadene ae now on offe. The notion of the isis ofvalues the ise of the masses and the isoation of the individualwhih was ommon in the 890s may find a esonane today.Similaly eent studies of the end of oganied apitalism' (Lashand Uy 987) might be ompaed (no with efeene to theiontents but to the sale of soial hange whih they addessed) withRudolf Meyes Der Captalm fn e le of 894. In ou

peiod anxiety about the futue has been summaied unde thepefix post as in postmodenism postMaxism postFodism. amassuming that even this unetainty wi ll give way to geate doubtsinvolving a ompaison of ou endofentuy existene with anabsolutist Baoque ultue

Pehaps the isis whih dove intelletuas at the end of the nine teenth entuy into soiology soialism and intenationalism might howeve also find an eho in ou own epoh. uheims efle

tions on SainSimons vision of he neessity fo Euopean ntegation an end to English aggession against he Euopeanontinent and a new siene of humanity might be a valuable pointof depatue fo ontempoay soial sienes to begin to engage(one again) with the tensions between ou loal onens withnational issues and ou voation albeit undedeveloped and ill defined fo a globa soiology of humanity. At the vey least itwould be an intelletual tagedy if the nationalisti and paohialpolitis of the AngloAmeian wold of Thathe and Bush wee toobsue the eal possibilities whih ae opening up with 992 possibilities whih wee not only antiipated but atuallydesibed by Heni SaintSimon in his obsevations on the need fo aEuopean paliament in 84.

Rfrn

Ave S (968 Th ial ad Pliial Thugh j Kal Ma. Cabge:

Cabge Uvet PeBeck L W ( 988 Ka li. New Yk Maca

Bex R 9 Th e Pvce a the Metp the Cae ghteethcet

Gea pp 99 Beav a TN Cak (e Culu ad iCa a H dwad hil Chcag a Uve

Chcag e



wo a oj Soolog 57

Bera M (982) A a Sod Me no A r e Experence o Modern. Ver

Cl MA. a Rel S. (90) Approacng Socoog a CrcaInroducon. Rtege Kega Pa

av H. B ( 965) Nat Ce a Sal Cae th e P f Marx aEge Scene Soce 29 2643

Gler AW. (958) trt t Ee rkhe Soca. New Yrk

Cler Bk

Habera J (e) (99) Gegen Suaon der Ze 2 ve rakrt

Shrkap

Habera J. (98) Te oopca Dcoure o Mode Cabrge Plty

Pre

Haywar ES. (959) Sarty the Sal Htry a ea Neteeth

etry rae Inernaona Revew o Soca Hsor 4 26 -84

Hege GW. (956) Te oop o Hor New Yrk verHlt RJ a Trer B.S (986) Taco aron on Econo and Soce Rtege Kega Pa

Jay M ( 988) Fndece Soca a New Yrk Rtlege

Kler (988) Max eber an Inroducon o Le and ork. Cabrge

Pty Pre.

Kx ( 940) H ege a Pra oop (aary 5 -63

Klakwk ( 968) ov oop ro Hue o e Venna Crce. New

Yrk beay

Kakwk ( 94) Marxt Phphy a Natal Reaty Round Tabe

253 43-55 ah S. a rry J ( 98) Te End o Organzed Capa. Cabrge Pty

Pre

ke S. ( 93) Ee Dure e and or Ale ae

Mahe K (986) Conerva a Conrbuon o e Socoog ono wedge. Rtlege

Marx K. a Ege . ( 965) Te Geran Ideoog. awree Whart

Ma M. ( 9689) Ouevre 3 vle. Par.

Mthel M.M (93) Ee rkhe a the Phphy Natal

oca Scence Quarer 46 806

Mre W E. ( 966) Glba Sgy th e Wr a a Sgar Syte AercanJourna o Socoog 45-82

Nbet R .A. ( 96) Te Socoogca Tdon. Heea

Php . (986) Aera Hlla pp 6469 Bk (e Harvard andHoand N . ver

Pat G. (93) Hege. w verty Bk

Ppper K (945) Te Open Soce and Enee Rtlege Kega

Pa

Ratet O ( 986) Deuce Soooge rakrt Shrkap

Ratta A. ( 982) Marx and e Dvon o Labour. Malla

Rbert R ( 98) Gbaat Thery a Cvlat Aaly CoparaveCvaon Revew 2030.

Rbert R a Chr A (985) Haty Gbalat a Wrwe

Relg Rergee A Thereta Explrat Socoogca Ana46 2 942

Taylr K (95) Henr SanSon 0, Seeced rng on Scence



358 Thory Cltr Soty

u a ial Ogaiai. Loo Croo Hel

Trbe K 983 Prssa Agrlre Gera Pols Ma Weber 892'

a i 2 8 -226

Turer B S 98 Ma a E Oiali Loo Ale Uw

Turer BS 986 Ciiip a Capitali Dba fiLoo Ae Uw

Turer BS 988 au M o Keyes The Ope Uvesy Press

Weber M 93 The Power of the Sae a the gty of he Aae Calg

pera Geray Mia 4 5 -632

Weber M 980 The atoa Sate a he Eoo Poly ai 9 42849

B u is Pofesso of Soiology at the Univesity of ssex.

His aest books inlude Ntzh Dan (with O. Stauth) andStat



The Gobaization of Human Society as a Very

Longterm Socia Process: Eias's Theory

Stephen Menne

revous bpoar furatons were de fo reonal n characer ence

the vcor n an elmnaton srule was usuay confrone sooner or later by

outser roups wth a rouhy equvaent or an even hher power rato n the

presen phase of the menna elmnaton strue, al possbe actors are areayon stae Eas 987b 8990

Any emp o pinpoin he ex beginning of mjor soi rnsformion suh s gobizion is ikey o proe miseding. On heone hnd i is rue s Peer Worsey ( 984 ) hs srikingy wrienh uni our dy humn soiey hs neer exised' bu ony inhe sense h neer before he he possibe ors been on sge one. On he oher hnd some of he proesses whih in his

enury he mde he humn word one he been work inhumn soieies s ong s he speies Homo apen hsexised

In a sns th ptntial fr a singl glbal human scity has

wys exised bu he osion hs no risen uni now. Humnbeings he wys remined one singe speies pbe of iner breeding ommuniing (no of ourse wihou inguisi obses) nd erning from eh oher. They he fied he gobe

wihou ny furher bioogi euion . Pns inses fish birdsnd oher nims diided ino gre number of speies noonger be o inerbreed eh expoiing is disinie piies in priur enironmen nd hus fiing he differen nihes ofhe pne whih oud offer i ing I n onrs he singe humnspeies dped isef o widey rying ondiions on erh bymens no of bioogi bu of ltral differeniion.

umans fle he earth by learnn from eperence an by hann on

Teo Ce oe SAE Lonon Newbury Par an New Deh Vo 7

990) 359371



360 Thor, Cltr Sot

nowee fom one eneaton o anothe. They aape themeve o new

suounn wth the hep of oa anfomaon that tanfomaton n

the fom of soa eveopment an whou fuhe evouonay tan

fomatons beakn the booa unty of the pee Ea 1 98 343)

The longtem soioultual diffeentiation of human goups inaying degees of ompetitie intedependene has been familia tosoiologists sine the days of the Vitoian soial eolutionists. Sohae poesses of integation into lage oodinated units,poesses whih ae the othe side of the oin fom diffeentiation,the two unning togethe in the long tem, though with manyopliated leads and lags oe the shote tem.

These longtem poesses in human histoy hae always been aental onen in the wok of Nobet Elias In his ealy witings,patiulaly in the seond olume of Th Cvlng Pro 939,he foused on what is in effet honologially the middle pat of thelongtem stoy of globaliation and its anteedents in one egion ofthe wold. That is to say, he dealt with statefomation in WestenEuope and, moe patiulaly eleant to pesent puposes, thefomation of tm of tat and the gowth and deelopment ofintestate balanes of powe in the egion though wafae fom the

Mdle Ages o e wee enuy n s late wok , e as beenonened to extend the stoy both bakwads and fowads intime bakwads to the ole of suial units' in human soietyfom its ealiest beginnings, and fowads to the dynamis of thenulea balane between the global supepowes sine the SeondWold Wa.

urvvl U

The life of ealy humans may well hae been, in Thomas Hobbes'sfamous phase, poo, nasty, butish and shot' , but it was nee asHobbes also asseted solitay The pimal ondition of soiety isnot a wa of eey human being against eey othe all the eideneis that humans hae always lied in goups. The pimal onditionappeas athe to hae been one in whih human grop had nopotetion against possible annihilation o enslaement by anothe,stonge, grop than thei own physial stength, weapons, andolltv fighting apaity. n othe wods, people always ied

togethe in goups whih Elias alls suial units He attibutes toMax the uial insight into the fist of the elementay funtionswhih membes of a goup hae to pefom adequately if they ae tosuie as a goup Elias 987d 227 the need to poide food and



Mennell, Globalzaton / Hman Sot 36

other basi wherewithals of life. But there is a seond essentialfuntion, that of ontrolling violene whether in onflitsinternal to the survival group or in onflits between differentsurvival groups. t is a mistake, Elias argues, to see the eonomi'funtion as more basi than that of using and ounterating the useof violene. The two are inextriably linked in proesses of soialdevelopment, and indeed in the earliest and smallest survival unitsare performed by the same nonspeialist people Marx was right topoint out that not until a food surplus was produed ould thereemerge a speialist lass of warriors who took no diret part in theprodution of food. Nor for that matter ould there be priestsspeializing in the deployment, development and transmission of

knowledge. On the other hand, in the long run, a relatively highlevel of physial seurity is essential to the regular prodution of afood surplus Moreover, as populations inreased with sedentaryagriulture, the more irreversibly loked in to agriultural prodution did they beome (Festinger, 983 8 2) The greater theirdependene on grown as opposed to gathered food, the moredependent were agrarian survial units on defene against externalmarauders or the internally disruptive. An agrarian ommunity was

virtually defeneless against organized military bands, unless itould mobilize an army of its own This, as oudsblom ( 989b 89)has remarked, explains the apparent funtional paradox of warriorhood th/nton / warror wa to/ght agant othr warror Thus the onnetion between the emergene of eonomi surpluseson the one hand and speialist priests and warriors on the other isreiproal , not ausally onesided, i n a proess through time

A survival unit in whih there has emerged a ategory of peoplespeializing in the monopolization of violene, and no longersharing diretly in other tasks suh as food prodution, an bespoken of as a state. n his later work, Elias has reviewed thearhaeologial evidene of the early development of the Sumerianitystates, finding in it support for the symbioti onnetionbetween the monopolization of the means of violene and themonopolization of taxation that he had previously emphasized inEuropean history ( 939 Vol. I I 20 25), as well as for the advanehand in hand of the differentiation of soial funtions, the growth

of largesale administration and storekeeping entred on thetemples, and the elaboration of defensive installations (l987d2289).

Over the ourse of human development as a whole, the overall



362 Theoy Clte Soety

tred ha bee toward urial uit larger ad larger both ipopulatio ad geographial extet. The tred i partiularly lear foe look at the larget urial uit exitig i eah ueieperiod Taagepera (978) ha demotrated quatitatiely how,after the ollape of eah of the great empire of the Old Worldthe ext ueedig oe maaged to itegrate a larger geographialarea tha it preuror. The uropea tateformatio proe,to the udertadig of whih lia (939 Vol II) iightfullyotributed i hi diuio of uh ompoet proee a theelimiatio otet betwee ompetig territorial magate themoopoly mehaim, the royal mehaim, ad the tra formatio of priate ito publi moopolie, i oly oe mall ad

relatiely loal itae of the oerall tred i world hitory towardbigger urial uit iorporatig more people ad more territorylia reogize that a full tudy of thi tedey would hae to dealwith the great ariety of ompetitie figuratio i differetotiet at differet tage of the deelopmet of oiety Suh atudy would, for itae hae to how why it wa that the warleader of edetary populatio orgaized a militaryagrariatateoietie were eetually able to mobilize the military ad

eoomi reoure o defeat reurret aio by mgrat pre tate people i the ed quite deiiely The quetio i ot aobiou a it may eem ad the proe took loger tha iometime appreiated. Oly at the tage of deelopmet reahed byuropea oiety i about the fifeeth ad ixteeth eturie didthe power ratio betwee tate ad pretate oietie beome ogreat that the latter o loger poed ay eriou military dager tothe former Suh a tudy would alo hae to look at the role ofmilitary power i tateformatio proee i otiet adperiod beyod thoe lia dealt with i the uropea ae uhwriter a MNeill (982) Ma (986) ad eller (988) haeotributed more reetly to thi tak.

- o SmJut a lear a the oerall tred toward bigge urial uit i theperitet differetial i the ue of iolee withi ad betweeurial uit It i ofte oerlooked that i Volume II of The

Cvlng Poe lia otatly draw attetio to the otratbetwee the tamig of impule toward the ue of iolee wthntateoietie a tamig followig from people beig oe tolie i peae with oe aother (lia 939 Vol. I, 20 ) ad the



Menne Globalzaton of Hman Sot 6

eativey nbided pesistene of vioene in eations btwnstates Yet thee is aays a ose inkage beteen the to evesWafae hethe beteen the many sma teitoies of opeaond the end of the fist miennim AD o beteen states in themoden od does not in ias 's vie stem fom any inheent andonstant aggessive impse in hman beings as individas It stemsathe fom the stte of ompetitive figations in hih theyae aght p hs in the eimination ontest of medieva opeeven a peaeabyinined individa magnate od be ompeed toompete fo teitoy bease if a neighbo gained teitoy, evenfom a thid paty that neighbo's esting ineased miitaypotentia od be a theat to the peaeabyinined magnate.

On the othe hand the same ompetitive figation makes thepoess of intena paifiation essentia; intena dissensions aeextenay eakening and intena ode oganization and taxationstengthen miitay potentia

his toay eationship is a ontining eement in the goth ofgeogaphiay moe and moe insive systems of intestatetensions hih have eventated in the gobaization of hmansoiety ias ( 99 Vo I I 96 04) shos ho thoghot the

ate Midde Ages ngand and the vaios teitoies that ee toonstitte Fane fomed a singe system of tensions he finaexpsion of the ngish fom the system pemitted the ftheonsoidation of the Fenh kings' hod ove the mainand pat ofthe fome moe extensive system he emegene of a moeentaized Fenh state in tn faiitated its fthe expansion east ads eating a ne and ide system of tensions ith the Vaois(ate the Bobons) and Habsbgs as the pinipa poes Aeadyby the time of the hity Yeas Wa in the seventeenth enty thesystem of tensions had spead to invove a the states of ope Itthen ndeent fthe deveopment thogh fthe as. o theeast the Habsbgs and Hohenzoens ee eating empies ofthei on paty ith in and paty otside the od Impeia teitoybt i t as ony afte the Napoeoni Was that Pssia and Astiaahieved a dopoy in emany; the a of 866 then ested inAstia's expsion fom the eman onfedeation and Pssia'shegemony ove the emaining teitoy he intepay of the intena

and the extena is seen espeiay eay in the FanoPssianWa hih shoty fooed and hih ed both to the onsoidationof a singe (thogh admittedy sti fedea) eman state and set thesene fo the to Wod Was of the pesent enty hose ae so



364 Theor, Cltre Soet

caled because toug bot ban in uope tey unfolded witina system of intestate tensions tat was fo te fist time tuly globalin eac And out of tese stuggles te emeged in tun te wold wide duopoistic egemony of te two nuclea supepowes tat asbeen a mao peoccupation of liass old age.

f f ll

Witing on te ee of te Second Wold Wa lias was iglyconscious of te tensions popeling te states of te wod towads aglobal confict but saw te possibility tat in te ong tem teoutcome migt be someting ike a wold goenment

T] a, n ou ay j us as eae, e ynams of neasn neepenene ae

mpelln e fuaon of sae soees owas onfls o e fomaon

of monopoles of pysa foe ove lae aeas of e ea an us, ou

al e eos an sules, owas e pafaon s ea enou An

beyon e ensons of e ne sae ae aeay emen One an see e

fs oulnes of a wowe sysem of ens ons ompose by alanes an supa

sae uns of vaous ns e pelue of sules emban e wole lobe

w ae e peonons fo a wolwe monopoly of pysal foe for a

sil tral olitial istittio ad tsfor t aiatio of t art (1939

Vol I 33 1 , my al

n pat tat passage still seems igly pescient in iew of teemegence afte 945 of intestate goupings suc as NATO, teuopean ommunity, te Wasaw Pact omecon and someote intestate goupings elsewee on te globe. But in iswitings since te 960s lias as been fa moe pessimistic aboutis ealie ision of a single wold monopoly appaatus wit tecapacity to punis states wic beac te peace. In HmanaConto is efections on te fotiet anniesay of te end of tewa in uope ( 985 2), e sees tis as moe emote tan ee Heates te cances of nuclea wa between te supepowes as quiteig He sueys a geat many instances of egemonial stuggles'between statesocieties fom antiquity onwads, and te ege monial fees' wic membes of competing suial units expeienced in te couse of tei stuggles wit eac ote. Tee asbeen no case in istoy, e says 985 689), wee competition

between geat powes did not soone o late lead to waTis competition as been a poweful foce in te globalization of

uman society



Menne Globalzaton of Hman Soty 365

Th mos powrful sasos ar no ls s onsran h an h smallr, lss

powrful sasos whh hav bn rawn no hr orb Tohr y

form a ommon furaon a sruural lnh . Th balan of powr

bwn nrpnn sas s suh ha ah s so pnn on h ohrs ha

ss n vry opposn sa a hra o s own nrnal srbuon of powrnpnn an vn physal sn Th rsul of h lnh s ha ah

s onsanly rs o mprov s powr ponal an sra hans n any

fuur war nounr Evry nras n h powr hans of on s,

howvr slh wll b prv by h ohr s as a wann an a sba n

s own poson hn h framwor of hs furaon onsu a

sba. So ounr movs wl l b s n moon as h wan s amps o

mprov s hans an hs n urn wll provo h frs s o ma s own

ounrmovs (Elas 1 970 1 6970

The paraes between this figuration and that depited by iasmuh earier in the eimination ontest between sma territories inurope are evident but now the sae is wordwide. Indeed theboundaries between opposing power groups are no onger simpygeographia ines Throughout the word and espeiay in thepoorer ountries of the Third Word states' interna axes of tensionfa into ine as if in a magneti fied with the axes of tensionbeween the great powers It is partiuary ear in the ase of

revoutionary and ounterrevoutionary movements in the repubis of South Ameria ( 970: 69). very futuation in powerhanes between Sandinistas and ontras for exampe disturbs the baane of tensions between the great power bosrepresenting a potentia gain to one side a potential loss to theother Moreover these strugges have eonomi onsequenes

In hhly vlop an rlavly prosprous sos h alal hra of

for os no hnr an may vn posvly promo, furhr vlopmn an

nrasn soal walh y n any poor ounry h polarsaon of arvoluonars an ounrrvoluonars usually las only o furhr

mpovrshmn. On los amnaon, a from h ra powrs provs o b a

mr pallav. Basally s man no so muh o asss h vlopmn of h

ounrs onrn as o an supporrs for on s or h ohr . ( 1 970 1

The rather beak view found in iass ater writings has not gneunquestioned Using many of iass own ideas odfried vanBenthem van den Bergh ( 983 990) has arrived at a ower estimate

of the hanes that the rivary between the superpowers wi end innuear war. He argues that nuear weapons have unintendedbenefits they fore the great powers to ondut themseves in a



366 Theor, Cltre Soet

much more pruden and resrained manner han in prenucearimes and ma possiby come o sere in he absence of anyhingye resembing a word goernmen as a funciona equiaen a heinernaiona ee of he cenra monopoy of ioence hed by

saesBoh Benhem an den Bergh and ias ( 987b: 74 5) see he

risk of a nucear hoocaus arising no because any group of peopewih he means o do so seriousy wans o bring abou such a warbu because he bipoar srugge beween he superpowers hasassumed he form of a oblebnfgraton The compeing forceof such an unpanned socia process canno be undersood simpy inounarisic erms ha is in erms of he percepions pans and

inenions of one side or he oher considered aone or he percep ions pans and inenions of each side are in considerabe parformed in response o he percepions pans and inenions of heoher. The wo sides are bound ogeher in inerdependence hroughhe danger hey pose each oher Moreoer a doubebindfguraion ends o be sefescaaing no jus because eachaccumuaes more and beer arms in response o he ohersaccumuaion of arms bu aso for a reason more characerisic of

ias's hinking he recipoca danger enhances he emoie fanasyand unreaisic ideoogy on boh sides.ias' s hinking abou hegemonia feers in inersae confics

is inked in fac o wo oher eemens in his work which a firsgance may no seem reean here: his heory of inoemen anddeachmen in he deeopmen of knowedge and he sciences( l 987b see aso Menne 989: 5999) and his heory ofesabishedousiders reaionships (ias and Scoson 965 ias 976 Menne 989: 539) The emoiona fanasies and beiefsof he anagoniss in reaion o each oher pay as major a par inkeeping he doubebind process going as does he compeiiecircuariy in he deeopmen of weapons. ach side's heyimageinoes a disorion of he ices of he oher side jus as is weimage is an exaggeraed picure of irue. (n The tablhe anthe Oter [965] ias and Scoson depiced he process ofdisorion in he microcosm of a oca communiy where adominan facion iewed isef in reaion o an ousider group

hrough he disoring ens of a minoriy of he bes' and aminoriy of he wors respeciey) Reaxaion of he doubebindprocess may jus be possibe because fear of he bomb may ouweighhe fear and hared of he enemy; bu i can oy be ery sowy



Menne Globalzaton of Hman Sot 6

ahieed beause it equies a hange in the mentaity of both sidesa highe ee of detahment and sefonto i n thei deaings ithone anothe' . And this is extemey diffiut beause

f he aner whch ne rup f humans represens fr the her s hh, the

emvy f thnkn ts fantasycnen s as key t reman h h. f the

fanasycnent f hnkn an knwee s hh an hus s reatyrenatn

w he abty f bh ses brn he suatn uner cnr w as reman

w he aner eve an he eve f fear w reman hh an s n ad fu(Eas 1987b 99).

Neetheess the ey existene of nuea eapons sine 945made the hegemonia fees of the od Wa somehat diffeent

fom the many eaie ones. n ontast to a fome eaponshih made the fighting and inning of as possibe nueaeapons hae as Benad Bodie put it ony utiity in nonuse fothe peention of a. The situation has been summed up asMutuay Assued estution' o MA fo shot. But saysBenthem an den Begh the ion embae of the nuea poes isnot so mad at a and etainy the east mad of a the ays ofthinking about nuea eapons and stategi situations beteen

geat poes. Nlar wapon ma th hav bgn to fnton aan xtal ontrant towar rtrant in intenationaeations Benthem an den Begh sees an anaogy ith the iiizingpoess depited by ias ithin states. Peaefu ondut ithinstates is not a gift fom od: it equies the eepesent theat of thestate's monopoy o f ioene een if that theat at east in Westenuope has been pushed moe and moe into the bakgound. nintestate eations nuea eapons ae the ony oneiabe atenatie to a od monopoy of ioene The MA baane mayhae aquied a iiizing funtion in intenationa poitis: it foesthe poitia and miitay estabishments of the geat poes toestain themsees and to at ith geat ae and iumspetion.Mutuay Assued estution exets pessues toads Mutuayxpeted SefRestaint (in oudsboms phase) Possiby the mostgaphi iustation of the iiizing funtions of MA is the extaodinay engths to hih both sides hae gone to eiminate thepossibiity of the aidenta o unauthoized use of nuea

eapons. The ommon inteests of the nuea oigopoists aguesBenthem an den Begh may ead to thei ating as an extenaonstaint forng othe states to behae peaefuy; but in theonge tem the existene of a funtiona equiaent fo the enta



368 Thor, Ctr Sot

monopoy of the state oud beome a soa onstrant towards sefrestrant, as t w hange states expetatons of eah othersondut He does not see ths as k but as the ony pob wayn whh a peaefu word an emerge.

as remans septa of ths argument, even as far as t goes. Hsseptsm seems to stem n effet from the onuson he drew at theend of Th Cvng Pro that wars between smaer unts havebeen, n the ourse of hstory up to now, nevtabe stages and nstru ments n the pafaton of arger ones' (939 Vo. 33) He snned to dwe on the ontnutes between prenuear andnuear tmes the dangers nherent n nterstate doubebndsreman the same Benthem van den Bergh n ontrast emphaszes the

dfferenes. Before the nuear age there were aways pressures andnentves towards ntegraton on a hgher eve through war,beause there was aways a potenta threat from st other argersurvva unts outsde. Now, wth the fatua ntegraton ofhumanty as a whoe n a wordwde system of tensons, there are noarger survva unts outs de the great powers regme to provde thatnentve And nuear weapons make deveopment to a hgher eveof ntegraton through hegemona war mpossbe: a nuear war

woud resut n a regresson to a h ower eve of ntegraton.urrent deveopments n astern urope may possby endsupport to Benthem van den Bergh, though the sheer speed of eventsmay make both partes to the dsusson seem unreastayautous n ther estmate of the possbtes of the pafaton ofthe goba soety. Te w te ths, of a thngs, requres a ongerterm perspetve than that of the nstant oentator.

Coclusos Mcro/Macro Relaoshs

One of the Ltmot of Norbert as' s thnkng s the ongtermntegraton of humanty and the obstaes t enounters He hastaked the subet from the earest begnnngs n the smaestsurvva unts to he present tght mesh of nterstate and ntrastatetensons wordwde, when humanty perhaps stands at a saddepont: the possbty of goba pafaton on the one sde, and onthe other the hanes of destruton through nuear hooaust oreooga dsaster both produed by the gobazaton of human

nterdependenes.as's most hstoray detaed studes are of the dde phases

of the proess n one ontnent. He has not produed so detaedan aount of the emergene of the modern word system as



Menne, Globalzaton of Human Soet 369

Waestein , fo exampe, though thee ae many points of ontatbetween thei appoahes. ias is sometimes aused of payinginsuffiient attention to the eonomi omponents of the poessbut that is unust . It was in eation to a peaent oeemphasis oneonomis that he tied to show the equa entaity of ioene andits onto, intemeshing with eonomi deeopment and with thedeeopment of knowedge in the oea deeopment of humansoiety

That suh a ompehensie ision of the ongtem stutuaintegation of human soiety shoud be found in the wok ofsomeone popuay assoiated mainy with the study of hangingmannes and soia habitus ought to be no supise. Beause inte

dependene is ias's enta ategoy, he has aways been abe tobidge the gap between mio and maosoioogy with seemingease Note that he aways speaks of dependene not ofdependeny fo powe eations ae aways bipoa o mutipoaand powe atios ae an aspet of a human eationships fom themost miosopi to the most maosopi Beause ias thinks ofpowe in tems of fexibe, abie, baanes oten hanging in adisenibe dietion oe time he is abe to bypass suh debates as

that onening the definition of the peiphey, semipeiphey andoe in whih wodsystems theoists hae tended to beomebogged down. He seeks poess theoies in whih the poessesome into the foegound with phases' o stages' no ongedefined as stationay states but in tems of the ey poesses ofwhih they ae pat and though whih they ae geneated'(oudsbom, 989a: 8 ; f. Menne 989: 768 ) . I woudtheefoe ague that if ias's own witing about the gobaizationof human soiety has ented mainy on the hanes of nuea wathee is muh in his undeying theoetia stategy of geat aue toothes in inestigating many othe aspets of goba soiety. Toeah fo ust one exampe a topi to whih ias himsef has notetuned sine his eaiest wok what about the pospets fo thegobaization of mannes? Afte a, he began his study of theuopean iiizing poess fom the obseation that the notion ofiiization epesented the sefsatisfation of uopeans in aooniaist age. What ae the impiations now fo a wodwide

iiizing poess onsideed as hanges in ways of demanding andshowing espet, when uope and uopeoetheoean noonge oupy the hegemoni position? O do they?



37 Thor Cltr Sot

NoI ere an esewhere Eas avos usn the wor evouton ecep n a srcty

ooca contet he preers to spea o eveopment n a soca conet, o

unerne he very rea erences between booca an soca processes. Ohe

wes, however, eher o not mae the stncton, or use the ermnooy n anopposte sense For eampe, Stephen K. Sanerson n a recen paper (989 an a

orthcomn boo (990 arues or what he cas evoutonsm whou

eveopmenasm Athouh I enrey aree wth hs aument e Eas, he s

pursun a noneeooca, nonunnear orm o wha wou ca eveopmenta

heory he empoys the two wors evoutonsm an eveopmentasm' n

precsey the reverse sense to Eas's usae That s, I thn, because obet Nsbe

( 969 mae eveopmentasm a ry wor amon Amercan socoosts , whereas

n he wo o Brtsh anthropooy an socooy he same connoatons have

emane aache to evoutonsm. The nomencaure s conusn, but n the

uneyn arument here s no sareement I s poness to s separatey Eas 's wrns on he eary orns o human

n an on he presentay superpower baance, snce he so oten eas w h boh

opcs wthn he same boo or arce eevant sources are What is Sociology

( 970 389, 55 , 687; Humaa Coditio (985; Die Gesellschat der

dividue ( 987a 86; volvemet ad Detachmet (987b, especay

pp. v-v o the Introucon wrten or the Ensh eton, an pp 74 5 o the

essay The Fshermen n th e Maesrom The retreat o socoosts no the presen'

(987 See aso aeramp (987, Menne (987 an Menne (989 73

3 A eas n ther ect eans wh each other an ther use o surroates n

counres houhout the wor, to wh ch Eas aue n th e passae u s uote, sse n pa a manestaton o the restant enone on them n rect eans

Rfr

Benhem van en Berh, ore van (983 Two Scorpons n a Bote The

Unnene Benets o Nucear eapons, pp. 99 n am ae (e, Theuture oj Politics. onon rances nte

Benhem van en Berh, ore van (990 The Tamig oj the Great Powers

Aersho ower.

Eas, Nober (939 The Civilisig Process Vo I, The History oj MaersOor Bas Bacwe, 978 Vo II, State ormatio ad Civilisatio [USA

Power ad Civility Oor Bas Bacwe, 98 (o erman eon 939

Eas, Norber ( 970 What is Sociology? Lonon utchnson, 978 (or eman

eton 970

Eas, Norbe ( 976 Een theoretsch essay over evesnen en butenstaaners , n

N. Eas an John L. Scotson De Gevestige e de Buitestaaders Utecht het

Specrum (Ensh or. The Established ad the Outsiders onon Cass, 965

Eas, Norber (985 Humaa Coditio Beobachtuge zur Etwicklug der

Meschheit am 0. Jahrestag eies Kriegsedes Mai . Franut

Suhamp.Eas, Norber ( 987a Die Gesellschat der Idividue ranu Suhramp

Eas, Norbe ( 987b Ivolvemet ad Detachmet. Oor Bas Bacwe.

Eas, Norbert (987c On uman Bens an The Emoons A rocess

Socooca Essay Theory Culture Society 4 (-3 3396 .



Mennell Globalzaton of Hman Soet 7

Elas orbr ( I 987 Th ra of Socoloss no h Prsn hery Culture iety 4 2-3 22347.

Elas orbr an Scoson ohn 1965 he Estalished ad the Outsiders

onon Frank Cass

Fsnr on 1983 he Huma Legay w York Coumba U nvrsy Prss

lnr Erns 1 988 Plugh wrd ad Bk: he truure j Huma Histryonon Collns arvl

ousblom ohan l989a uman sory an onrm Socal Procsss

Towars a Synhss of Chronoloy an Phasooy ' pp. 1 1 25 n .

ousblom E ons an Sphn Mnnll Huma Histry ad ial

Press Er Unvrsy of Er Prss.

ousbom ohan 989b Th Formaon of Maryararan m

pp 7992 n ousblom E ons an Sphn Mnnll Huma Histry adial Press Er Unvrsy of Er Prss.

afrkamp ans 1 987 From h nrasa o h Inrsa Cvsn Procss'

hery Culture iety 4 23 5457

Mcll lam A. 1 982 he Pursuit j Pwer ehlgy A rmed re adiety sie AD 000. Chcao Unvrsy of Chcao Prss

Mann Mchal 1986 he ures j ial Pwer Vol. Cambr Cambr

Unvrsy Prss

Mnnl Sphn 1987 Commn on afrkamp' hery Culture iety 4

23 55961

Mnnl Sphn 1989 Nrert Elias Civilisati ad the Huma emage

Ofor Basl Blackwl.

sb obr A 1 969 ial Chage ad Histry w York Ofor UnvrsyPrss

Sanrson Sphn K 1989 Evouonsm whou Dvopmnalsm Two

Mols of Eplanaon n Thors of Socal Evoluon papr prsn a

Amrcan Socolocal Assocaon Annual Mn San Francsco 1 Auus.Sanrson Sphn K 1990 ial Evlutiism A Critial Histry Cambr

MA Basl Blackwll

Taapra n 1978 Sz an Duraon of Emprs Sysmacs of Sz ialiee Researh 7 10827

orsl Pr 1 984 he hree Wrlds Culture ad rld Develpmet onon

nfl an colson.

p Mll s Pofesso of Socology at Monash UnestyMelbourne. Hs latest books ae Norbert las Clsaton an theHman Semage (Backwel 989 and Hman Hstor anSoal Proess (wth ohan oudsbom and L. ones Unerstyof xeter Pess 989).



Privatization and the Pubic nfuence of

Reigion in Goba SocietyPeter F Beyer

Sine at east the 960s, many soioogists have put fowad thenotion that eigion in the ontempoay Westen wod has beomeineasingy pivatied Most pominenty, Taott Pasons (9664) Pete Bege (967 f), Thomas Lukmann (967 0),and Robet Beah (970 4) intepeted seuaiation in themoden wod to mean that taditiona eigion was now pimaiythe onen of the individua and had theefoe ost muh of itspubi' eevane. Peope wee vountay adheents to a puaity ofeigions, none of whih oud aim patiay to be binding on anybut its own membes

Whie thee ae etainy impotant vaiatons on this oe idea,hee annot be the pae to engage in a pope ompaison (see

obbeaee, 984; 985). nstead, in what foows, onentate onNikas Luhmanns vesion, not ony beause beieve it addessesetain pobems inheent in othes, but pinipay beause it aowsa ea eamnaton of the poblems and potental of eigon inontempoay goba soiety. I The thesis that expoe posits thatthe gobazaton o ot wh trtra aorng pratzaton n rgon ao pro rt gron or th rnw pbnn o rgon By pubi nfluene, I mean that one o moe

eigions an beome the soue of oetive obigation, suh thatdeviation fom speifi eigious noms wi bing in its wakenegative onsequenes fo adheents and nonadheents aike; andoetive ation in the name of these noms beomes egitimate.

This thesis depends on a speifi anaysis of pivatiation. Theefoe, begin by ooking at Luhmann 's anaysis of pivatiation. Theopeative Luhmannian distintions used in this anaysis ae thosebetween pofessiona and ompementay soia oes and betweeneigious funtion and pefomane expain these tems beow. ague that, in so fa as pivatiation efes to the ise of puaisti

Ter Culture Scet ( Lono Newbury Par an New Delh), ol 7

(990 373-395




eligion among individuals it eflets basi stutues in modensoiety stutues whih in themselves do not undemine thepossibility of publily influential eligion. The poblem of publiinfluene is then boken up into thee inteonneted agumentsFist if eligion is to be publily influential it is not enough thatthee be a high level of individual eligiosity whih adheents thentanslate into eligiously inspied publi ation t is also not enoughthat eligious leades and pofessionals fom and onentate thateligiosity in oganizatons and movements whih institutionalizeeligion. This is a peequisite fo eligion as suh not just publilyinfuential eligion What is equied fo publily influential eligionis at a minimum that eligious leades have ontol ove a sevie

whih is lealy indispensable in todays wold as do fo instanehealth pofessionals politial leades sientifi o business epets.Seond the globalization of soiety signifiantly altes the ways thateligion an attain suh publi influene A global soiety has nooutsides who an seve as the soial epesentatives of evil Withoutthese the foes of good also beome moe diffiult to identifyundemining fo instane deontologial moal odes and thesaliene of othewoldly salvation. Thid theefoe eligion will

have a ompaatively diffiult time i n gaining publi influene at thelevel of global soiety as a whole but suh influene will be easie toattain if eligious leades apply taditional eligious modalities fothe pupose of subsoietal politial mobilization n repone to theglobalzaton of oety.

A u V of vzto

n key ways Luhmann's soial theoy agees with that of PasonsBege and Lukmann All fou see institutional diffeentiationand plualisti individual identities as basi featues of modensoiety. The institutional sphees whih Luhmann alls funtionally diffeentiated soietal subsystems speialize aound speifikinds of ation fo instane politial o eonomi. Seulaization isthe onsequene of the elative independene of these subsystemsfom eligious noms values and justifiations. Luhmannhoweve goes on to say that in this soiostutual setting eligionnot only eteats somewhat fom many impotant aspets of soial

life but also omes unde pesistent pessue to develop an institu tionally speialized subsystem of its own As with BegeLukmann and Pasons taditional eligion suffes the fate ofompatmentalization but with Luhmann in piniple not moe so



Beye, Relgon n Global Soet 375

than othe mao funtional aeas of life, suh as the politial andeonomi ones

The Luhmannian position begins to make a distint ontibution

to the piatization debate when one looks at a ental stutualfeatue of these soietal subsystems the diffeentiation of pofessional and omplementay' oles (see Luhmann, 982a: 236;obbelaee, 985 38 ) These oles ae itial fo stutuing theelations of indiiduals to the mao institutional domains In theommunally stutued soieties of the past, indiiduals belonged tospeifi status goups Suh membeship lagely pedeteminedaess to soietal funtions aess to wealth, powe, knowledge,eligious status To a geat extent, it also detemined the pofessions a peson ould follow In moden, funtionally stutuedsoiety, this way of detemining the aess of indiiduals to soietalfuntions beomes poblemati beause it negates that dominaneof funtional diffeentiation How, fo instane, an eonomiationality dominate in the eonomy if, not only the ability to pay,but also goup membeship detemines who an be a ustome? Iffuntionally speialized insti tutional subsystems ae to be the pimestutual featues o f a soiety instead of status goups, then status

goup membeship annot on its own detemine aess to soietalfuntions Something else has to do this Aodingly, modensoiety has deeloped what Luhmann alls omplementay soial

oles As in past soieties, an indiidual usually only oupies one ofthe speialized pofessional oles suh as doto, politiian, entepeneu, o piest; but now she also oupies an inlusie set ofomplementay oles suh as patient, ote, onsume, o beliee,one fo eah subsystem. These mediate aess to the benefits of

funtions Sine, howee, unlike with pofessional oles, the samegien peson an oupy all these omplementay oles, the fun tional intefeene impliit in this onentation pesents a poblemsimila to goup membeship it theatens the elatie independeneof the mao funtional subsystems It is appaently too muh toexpet indiiduals to neutalize this impliit intefeene themselesin any onsistent way Indiidual pesons do not neessaily diidethei onsiousness in the same way that soiety diides itsommuniation, although some paallels exist (f Bege, 979) Afuntional equialent is theefoe found in the statistial neutalization, as it wee, of the onsequenes of this intefeene We ome tosee many of the deisions inoled in these omplementay oles as apiate as opposed to a publi matte Suh piatization of dei



376 Theoy, Clte Soety

sonmakng aepts that we sometmes do onsume aodng toegous onvton o ast ou vote on the bass of aesthet tea;but suh oveappng s n pnpe nobodys busness but ou own .

Hene the ndvdua patten of ntefeene beomes moe dffutto ommunate to the pont of statsta o pub sgnfaneFom the Luhmannan pont of vew then pvatzaton of de

sonmakng s a onsequene of enta stutua featues ofmoden soety . n pnpe t does not efe moe to egon thant does to pots o the eonomy Eseay n Westen FstWod potons of goba soety ndvduas vountay hoosethe egous onvtons and pates as we as the potadeas and aton These may nude membeshp n a huh o

paty but need not A peson may vote eguay o she may not ;s/he may pay o not ven that few f any obseves woud amthat suh pvatzaton makes pots a mno paye n gobasoety t s theefoe nsuffent to am that egous ommunaton must dene n soeta (e pub) mpotane smpybeause of the pvatzaton of muh ompementay oe desonmakng.

Rigio drhip d Pbic ni RigioIn the Luhmannan sheme a oespondng pofessonazaton ofpub aton s as mpotant as the pvatzaton of ompementayoe desonmakng. The muh dsussed se of the epet nmoden soety efets a soostutua stuaton n whh pofessonas beome the pme pub epesentatves of soeta subsystems Typa featues of pofessona oes suh as standads ofompetene and odes of pofessona eths ustate ths apaty

The nomatve ues of pofessona ompetene and pofessonaeths both stess funtona system potes n pofessonaaton They hep to dffeentate pesona denttes nudnggoup denttes fom what the nsttutona sytem does; and soenfoe the eatve ndependene of both the soa systems andthe ndvduas nvoved n them

To be sue soeta subsystems do not onsst of pofessonaaton aone. Pvatzed ompementay aton s st an ndspensabe pat of the system et beause pofessonas moe osey

epesent what eah system s a about the pub mpotane of asystem ses o fas wth the pub nfuene of ts pofessonas

The meanng of ths hypothess of ouse depends on themeanng of pub nfuene have gven a bef defnton above



Beye, elgon n Global Soet 377

and teat this topi in geate detail in the setion on lobaliationand Religion below. Hee it is enough to say that publi influeneefes to the level of impotane pofessional ation has outside

the naowe audiene of fellow pofessionals and voluntailyassoiated membes of the publi Pivatiation of eligion wouldthen, in a Luhmannian view of the matte, tanslate into a ombina tion of pivatied deisionmaking in mattes of eligion pl aelative deline in the publi influene of the publi epesentativesof the eligious system, the pofessionals o leades

An illustation at this point seves to onetie the agumentsomewhat. The issue of pofessional and, theefoe, systeminfluene manifests itself well in the eent ontovesy ove the

possibility of old fusion . Fom the naowe viewpoint of siene,the wok of Pofessos Stanley Pons and Matin Fleishmann mayhave been of geat signifiane It hallenged some impotantpevailing assumptions in the fields of hemisty and physis Yetwhat vaulted this issue onto the font pages of the wolds newspapes was not the disputed sientifi disovey as suh, but itspotential impliations fo eveyone, inluding those uninvolved insiene The potential applaton of this bit of pue sientifi

eseah ae what give it its oveiding publi impotane And byextension, it is suh faeahing appliations that lend the sientistsand the entie siene system thei publi influene. If thei wokhad withstood the onslaught of sientifi sutiny, individuals,opoations, institutions, and ounties that ignoed o denied thenew sientifi nom would have faed possible negative santionsanging fom loss of pestige to eonomi downtun Even thoughPons and Fleishmann wee pobably wong, the episode demon

states the powe of the system that they epesent as pofessionalsThe question fo eligion and eligious leades is unde whatiumstanes wil l we all listen to the new evelation o the evival ofthe old? The answe annot lie in eligion doing what siene does,what the eonomy does, o what any of the othe speialied funtional sphees do fo us The effetiveness of this speialiation,what Pasons alled adaptive upgading, i s, afte all, one of the keybenefits of the soiostutual shif to funtional diffeentiationThe answe must theefoe lie within the domain of eligion itself

Like siene, the eonomy, o the health system, eligion mustpovide a sevie whih not only suppots and enhanes the eligiousfaith of its adheents, but also an impose itself by having fa eahing impliations outside the stitly eligious ealm



38 Theoy, Clte Soety

Pa bu ony pa of he answe ies in he sengh of heeligious insiuions hemselves: individual eligiosiy and oganizaiona sengh ae essenial if eligion is o be a viabe soial foe aal Neveheess if he influene of eigion is o go beyond heoganizaions and hei immediae adheens moe has o happen is in his onex ha onempoay eigiopoliial movemensae of paiua inees They ae expii aemps o eae he soof pubi infuene fo eligion ha am alking abou Whehe inLain meia Noh meia he Middle as o esewhee hesemovemens and hei leades asse ha eigious noms and valuesmus o some degee be made oleivey binding ha hey gobeyond he hoies of individuas These movemens impy ha

eligion offes a sevie ha is neessay fo eveyone and ha isno he same o simila o wha is offeed fo insane by heeonomi sphee o he sienifi sphee

The iia pobem of ouse is o know wha soiologialyhis essenia eligious sevie is nswes suh as ulimae meaning'(eg Belah 90 Bege 96) o ompensaos fo unavailableewads' (Sak and Bainbidge 98) beg he quesion as owhehe and unde wha soia ondiions hese hings ae essenial

laiming ha eligion inegaes soieies as does he Dukheimianadiion in soiology makes he empiialy unwaaned assump ion ha eligion does o even an pefom his ask addess hisissue in some deai in he seion on obalizaion and Religion'beow Befoe poeeding o his howeve i is neessay oinodue a fuhe Luhmannian disinion ha plays an impoanoe in subsequen agumens is aeady impii i n many of hepeeding agumens abou he possibiiy fo publi infuene ofeigion in moden soiey

ad a

s noed fo Luhmann he enal suual feaue of modensoiey is diffeeniaion on he basis of funion nsiuionalsphees use aound paiula kinds of soial aion on he basisof elaivey auonomous funional aionaliies. These sub sysems inude poiy eonomy siene eligion law eduaiona healh and he famiy. The auonomy ha eah of hem exhibis

is ea enough bu i is heavily ondiioned by he fa ha manyohe sysems ae also opeaing in he same soial milieu The abovedisussion of omplemenay and pofessional oles oulined aena suual feaue of his boh auonomous and ondi



Beyer Relgon n Global Soet 79

tioned One important theoretia onsequene is that there is adifferene between how a subsystem reates to the soiety as a whoeand how it reates to other subsystems uhmann anayses theformer in terms ofnton and the atter in terms ofpeomanen the present ontext funtion refers to pure reigious ommuniation aiousy aed the aspet of deotion and worship (fParsons 967 9ff) the ure of sous the searh for enightenment or saation Funtion is the pure sared ommuniationabout the transendent and the aspet that reigious institutionsaim for themsees the basis of their autonomy in modern soietyReigious performane by ontrast ours when reigion isappied to probems generated in other systems but not soed

there (f uhmann 977 54ff; 982a: 2842) xampes of suhprobems are eonomi poerty poitia oppression or famiiaestrangement Through performane reigion estabishes its impor tane for the profane aspets of ife; but in so doing nonreigiousonerns impinge upon pure reigiousness expressing the fat thatother soieta onerns ondition the autonomy of reigious ation

Funtion and performane are more than anayti ategoriesdependent on uhmannian theory for their importane A rea ten

sion exists between the two Historiay arious reigious institu tions hae sought to effet a ear separation between them nWebers terms aseti and mysti reetions of the word haesought to eiminate mundane demands from the purey saredream The mediea hurh onsidered the aseti monk on a surerroad to saation than those immersed in profane ife; the ederHindu haing ompeted his duty of raising his famiy retired tothe forest for the proper pursuit of reigious goas Neertheess

funtion and performane are aso inseparabe and mutuay reinforing ndeed it is ony in modern soiety and in the eisuredupper asses of some traditiona stratified soieties that the twobeome eary differentiated at a Buddhism for instane did notbeome a word reigion unti it ompromised its reigious purity andmade itsef suitabe for ife in the eeryday word n modern timesthe pratia athoi orders inoed in eduation pubi wefareand heath are were instrumenta in aowing the Roman hurh tomaintain its infuene in predominanty athoi areas suh as Latin

Ameria Quebe and the Netherands (see for exampe Mainwaring 985; eine 98; Beyer 989b; oeman 979)

This ast exampe iustrates the ritia importane of performane reations for reigion in the modern word As the exampe of




Pons and Feishmann from the siene system impies the nonal probem of reigion in the modern word is atuay a per

ormane probem but one exaerbated if not aused by thepeuiarities of the reigious funtion . Therefore i f pure' reigion isat a disadvantage i n modern goba soiety if it is beoming inreasingy privatized hen a possibe soution ies in finding effetivereigious appiations.

A further onsideration onerns the roe moraity pays in thereation between reigious funtion and performane. n the past asin the present most reigious traditions have inked reigiousommuniation and soia probems through mora odes. Themoraization of reigion or the deveopment of a reigious ethi has

aowed the interpretation of soia probems as onsequenes ofsin ignorane or simiar ontravention of reigious norms.onforming to these norms then beomes the soution to the soiaprobems. stabishing reigious performane through mora odesis however striy dependent for its eeiveness on soiastrutures that favour moraity as a privieged form of soia regua tion. The frequenty heard ament that our soiety is beominginreasingy immora or amora poins to he fat that modern

irumstanes do no favor moraiy in s way. usiness peope utprofi and market share ahead of mora onsiderations . Poitiiansie misead and oherwise ompromise their prinipes in order toget and maintain power . et reigious eaders oninue to tak aboutsin whether persona or soia. The privatizaion and oss of pubiinfuene of reigion are osey onneed with the simiar fate ofmoraity t is to a disussion of this proosition that I now turn.

Globalzaon and Relgon

The notion tha here is a reigious sysem whih is funtionaydifferentiaed within and ou of modern soiety reay ony takes onits ompete signifiane wen one appreiaes hat this differentiation is intimatey onneted with the gobaization of soiety. Weannot separate te seuarization of modern soiety from itsgobaization . Here annot be the pae for a proper eaboration ofthis admittedy imporant stateent (f. Luhmann 982b 984).Suffie it to say tha enering mu ommuniation around seifi

funtions instead of speifi grous o peoe (status grous) resutsin greater weah more eeive poiia power more sophist iatedtehnoogy in shor ommuniation whih breaks hroughgeographi barriers unti no unaffeed opuation remains on



Beyer, Relgon n Global Soety 81

erth The question of onern here is wht does this imply forreigion in gener nd for the tsk of religious leders nd theirorgniztions in prtiur?

n Luhmnnin theory, the hrteristi ommunition of ehmodern funtion subsystems revoves round entrl diho tomy whih is lso the fous of professionliztion (f Luhmnn 977: 9ff) These dihotomies onsist of positive term nd itsnegtive opposite Thus , for instne, the world of siene operteswith true/fse, the eonomy with owning/not owning, rt withbeutiful/ugly (or, perhps, inspiring/uninspiring) n religion,immnene/trnsendene tkes this pe (see Luhmnn, 977: 46; 987) Here, however, the sitution is omplited by the holisti

view of reigion just s reigious ommitment implies the whoeperson, so the religious dihotomy uses the whole world s itspositive term, immnene n other words, the word tht, forinstne, siene pprohes with the differene between true ndfse sttements, reigion identifies s the immnent However, s inethe whole nnot s suh be the topi of ommunition or theobet of onsiousness i e . , it does not distinguish itself fromnything tht is not itself the trnsendent funtions to give it

definition But, s every mjor religious trdition shows only toolerly, the trnsendent is ot nything whih n be tlked bouteept in immnent terms Hene religion lwys dels with thesimultneity of immnene nd trnsendene, s in the Middlestern onept of divine retion or the Hindu onept of my

The ony stble soution to this fundmentl reigious problem isto speify the trnsendent in terms of immnent tegories,espeilly those tht struture soil groups nd soil reltionships(f Durkheim, 965 462ff; Dougls, 1970; 975) Peope see therules tht govern their everydy lives s refletive of the osmiorder Bd things hppen to them to the degree tht they fi to liveup to the ethil nd ritulisti requirements of the osmos throughtheir soil reltionships (f Weber, 978: 529ff.; Berger, 967:24f.) This ose ssoition of soil nd osmi rules obtins inpreliterte soieties, in trditionl soieties, nd in modern globlsoiety. t lso holds regrdless of whethe one is tlking boutonservtive or trns formtive religion. The key point is tht the

osmi order, however oneived, is ipso fto universlyppible Sine humn beings hve no hoie but to epress thisuniversl order in terms of prtiulr soil order, tht soi orderbeomes the bttleground between idel nd rel, epettion nd



382 Teor Cltre Soet

disappointment, good and evi l . Religion and its quest for salvation'(harmony, enlightenment, happiness) are then what life is all about .The problem of religious influene arises only when religion tries toenompass too many lives that are manifestly about' differentthings.

Historial and anthropologial data show that there are manydifferent ways to struture soial existene, and hene many differentonstrutions of osmi order. This variety does not present greatproblems as long as ommuniation between soieties is restritedand internal variety is limited. When these have ourred, oldersoieties have solved both these problems by emphasizing theboundaries between soial groups. Differenes in religious expres

sion, inluding the behaviour that this implied, were one of theprinipal ways of drawing or maintaining these boundaries Usingterms more suited to the modern ontext, one an say that to be amember of a partiular soietal group was to be an adherent of thatgroup's religion . n more omplex older soieties divided into stratified status groups, religious membership and soial group member ship were still more often than not idential; but the dominant statusgroups, in an effort to bolster and express their ontrol over a

greater soial diversity, usually attempted to style their religion asdefinitive for the soiety as a whole, often in the form of an overarhing osmology that made the norms and values of the upperstrata, that is, their oral ode, the presumptive standard for allbehaviour roup membership and its defining norms were still inti mately related to osmi order but now this assoiation laimed tobe relevant and binding for a far wider ariety of atual lifeworlds.The resulting pressure towards abstration and generalization of themoral ode produed more unified and hierarhial osmologies,

first in the form of hierarhial pantheons with the good gods at thetop then inreasingly in the form of monotheisti or henotheistiviews. These either identified the morally good with the transen dent as in the Abrahami religions and thereby more thoroughlymoralized religion. Or they posited a transmoral' realm beyondgood and evil as in the Tao, Brahman, or Nirvana The esoteri,mystial, and soially elit ist nature of these latter onepts indiatesthat too great an abstration from speifi group moral rules yields a

religion with limited influene in the larger soiety (f Star andBainbridge, 1 987: 1 1 3 1 5) Here, moreover, as in the aseti andmystial movements of the West, religious funtion and perfor mane were beoming learly differentiated for the first time, fore



Beye, Rlgon n Global Sot 8

shadowing the pobem of eigion in moden soiety.The ose assoiation between moa odes, goup membeship,

and eigion in pemoden soieties did not sove the pobem ofintegoup o intesoieta onfit. Rathe it meey stutued it .Reigion's oe in this stutuing was often itia. n situationswhee one soieta goup theatened anothe, o whee thee wassimpy ompetition, the enemy oud be intepeted as the embodi ment of evi, as the negation of the oet eationship betweensoia ode and the tansendent that one's own goup epesented.In ustifying the onfit, eigion pomoted the suviva o expansion of the goup and its utue.

An exampe fom taditiona histian theoogy an both

iustate what I have said thus fa, and ay the agument futhe. Hee, a pesona, good od epesents the unity of theimmanenttansendent distintion though his eation. Thehaateistis of this unity ae eevant fo human beings thoughmoa behaviou that is oneived in tems of the affimation odenia of the fundamenta immanenttansendent eation: i.e.,od and his ue ove eation. The possibiity of affimation odenia is epesented in the fist instane by the possibiity of sava

tion o damnation, both dependent again on the quaity of indi vidua behaviou The individua sou, the pesonaization of thisovea quaity (howeve detemined), stands befoe udgement onthe basis of its moa haate. The possibiity of denia o evi ispesonified in the devi, who embodies evi not simpy as immoabehavio but as the denia of the dependene of the immanent on thetansendent and thus its unity and thus od The key to theviabiity of the entie pitue is the assumption that we an expeteveyone to ive moe o ess by the same moa ode She who doesnot , fo whateve eason, aknowedge and ive by this ode deniesod. Suh a peson is the moay and eigiousy othe, the outastthe one beyond the pae, onetized and made visib in theexistene of tue outsides, whethe Jews, babaians, Saaens, osimpy the enemy who pesonifies o aies the maks of the devi.To the extent that outsides have the oppotunity to beomeinsides, they an be saved' not simpy by abstat moay goodbehaviou, but ony by eigious onvesion (f. Luhmann, 987).

The onsistent haateization of the tansendent as soue andguaanto of the goup 's moa noms made t possibe to give Satanthis unequivoa, pesona pesene And Satan was essentia toshow the impotane of od and savation The eigious eades of



384 heor, Cltre Soet

traditional hristian soity ould rprsnt thrats to th group asoutsid thrats whthr by atual outsidrs or thir imputd moralountrparts within th soity. By tying th pur rligious goal ofsalation to a partiular soial ordr in this way, thy also assurdth rlan of rligious norms and hn thir own influn.

Th soital shift to th primay of funtional diffrntiationundrmind this symbiosis. Th autonomy of funtionally spifirationalitis runs ountr to a priority of ommunal group boundaris For xampl, in soitis whr ommuna boundaris prai l popl at aording to th traditional norms of thir group ultur.What w do and what is good for us ar th sam thing. I n modrnsoity whthr on ats ri or potatos with hopstiks or a fork

ar inidntal or oluntary priatizd hois. On a publi llhalth onsidrations, unirsally appliabl to all popl takpriority. Th rsultant globalizing tndnis of soity haradially altrd th onditions undr whih th moralizing solutionis still possibl on the level of oet a a whole baus th groupnow inluds ryon. Th situation of rligion in global soityaltrs orrspondingly. Sh who usd to b th unquioaloutsidr is now oftn litrally my nighbor, whthr I appro or

not Th outsidinsid distnton dily at hnd for rinforingth intrnal moral ods of ommunal, and hn trritorialsoitis boms at last diffiult to maintain or th long run i n aworld of irtually instant global ommuniation, itslf a on squn of institutional spialization . Not only dos th ladr ofth il mpir ral himslf to b lss than totally il whn mtfa to fa; mor importantly, it is inrasingly diffiult not to mtwith him, not for moral rasons, but for primarily politial andonomi ons. In th pross morality has lost its ntral struturalposition . Translatd into mor thologial languag, th globalization of soity dos not lad to th dath of od as som thologians of th 960s assrtd . od is stil l in his han and his will sti llruls th world; but th isag of th dil i s boming inrasinglyindistint. Th rsult is that od an still b lod, but it is mordiffiult to far him is stil l thr, but dos h mak a diffrn?Is salation still ssntial; or will it bom th priatizd proliityof a minority similar and not suprior to othr lisur pursuits? On

th global ll th problm of spifying th transndnt and thusgiing th ntral rligious dihotomy maningful dfinition mustb addrssd anw.

With this dlopmnt, a prim historial solution to th problm



Beye Rgon n Goba Sot 85

of speifying he ansenden has been undeined alhough onlyon he leel of soiey as a hole. The ondiions and ipliaions ofusing he old soluion hae been aleed. Religion and in he uenonex eligious pofessionals ae heefoe faed wih a dilea:whehe o addess he onepoay poble of eligious influenewihou he old soluion o by easseing i.

ah of hese pahs has is aendan pobles. n wha follows all he he onseaie and libeal opions. The fis wouldoespond o he easseion of he ealiy of he deil and heseond o he aquiesene in his dissoluion. sing he disinionas a poin of depaue wan now o exaine how onepoaydeelopens in global eligion efle he suual endenies

oulined hus fa . n he poess again ake up he aious heesinodued aboe bu speifially he noion h egadless ofwhih opion is aken publi influene fo eligion will be found inh e dieion of eligious pefoane; while aion onenaingon eligious funion will oninue wih eain exepions o be hedoain of piaized highly plualisi eligiosiy.

rvae Funon and ubli erormane

he libeal opion addesses he enal poble of deeining heansenden only in a ey weak fashion: hee is eil in he woldbu i anno be onsisenly and lealy loalized o pesonified. isa liiaion in all of us in all ou soial suues. is espeialllyno o be found in he fa of plualis inluding eligious plualis. f anyhing he opposie is ue: i noleane and paiulaisiasipion ae a pie soue of eil. Religious pofessionls wihhis aiude end o be euenial and olean. hey see opa

able possibi liies fo enlighenen and salaion in hei adiionand in ohe eligions. he enal heologial poble of hisopion as iis (e.g. Kelley 972 Bege 979) poin ou is hai akes few eally rgo deands: i oneys li le speifiallyeligious infoaion ha would ake a diffeene in how peoplehoose; o ha people ould no ge fo noneligious soues.

Pofessional esponses o his poble unde he libeal opionefle he diffeene beween funion and pefoane oulinedaboe. In es of funion he endeny is o oien he oganiza

ion owads helping seies inluding he elebaion of ipoanlife passages and of ouse he ue of souls' fo hose who feel heneed (f. Bibby 987 fo exellen anadian daa) This esponseaoodaes iself o wha he piae adheens eidenly wan.



86 Thory Cltr Soty

Funion onenae on piae oie . od i peaed a beneolen and no waful i only eal eque i a peope iiaei aiude in ei elaion wi oe. Ei exi bu i i anegaie defiieny o be fied and no a poiie peene o bedeoyed. Moeoe eigiou eade wi i euenia aiudeae piked up e uniealii oienaion of elii ain in eao wod eigion e poibiliy of enigenen fo al, epoibiliy of wido fo all, e poibiliy of alaion fo alNow, owee, a pa of e gobaiaion poe, eeyone iinuded, and no ju uppe aa iuoi wi e eiue fo ufuniona peiaizaion Te obinaion of puai and inluion exude ey few fo e iually auoai benefi of e

eigiou funion.Reigiou eade and oganizaion a foow e i bea opion

eefoe ae diffiuy in peifying bo e benefi and eequieen of eigion in funional o pue fo Ti indeeinay a ed e o a eliane on pefoane elaion o eeabi e ipoane of eligion and ene e infuene of eeigiou ye. Hee, ofen gobay oiened iue anging foay ibeaion o poliia oppeion ae poiding e oppouniy

o ow a eigion ead o benefi and deand a a fa foinignifian.

To epea, e Luannian iew of pefoane ee i a eaep by one ye o adde poble a ae geneaed inoe ubye bu no oled ee A u, e pobleaddeed by eigiou pefoane ae no eigiou pobe a a ,a ea no diely. Te ouion, eefoe, wile eligioulyinpied, wi end o ake on e aaeii of e age ye

eonoi ouion o eonoi pobe, poiia ouion opoiia poble, and o fo. Te aep o onfo o iuualy enouaged paen i aaeii of e ibea opioninau a i oeae wi e bai uue of oden oieyTee i e oniion a eduaional poble ae no going o beoed by adeene o e adiiona fai a eal pobeae no going o be oled by ediaion, poiia pobe no bye oe exeuion of iua Inead, e ibeal opion eun oe ouniaian pa of eigion o define i appiaion a a

wi i onened fo e ouniy a a wole. In i odenae, owee, uaniy a a woe i e ouniy and eeigiou ak i o wok fo e fule inluion of al people in ebenefi of i goba ouniy (f Bien and Sannon, 977



Beye, elgon n Global Soet 87

770 0746) . Hene elgou leade of t deton tyle tepoblem of global oety n oepondng tem onflt amongvaou eto of te wold ommunty attbutable n lage patto te magnalaton of ome (ofen te maoty) fom ytembeneft lke adequate nome, poltal patpaton, ealt ae,eduaton and o fot. et, te noton of a global ommunty vey geneal and vey vague, nludng a t doe a vat vaety ofgoup ultue and ndvdual l fetyle. Te tylng of te appledelgon n tem of a global ommunty n fat eflet te bengnfuntonal meage of te lbeal opton. Combned wt te epetfo e ndependene of ote ytem, notably te poltal, tmay wok agant u atvty beng eogned a pefally

elgo ommunaton, a ometng tat elgon doe fo u.Wle t a poblem, t doe not mean tat u elgou atvtyannot be effetve.

An example may elp to llutate t pont . eneally, lbeatonteologan (and te Ft Wold paallel) epeent te lbealopton. Tey ae onened wt ute and peae, value tat pontto te egaltaan nluon of toe magnaled fom te beneftof moden nttuton. T pefeental opton fo te poo

eet tadtonal elgou ntepetaton n favo of a ontextualteology w ue peent expeene a te ba fo findng teoet elgou undetandng. Lbeaton teologan do notpeent one patula goup ultue and t elgon a beng loeto te dvne wll tan ote. Wle te alleged oppoton of tepoo' and aptalm ometme ome loe to beng an oppoton between good and evl tee elgou leade geneally tete latte fo t eaton of vat, global nequalte and not fobeng an alen wold vew detutve of te tue and good odetat one own goup epeent. Aodngly, tey alo do notdouage elgou plualm. Te t of lbeaton teologyaue tem of avng lot te pefally elgou (e.g . , Ratnge)o of offeng eonom and poltal oluton tat do not aodwt eonom and poltal ealte (e.g., Novak) (f. Beyman, 987 79200). One attak n tem of funton, te ote ntem of pefomane. n fat, lbeaton teology plae pmayempa on elgou pefomane. Wle pue elgou belef

and pate ae mpotant, tey ae o only to te extent tat teyontbute to te allevaton of oal ll , leadng to an empa onpax entally, lbeaton teologan epond to te pvataton of elgon by eekng a evtalaton of te elgou funton n



Beye, Rlgon n Global Sot 389

libeation theology, the plualism pemitted on he level of funionimplies an equal plualism on he level of pefomane Theefoe,o the exen hat eligious leades, suh as hose in Noh Ameianlibeal Poestan huhes, an ontol hei oganiaional levesand take a unified publi stand on issues, to that exent hey isklosing an appeiable poion of thei adheens, egadless of thepatiula sand taken (f. Hadden, 970; Bibby, 987). Mobiliaion beomes a seious and onsant poblem in his espe. In heabsene of addiional, noneligious measues (espeially diepolitial involvement), eligious leades ae lef wih he kind ofpesuasion that in the hisian tadiion is alled evangeliaioneliane on voluntaisti, pivate deisionmaking with is aendan

fissipaous plualism.n spie of his diffiuly on he pa of he libeal opion, its

eligious osmos does oelae wih he suual endenies of aglobal soiey, as he above agumen has outlined. To he degeetha global soiety ontinues o beome a moe solid ealiy, helibeal opion migh be seen as he end of he fuue In hemeanime and a leas fo the foeseeable futue, howeve, i is nohe only possible dieion.

The onsevaive opion (the eassetion of h e adition in spiteof modenity), fa fom being meely a howbak oelaing withbygone soial suues, is in fa the one tha is making eligionmos visible in todays wold is a vial aspe of globaliation andnot a negation of it. iven the dietion of the peeding analysis,this assetion equies a bit of explanation

Fo pivate faith, the onsevaive opion implies a eassetion ofhe tadiional view of tansendene, often expliily as a nomaiveesponse to a soiety (he wold') that is seemingly heading in adiffeent and evil dieion. The pesent analysis would onfimhis impession: he onsevative opion has fewe poblems wihtansendene but finds iself in onfli wih dominant tends inglobal soial suue Neveheless, eligious leades and pofessionals who oient thei oganiaions o his kind of pivateommied eligiosity ae basially offeing a vaiaion on he libealfuntional esponse aommodaion to pivate polivities inmates of eligion but with a holisi emphasis that an but need

not esul in setaian oganiaion. onsevaive eligion, fomthis point of view, only onadis moden soial sutuesto the exent that it emphasies idividual, pesonal holism in thefae of diffeeniaed (and hene impesonal) soial stuues



90 Thory Cultur Soty

onentate on egou funton and tend towad atatonwth the dffeene that the vate egou eeton oe oftennude the eeent of hot otent and onentaon onounty odaty. oneate egon on the ee of funtoneond to oe of the obe date between the tutue ofeona yte and the oeta yte. t theefoe efetoden tutue athe than negatng the.

want to ake a a aguent wth eet to the efo ane eone unde the oneate oton what ee to beunnng agant gobaaton and odenty atuay bette eena efete of t abet n a ey dffeent way when oaed wththe bea oton. o exan th eque a hot dgeon.

obaaton n the Luhannan ontext ued hee doe notean the netabe eoutonay oge towad a goba eado Weten odenty Suh deeoenta nadequate notony beaue the ea fat negate uh a ooton but aobeaue fo the theoeta ont of ew gobaaton houdhae a ofound effet on the foey tetoa oete of theWet a t hang on othe foey tetoa aton aoundthe wod U unt the dde of the twenteth entuy the Wet

ay we hae beeed that t uefu ea exanon of theeou fou entue wa eentay a oneway teet. oday thuon ady eeang tef fo what t .

he etane to o eha bette dgeton of gobaaton naou at of the onteoay wod ha gen e to oeent nfoed by the oneate egou oton otaobaton a the ee (efoane of the egou fath.Whethe the oant Wetoxaton n the Mdde Eat o thedffuty of akng Aea geat agan the obe a .n the Wet foe outde (the Soet the aanee the Aabet a.) ae undenng the ongtandng ota eonoand genea utua donane of the Wet he Wet an ey eand e on t eono ota (eeay tay) and entfght to aue the ontnued hegeony of t utue On the hoefont the funtona dffeentaton whh uh a key aet ofgobaaton ontnue to bng about ad hange n the od oetutue the fay oaty and egon n the nonWet n

te of neaed ota ndeendene ando eono owe nany aea Weten utua atten t ee to be beongneangy donant. What aea to oe n the Wet a oaeono and ota dene of the own utue aea toany n the nonWet y a ontnued Weten utua



Beyer, Rlgon n Global Sot 9

eonomi and politial imperialim. Wit it lear tie to ommunalgroup ulture, bot in te pat and till largely in te preent,religion i an obviou andidate for truturing a repone to bot .

Many of te religiopolitial movement tat ave prung up inreent deade a ll around te world reflet t i development. n teWet, for example, te New Religiou Rigt in te United Statebattled to retore te old Wetern dominane. raditional ritianmoral value, ombined wit an empai on free enterprie andvigorou defene againt ommunim, would retore Ameria ate great nation od intended it to be. n te nonWet varioulami movemen from ndoneia to Nortern Afria, forintane, are attempting to build onrete pat toward te long

deired eparation of modernization from Weternization. n manyof tee ae, and ertainly in te one jut mentioned a example,te religiou leader oniouly adopt te onervative option.Weter it i te vil mpire or te reat Amerian Satan , tereappearane of te devil a tat wi give definition to teranendent ignal a return to te traditional way of makingreligion apable of ommuniating publily eential information.Far from being a mere yearning for imagined bygone day, u

reaertion i a logial outome of a globalization wi agenerated and ontinue to generate fundamental onflit amongdifferent region of te world

Wen politial and eonomi repone to tee onfit fail,religiou performane may be able to fill te brea. Sine teaderent to te variou religion around te world are till by andlarge loalized, leader an often expre regional onfit anddiparitie in religiou term. Here, te onervative option,

grounded a it i in traditional, ommunally oriented oietie,offer ditint advantage t olution to te problem of tranendene allow an approximate diotomization of te world intote religiouly pure and impure, into u and tem. Su a learreligiou meage an, under te orret ondition, lead to ue ful mobilization of entire population. Politiization on tireligiou bai ten beome a way for region to aert temelve inte fae of globalization and it onequene Hiterto, te motviible example of u onervative religiou performane move

ment, in te lami Middle at and in te Sik Punab, aveourred after prolonged, unueful politial attempt to addreproblem attendant upon modernization and in te wake of ignifiant inreae in regional wealt (f. poito, 987; Aromand,988 Leaf, 985 Wallae, 988). i ombination of fator i



392 Theo, Clte Soet

pobably not aidental Te modenization tat oelate witglobalization i not imply benevolent let alone egalitaian tdetoy a well a eate Te attempt to gain ome tanendentpepetive on ti itoial poe i undetandable epeiallywen immanent tenique u a puely politial nationalim,oialim opendoo apitalim eulaized eduation and eveneonomi poge all eem to fail . f te neeay definition of tetanendent mean applying te eligiou oelate of bygoneoial tutue to te vey diffeent diviion of today ten tionly indiate tat ontempoay tutue do not offe a elf evident altenative

Religiou movement gounded in te onevative option

ontat wit tei libeal ountepat in a numbe of way itialamong tee i te onevative notion tat te publi influene ofeligion ould be uppoted by law mpotant eligiou nomould be enined in legilat ion; tey ould not ave to ely on ademontation effet fo tei influene Te onevative eli giou leade of tee movement lay geat te on a patiulagoupultual moal ode a te manifetation of divine will n aglobal oial envionment wi i geneally ooive of goup

ultual boundae and wi eeoe enouage egomoalplualim tee i little ope tat one ultual outlook will pevailon te bai of it own unique meit. Te altenative i to gainontol ove a limited teitoy ominated by te patiula ultueand ten ontol plualim witin it Ti nationalim' a etainlybeen te goal of te New Religiou Rigt in te United State Sikextemit in Punab, te politiized ultaotodox amp in aeland lami fundamentalit in te Middle at Te fit and te

lat of tee even enviage te global pead of tei goup ultueafte te initial national ue Ti diffeene between te libealand onevative option empaize te degee to wi te latteue and einfoe te egmentay and teitoial diffeentiationwitin te moden global politial ytem of tate. t i anoteexample of ow te onevative dietion witin global eligion iefletive of te tutue of global oiety and not jut a eationagaint tee

ndeed, wat ave been alling te onevative pefomane

option fo eligion in te moden wold doe not at fit glane eemto aod well wit a pimay of funtional diffeentiation One ofte moe expliit aim of many of te movement unde utiny ito dediffeentiate many funtional aea mainly eligion and



Beyer Relgon n Global Soet 9

poitis but aso reigio ad the famiy, reigio ad eduatio,ad others. Howeer, dedifferetiatio i the absee of aateratie strutura base suh as was proided by stratified statusgroup differetiatio i oder soieties, is sti a respose toprobems of gobaizatio i terms of a primay of futio.Reigious moemets ike the Iraia reoutio wat to soe oera soieta probems by giig the reigious system ad its auesfirst pae amog the arious futioa spheres. Like eoomidomiae i the ieteethetury West or poitia domiae ithe Peopes Repubi of hia, a strategy whih attempts toombat the effets of futioa domiae uder the baer of thereigious system a perhaps best be see as a ritia aom

modatie respose to a gobaism i whih futio domiates Itmay stem the tide of moderizatio ad some of the more disruptieosequees of gobaizatio for quite some time i partiuarregios, perhaps ee uti the goba system oapses uder theweight of its ow iteray geerated probems. But it does otegate the fudameta struture of goba soiety

ummar and Concuion

sum, regardess of whether the futioa diemma regardig thebasi reigious dihotomy is soed i a ibera or oseratie diretio reigio i the moder word takes o a priate or a pubi faedepedig o whether oe is ookig at reigious futio orreigious performae. It is, therefore, ot simpy a matter ofgreater or esser priatizatio. Priatized reigio otiues todeeop i a myriad of puraisti diretios aross the fu rage ofreigious possibiities from supererogatory asetiism to eudaemo

isti iberaity, from ommitted setariaism to pieemea brio age. For the eaders ad their orgaizatios reigio seems to begoig i oe of two diretios oetratio o miisterig topriate reigious hoies or eterig the poitia ad pubi area.The atter diretio itsef otais two possibiities: a eumeiaoe that ooks to the goba probems geerated by a goba, fu tioay differetiated soiety ad a poitiamoemet oe thathampios the utura distitieess of oe partiuar regiothrough a reappropriatio of traditioa reigious atagoisti

ategories. Both represet possibiities for pubiy ifuetia rei gio that are diret osequees of the gobaizatio of a soietywhih eourages ireasig priatizatio.




N1 Vwng th goba at a a oct not a omnant poton bt t a k

apct of th agmnt I pn n th atc hav otn aon fo th

tan wh an thfo w not attmpt to gv a f jt fcaton h S

B ( 1989a2 ho mphaz that th copnta o thv a v ch

pbc t on th wa that a n nva cobn con wthn tho o that

pvatz

Fo th xamp of Qbc B 1 989b

Rf

Ajoman Sa A (1988 The Turba for the Crow The Isamic evoutio ira w ok Oxfo

Bam Ggo ( 1 975 eigio ad ieatio Theoogica eadig of ocioogyw ok at

Bah Robt ( 1970 Rgo Evoton pp 200 n Beyod Beie Essayso eigio i a Post-Traditioa Word w Yok ap Row

Bg t (1967 The acred Caopy Eemets of a ocioogica Theory ofeigio Gan Ct Doba

Bg t (1979 The eretica Imperative Cotemporary Possibiities of

eigious ffirmatio Gan Ct Doba

Bman hp ( 1984 The eigious oots of ebeo Christias i Cetra

merica evoutios Makno Ob

Ban hp ( 987 iberatio Theoog The Essetia acts about the evoutioary Movemet i ati merica ad Beod w Yok anthon

B t F ( 1 989a Goba an Incon p p 95 n Wa Swato( eigi Poitics i Goba ad Comparative Perspective Wtpot CT

Gnwoo

B t F ( 1 989b Th Evoton of Roman Cathocm n Qbc A

hmannan oFnctonat Intptaton pp 126 n Rog OToo (

ocioogica tudies i oma Cathoiism won Y Mn

Bbb Rgna W ( 1 987 ragmeted Gods The Povrty ad Potetia of eigioi Caada. Toonto wn

Coan John A ( 1 979 The Evoutio of Dutch Cathoicism Bk Unvtof Cafona

Dobba Ka ( 1984 Scazaton ho an Socoogca aagm

Convgnc an Dvgnc oia Compass 1 199219

Dobba Ka ( 1 985 Scazaton Tho an Socoogca aag A

Rfoaton of th vatbc Dchotom an th ob of Socta

ntgaton ocioogica aysis 46 7787

Doga Ma (1970 Natura ymbos Exporatios i Cosmoogy. w Yok

Vntag

Doga Ma ( 1 975 SfEvnc pp 276 8 n Impicit Meaigs: Essays i

thropoogy onon: Rotg Kgan aDkh E (1965 The Eemetary orms of the eigious e (tanat b

Joph Wa Swan w Yo F

Epoto John (1987 Isam ad Poitics v 2n n Sac Sac

Unvt



Beye Relgon n Global Soety 395

en ee K (970 The Gatherng Storm n the Churhes New o

Doube.

Kelle Den ( 972 Wh Conserate Churhes Are Growng New o pe Row

ef Mu J ( 985 The Punjb C Asan Sure 2547598evine Dnie (98 Relgon and Polts n Latn Amera The CatholChurh n Veneuela and Coloma Pnceton NJ Pnceton Unvet.

ucnn Tho (967 The nsle Relgon The Prolem of Relgon nMode Soet. New o Mciln

uhnn Ni l ( 977 Funkton der Relgon. Fnfu Suhp.

uhnn N (982 The Dferentaton of Soet (tnte b Stephen

ole n Chle oe New o Colub

uhnn Nil (982b The Wol Socet Soc Ste nteatonaloual of General Sstems 8 3-8

uhnn N i l ( 984 The SelDecipton of Soce Cii Fhon n Socologcl Theo nteatonal oual of Comparate Soolog 25 59-72.

uhnn N il ( 987 De Untecheung Gotte' pp 23653 in Soologshe

A ufklrung Betrge ur funktonalen Dferenerung der GesellshaftOpen Weteutche Veg.

Minwing Scott (985 The Cathol Churh and Polts n Bral .Stno Stno Unvet

Mnwng Scot ( 989 GRoot Cthoic Goup n Po c n Bz

pp 5 92 n Scott Mnwing n Alexne Wile (e. The ProgreeChurh n Latn A mera Note De IN Unvei o Note De

OBen Dvi J n Shnnon Tho A (e (977 Renewng the EarthCathol Douments on Peae uste and Leraton New o Doube

Ige

Pon Tcott ( 966 Relgion n Moen Plultc Societ Reew of

Regous Researh 7 2-46.

Pon Tlco ( 967 Chnt n Moen Inut Soce n SoologalTheor and Modern Soet New o Fee Pe

St Rone n Binbge, Wl S (987 A Theor of Relgon New

o Pee ng

Wlce Pul ( 988 Sh Mno Aue n In Feel Se pp . 256-73

n Joeph T. OConnel e l (e Skh Hstor and Relgon n the TwentethCentur Toonto South An Sue, Unvet o Toono

Webe Mx (978 Eonom and Soet An Outlne of nterprete Soolog 2

vo Guenhe Roh n Cu Wtch (e Beee Unveit of Cfon.

Br is Assisan Pofesso in he Depamen of ReligiousSudies a he Univesiy of Toono, anada He has published aanslaion of Niklas Luhmanns wok, Relgo Dogmat an

the Eolton o Soete and is uenly ompleing a book oneligion and globalizaion



Archecure, Caal and he Globalzaon

of Culure

A nhony Kng

A topi as ambitious as that indiated in my title imposes bothonstraints as well as obligations onstraints in that if it addressesthe onerns of pratitioners in arhiteture and urban design as wellas aademis in soiology, geography and ultural theory , it annot

be theoretially overambitious; obligations, in that it must,however, find a oneptual voabulary whih is available to all.Moreover, the proets of these different audienes do notneessarily oinide arhitets and urban designers have to designbuildings and ities (or parts of them) in a way that soiologists donot have to design soieties; or not , at least , in the short term (onemight say that Marx left a large number of design briefs aroundwhih, had he lived long enough to pik up the fees, would have

earned him a small fortune)But the task of developing a ommon oneptual framework andvoabulary is learly an urgent and important task Arhitets,planners urban designers indeed all those professions whih dealwith the realities of the built environment, need and in many ases,also want) to understand questions onerning for example, thelongterm eonomi, soial or politial outomes of partiulardesign poliies or deisions, or the meaning of different buildingforms in various ultures, or issues relaing to the soial organization of spae, whether at the level of the building or of the ity t isonly quite reently, however, that soial theorists have begun to takea serious interest in suh questions (at a theoretial, not an appliedlevel) and many of the debates are still onfined to questions ofspae , soial relations and spatial strutures and do not address,as shall disuss below, a more differentiated notion of the builtenvironment and its relation to a vast array of soial proesses

The larger problem want to address an be put, in oversimpli

fied terms, in the form of three questions

Theoy Cultue Soiey Lnn Newb P n New De

1 99), 394 1 1



398 Theor Cltre Soet

What is the ole of the multifaeted foes of intenationalapital (eonomi, politial, tehnologial, soial), and the builtenionments whih they help to podue, in ontibuting to thehomogenization of ultue on a global sale?

This hypothetial question an be boken down into two moespeifi issues

2 What is the ole of the physial and spatial built enionmentin ontibuting to a globalization of ultue?

Hee, I am suggesting that globalization' an mean eithe theeation of homogeneity (whee eeything beomes the same) o,following Robetson (98) the eation of heteogeneity (odiffeene) as a repone to globalization am subsuming unde the

wod ultue' both the mateial ultue of the built enionmentitself as well as the systems of meaning, ation and symboli fomswith whih this is onneted

3. What is the moe speifi ole of ahitetue, uban planningand design, undestood as distintie, pofessional ultual paties, in this poess of globalization? Hee, am seeing ahitetueand uban design o planning as patiula ultual industies whihmight be ompaed, fo example, with othe mao sphees of

ultual podution suh as the lm, deo, o musi nduses heealms of teleision o adetising the imagepoeting andonsiousnesstansfoming industies, all those industies whih, inshot , in the onditions of ontempoay apitalism and along witha aiety of othe foms and poesses, ontibute to the onsti tution, onfimation o eonstitution of human subetiity andultual identity I am suggesting, in bief, that ahitetue andplanning, indeed, all the design pofessions , ae potentially maoinfluenes in ontibuting to the tansfomation of ultue on a

global sale

Howee, in talking about the podution of the built enion ment, I also want to distinguish between the ations of indiidualsand oganiations (maybe indiidual ahitets, fims of deelopeso muniipalities, agenies of one kind o anothe) and the lagestutues and onditions in whih they opeate patiula modes ofpodution o foms of soioeonomi oganization and politial

ontol fee maket apitalim, state apitalism, soialism, welfaeapitalism o distintie egional o een naional ultues. This iswhat we ommonly aept as the stutueageny question.

I might be thought that to ask suh uestions is simultaneously



4 Theor Cltre Soet

1 980s as bn t dcad in wic all comanis not last tos inarcitctur and dsign srics a gon global'.

On o f t bst amls is tat o f Jaans constructioncontractors wic a undrgon a major rocss of intr

nationalization in t last dcad T lack of ublic works in Jaanand dclining rofits romtd larg cororations to go global' int 1980s ld of cours b t surfit of Jaans caitallooking for rofitabl sits for instmnt Btwn 1 98 1 and 1 988Kumagai Gumi onc a smallscal Jaans contractor modfrom 5t to 6t lac in t world's to intrnational constructioncontractors n t rocss t a ad a massi ffct onAustralian urban and building dlomnt laing a string of

luur ot ls tourist rsorts condominiums and oftn unwantddlomnts around t Australian coast (Rimmr 1988) Tsctr of caital combing t world looking for rofitabl sits forinstmnt and if ncssar taring down isting nironmnts toaci it if not t major fatur of t 1980s as nrtlssbn a striking caractristic of urban dlomnt in tat dcad.t is now wll known tat 0 rcnt of downtown Los Angls isforign ownd (Wald 1 988 8) Otr world citis a quall bn

t rciint of forign caital instmnt. n Nw Dl t aitalof ndia a massi building boom as bn undr wa sinc tmid1980s a considrabl art of it fuld b instmnt fromNRs' (Nonrsidn ndians) oftn from caital gnratd in tulf but also from otr intrnational sourcs. T dlomntsa ad a significant and major ffct on ndians' traditionalinstmnt ractics as or t last dcad t a modaccumulatd and inritd walt out o instmnt in (sciallgold) jwlr to instmnt in rort and land T rsult as bn

t growt of a nw Sout Cit in li a sat of luur buildingon a scal not sn sinc t stablismnt of colonial Nw li i nt arl twntit cntur and t cration of dsignr ousingwic aarntl combins faturs from Riad SoutKnsington and Bomba (Ctyan 1989).

ondon wic was on of a numbr of citis targtd b oilsurlus funds in t 190s as bn sciall transformd in t1 980s largl in t runu to and aftrmat of Big Bang Btwn

1985 wn Jaans instmnt in Britis rort was still rarand 198 Jaans banks instmnt in rort incrasdigtfold to around £250 million (ing 1 990a 1 08) Lss wlldocumntd as bn t laundring of drug rofits and tir inst



King A rhttr Captal an th Globalzaton of Cltr 0

mnt in ban dvlpmnt nd th wld inclding nwdvlpmnts in Dckland (King 990a 8

Ths a nly sm f th m bvis ffcts f th massivintnatinalizatin f capital in th las dcad and thi impactsbth n achitctal pdctin and n th pfssin itslf Thdcad als saw th fist cas f an achitcts fim bing listd nth Lndn nlistd scitis makt. Bcas f th catin fth singl Epan makt in 992 cnsltants a bing mplydt by p small achitctal fims in ppaatin f what sm swill b a bm in dsign wk fllwing th stablishmnt f thsingl makt and wh fims in England say will d dsign wkchap than ths in Fanc

Ths vn at this lativly lmntay lvl f wld cnmicfcs and thi ffcts n ban and bilding dvlpmnt w nda famwk f ndstanding th mchanisms th instittinsth manings and th cnmic scial and cltal cnsqncsf ths dvlpmnts. w a w t ndstand this pcss ftansnatinalizatin in this pcss f th tansfmatin f spacand fm? What diffnc if any will it mak t ppl's scialplitical cltal cnscisnss? What kind f symblic invst

mnt a thy t mak in ths nw nvinmnts what maningswill thy hav and hw will thy mbiliz ths manings f thiwn scial plitical ppss? M significantly what a thpisms thgh which w shld ty and ndstand cltalsistanc t ths dvlpmnts and th diffncs which avidnt fm n plac t anth? w lvant a th catgisf this pps f natin lcality gin ligin class gndcnmy?

This thf i s what I wld call th xtal stificatin fmy thm in a sitatin f glbal cmpssin I am cncnd tfind a famwk f ndstanding tansfmatins in spacbilding and ban fm which xtnd wll bynd th bndaisf th stat. My ntal stificatin cms fm anth thghlatd phnmnn st as th nw intnatinal divisin f labis incasingly snding pdc svics in dsign twads tth cntis in sach f makts s als is it binging incasingnmbs f ptpfssinals fm scalld Thid Wld

scitis f pfssinal dcatin in cntis at th c As thqatnay sct f sch cntis xpands th dcatinalcmpnnt f that sct dpnds incasingly n this inpt fstdnts fm th glbal piphy. It is h wh th ttalizing



402 Thor Cltr Sot

teore are ontrted So te eperene (for a fe) of fyngrond te ord and needng emata to make ene of at teyee nreangy ompemented n te aroom bak ome byookng rond te gradate emnar tabe and eeng tdent froma over te ord t tee ondton are gvng re to teontrton of goba teore We an addre or arger qetontrog a ere of dfferent tage n part of te probemave been formated Te frt of tee e an a

Socl Poducton of Knowldg

M of aadem ork onerned t fng n gap, dongtng one tnk oter ave omtted; makng vbe at

a prevoy nvbe, reatng drve noe ere tere aprevoy ene So, n te at tenty year, geograper avearged for te entraty of pae and pataty to te epanaton ofoa proe; n te rban fed of ooogy, tranformed to rbanpota eonomy, apta beame rtay mportant n te 1 90and eary 1980, tog ater t emerged tat pot ad beennegeted. My on eperene, for at t ort, of retrnng torope after vng n Inda for fve year, a to dover (n te

eary 190) tat tre, n t od, antropooga ene abeng negeted n te tdy of artete and rban form Aterome year orkng nder te paradgmat ado at by Harveyand Cate t ant n any ay a re tng tat tre, n anyene, eted

Over te ame perod meane, femnt ad made more tanapparent te nvbty of omen n tory, artetre,antropoogy; at anoter onjntre, te tate a dovered tad to be brogt bak n Deade before, oa toran addovered tere a a (generay mae) orkng a Sne te190, n artetra tory, oar ave ponted ot tatnffent note a beng taken of te vernaar and etnartetre ; etnty, of ore, and etn dfferene, a been amajor area of neget and beqent dovery aro te petrmof nteeta enqry or oat, te dovery a evengreater t a te appearane of man (and maybe oman) n tepere of knoedge, not to menton drve formaton In

tra tde and eeere, at a been negeted teqeton of bjetvty, and te onttton of te a orgendered bjet And tre, tenty year ago togt to be abotvae, beef, ord ve, or aternatvey, abot at yo need



Kn Ahttu Captal and th Globalaton of Cultu 403

knw be aeped a ne f hem by any member f a lralrp nw ned hrh repreenan

ne ld f re nne hee eample frm dren lanae reln pyhly b wha I wan ak wha

are he ndn nder whh hee dre are prded Whyde ehny ender la appear 01 he aenda he anwer fre b enh b rae en n nly n hely and eraphy f knwlede (wh prdn whfr and where ben prded a well a en and nmed)b al n he hry and plal enmy f knwlede (when ben prded and wh payn fr hw en fnanedand fr wha prpe)

In ne ene knwlede a ery pernal hn me frmpernal eperene b pernal eperene whh aed andfrmed n parla al nn and wrk ne (lkenere deparmenal dplne prfenal ranzan)n parlar eraphal lan (e ren ae rh andpr par f he wrld) and a prd f parlar empral rhral perd me f whh are een be nfanly frmae (and n dfferen ae ardn dfferen hre are

dfferen label h a he Q Inda perd he Cl Rhmemen n he US r n h e UK he apparenly lbal 980) .S dre and he lanae n whh heyre epreed bemeflzed n nly ardn ally nnalzed dplne(ly arheral hry) and parlar plae (haly Br h arheral hry) b al ardn parlar hral eph (pwar Cha ly) And h brnme bak my wn pernal eperene Fr han deredafer fe year n Inda and rernn he UK ha wa lre

whh wa ben lef afer a frher few year wrkn nLndn wh den f bldn plannn arhere and rbanden frm all er he wrld wa b ha w her maerealm were mn frm he dre ab ey and lre nhe UK. ne wa he bl enrnmen he her wa he re f hewrld.

he Bult Envronent

Unl e reenly wh apprpran n he debae npmdernm ne f he man lene n al hery hanerned he bl enrnmen . h n he plae d ha lenh nr prde any hereally heren an eep



404 Thory, lr Soiy

say ha ms f he wk cncenng f eample he scalpdcn and ganzan f space f he bl ennmen fqesns f meanng epesenan and clal denypdced n he las weny yeas has wh a few ecepns) been

ndeaken n anhplgy achaelgy gegaphy scalhsy as hybd felds sch as manscennmensdes hgh ey lle n scal hey.

Ye js as he femns cqe has epsed he flly f cnscng alzng heecal paadgms cncenng class emplymen wh efeence gende wld sgges s eqallyfallacs cncepalze scey cle scal ganzan pcess wh efeence he physcal and spaal maeal

ealy f he bl ennmen. F he ms pa scal heydeals wh a wld f scal elans f dscses ab cle nwhch he bl ennmen ndesd as he physcal and spaalcnexs he bl fms he scallycnsced bndaesmaeal cnanes he achecal epesenans he scallyspecalzed bldng ypes n nly d n es b play n lewhasee n he pdcn and epdcn f scey. s ashgh ddn mae whehe all scal lfe k place whee

acally des n a hge glbal beach f scal sbecs weesmehw magcally sspended n space I am sayng n sh hahe bl ennmen bldng and ban fm n all hecncepalzans d n s epesen eflec scal dehey acally cnse mch f scal and clal exsenceScey as P 1 988) has pned s a lage een cnsed as well as epesened hgh he bldngs and spaces ha ceaes

Ths f we ae cnsdeng cles n ems f he ways n whch

hey ae epesened ehe n a angble maeal sense sch as ndffeen knds f es and sal epessn and n he pdcnf dffeen aspecs f maeal cle n a nnmaeal sensesch as n msc al cle and symblc pacces f dffeenknds can be aged ha he demacan and sbseqenlyganzan f space s n ally all cases a necessay peeqse f all fms f clal pefmance and epesenan.Secndly many f hese aces eqally pesppse sme fm f

scally and physcally cnsced space.Mee and sll speakng wh efeence scal hey) f

bl ennmens n all he as cncepalzans ae asmpan as scallycnsng mechansms as I am agng hee



406 hory Cultur Soity

producton for prof n ord rke cpt ccuuton forepnded producton the ke of ng proft n heong run he eergence of three one of econoc ctt coreperpher nd eperpher) the deeopent oer e of oprncp ord c forton the bourgeoe nd heproer) hoe concrete nfeton re copeened b hot of ethnonton group . Th htorc nque cobntonof eeent frt cr ed n Europe n he teenth cenur ndthe boundre o epnded to coer the enre ordWerten 979 59)

Reder fr h Werten ork nd he crtque deof t kno tht unt recent t h cn be een fro hee

erer ource) been prncp concerned th the econoc ndpotc rther thn he cutur hough ee Weren 990)

Yet there re t et to feture of Werten noton of theordte hch ke ene hen dcung the producton ndenng of bu enronent boh htorc nd od. Thefr the noon of the nernon don of bor neted nde of core nd perpher he cond the noton tht hewordte ndeed tec n tht econoc oc nd

cutur procee n one prt of he ord re te reed fno echnc or n deternte fhon) o procee n otherprt. Let e trte th b reference to econoc oc ndpt don of bor nd ther reonhp to the buenronent.

To undernd n but enronen e need o undertnd theeconoc oc nd potc foron on hch t bed eneed to undertnd boh oc nd p don of bor There no dequte epnon of for epe he groth n the nneteenth centur n northern Engnd of ndtr cotton ton c)hout reference to the trnforton of Egptn grcuture thehuge re of coton eport under coon) nd the creon ofcoon Cro fro he 880s The re both pr of the e odeof producton nd the but enronent nd rchtecture one ofthe or cue Not becue t the e but becue t copeentr the Cc Re bnk re n the Ct ofLondon onng one prohbte rte) to the Egpn to

port nufctured good the Cc Reed non ren Cro nd Aendr beongng to he Egptn coprdorbourgeoe or the fe of Europen offc or erchnt

The e hod rue n the t decde of the tenteth centur



Kng Arhur, Capial and h Gloalaion of Culur 40

No one can attempt to talk about New Yok and t buldngwthout efeence to the wold econom. The fact that New Yokha the laget nube (56) of multnatonal headuate buldngof an ct n the wold onl two of an of the huge Thd Woldcte man of whch hae lage populaton than New Yok haean multnatonal copoaton headuate at all Kng 990)- alo explan back offce functon located n the abbean andthe lowe factoe whch ext n Tawan o the Phlppne.

Yet whlt thee noton nheent n the woldtem pepecte do pode nght nto epecall economc pocee and bfocung on the leel of the natontate on potcal pocee awell thee ae othe dmenon whch we need to take note of

Ft globalzaton pocee ae onl patal the affect omeegon of the woldeconom moe than othe and wthn egonome ocal goup o ecto moe o le than othe and th mpotant f we ae tng to undetand the poducton of patcula but enonment. Second b focung on what mght be eena the domnant economc pocee the ntenatonalzaton ofcaptal) we ma eoul undeetmate the pocee of economcocal and cultual etance both n tem of cale .e how lage

ae the) and ntent how tong ae the). Fnall f we aenteeted n dentfng and documentng cultual dffeencedtncte cultue and the wa the ae epeented n achtectueand uban fom wold tem theo doe not a et haeanthng to a about th

An altenate conceptualzaton that of Robeton 98)theo of globalzaton the tem defned a the poce b whchthe wold become a ngle place. What Robeton emphaze that t cucal to ecognze that the contempoa concen wthclzatonal and ocetal a well a ethnc) unuene aexpeed n uch motf a dentt tadton and ndgenzatonlagel et on globall poduced dea. In an nceanglglobalzed wold chaactezed b htocall exceptonal degeeof ocetal and othe mode of ntedependence a well a thewdepead concoune of thee deelopment thee anexacebaton of clzatonal ocetal and ethnc elfconcoune' 98) Robeton ha uggeted that globalzaton theo

tun wold tm theo on t head b focung ft on thecultual apect of the wold tem and econd b the tematctud of ntenal ocetal attbute whch hape oentaton to thewold a a whole Robeton 98)



408 Thoy Culu Soy

Globalaton accordng to Robertson, nvolves the develomentof somethng lke a global culture, not as normatvely bndng but nthe sense of a general mode of dscourse about the world as a wholeand ts varety (1987)

Both Robertson's and Wallersten's theoratons, therefore, ndfferent ways, argue aganst the homogenaton of culture; that ofWallersten , n a negatve way, by mlyng the creaton of rocesseswhch sark off cultural resstance and ooston that ofRobertson, by suggestng that the conscousness, or eerence ofglobalty wll eacerbate, even rovde new knds of, culturaldfference

A thrd, and dfferent argument ut forward by Stuart Hall ( 990)

suggests that t s recsely n the nature of catal, n ts constantstate of eanson, enetraton and nternatonalaton, to work nand through dfference, to celebrate, enhance and eaggeratecultural dversty

To these roostons, other arguments mght be added frstly,that there s now no longer one core to the world system but rather,many cores est, not least those located n Asa and Latn Amerca,whch are comng out wth ther own, alternatve forms of

cosmooltanm (ubl Culu 88 ultural transormatonsare not just movng n one drecton but many f ths s so then myorgnal hyothess concernng a move towards a general, globalcultural homogenty s, theoretcally at least, not lkely to holdwater

So far, however, I have been seakng of these theores astheores let me say somethng about them as emrcal data

All theores are themselves cultural roducts, roduced underartcular condtons, by artcular eole and n artcular lacesI f the crtcsms of Stuart Hall are taken serously, then all globalng theores are the selfreresentaton of the domnant artcular' they reresent a certan confguraton of local artcularteswhch, n a hegemonc swee, try to domnate the whole scene, toncororate a varety of more localed denttes nto subordnateostons' .

Other crtcsms see these constructs core/erhery, FrstWorld/Thrd World, center/margn as ust that, socal con

structs wth no real referents n socal real ty hey are all defned ndfference n terms of the Self and the Other' (Wolff, 1 990)

These crtcsms take less serously; the fact that theores andconcetualatons are cultural roducts, socal constructs, does not



Kn A rhittur, Capital and th Globalization of Cultur 409

mean that they cannot take on ther own realty People do ndeedtake on denttes and represent themseles as from the Thrd Worldthe perphery as ethnc mnortes or scheduled castes The reaterproblem wth these concepts s that they are enerally bnaryconstructs black/whte male/female self/other as f therewere no cateores before between and after s rjun ppaduraonce ponted out some others are more other than other others

Couo

What suestons do these arous nnoatns from socal andcultural theory offer for the understandn of archtecture bultenronments socetes and cultures on a lobal scale? I shall

conclude by reaffrmn some basc propostons and suestnsome more for further analyss

Frs t that cultures subcultures and economc socal and poltcal formatons are not only representd but also consttuted n andthrouh spatal and bult form practces and today (as well as n thehstorc past) these are consttuted on a lobal scale The relatonshp s not necessarly onetoone and there may well be somecultural la oer tme but ths does not alter the basc proposton

econd there s ndeed a world or lobal culture whch s larelythe product of a world poltcal economy of captalsm as well asben the outcome of ts technolocal and communcate effectsoweer whle there may well be a lobalzn culture n relaton tothe bult enronment t s not necessarly (and s as much lely towor aanst) a homoenzn one

Thrd that chanes n the constructon of space ts oranzatonand physcal contanmen and representaton n buldn and urban

form s a major factor n the transformaton of (especally materal)cultures on a lobal scale oweer form should not be confusedwth content nor should we fal to reconze that apparently smlarforms can carry qute dssmlar meanns

Fourth and n reard to my propostons about the nature andoranzaton of socetes people belon to many dfferent culturesand the cultural dfferences are as lely to be within states (ebetween reons classes ethnc roups the urban and rural) asbtwn states rchtects and desners moe more easly between

New York London and Bombay than between Bombay and thellaes of aharashtra

Ffth natonstates constantly am to construct defne andmontor natonal cultures wthn the poltcallydefned boundares



0 Thory Cultur & Soity

of the state (Wallesten 990) But these ae constantly undemned not only by cultual flos comng n fom outsde the statebut nceasngly fom autonomous and hegemonc pofessonal subcultues (such as achtectue) hch geneally though notnecessaly hae the alues and oots n nsttutons deed fomcaptalst soca fomatons and pactces hch opeate acossnatonal boundaes

Sxth that hstoy s at least f not moe useful than theoy nchatng the deelopment of natonal egonal o ntenatonalcultues and the ay they get epesented n the bult enonmentThs ca be moe easly llustated than explaned; f examplesocetes and bult enonments n patcula pats of the old can

be undestood bette hen conceptualzed as postcolonal opostmpea than as pepheal o coe

Fnally hen t comes to the cunch thees nothng lke theoetcallynfomed empcal and achal eseach on the hstoy of theglobal poducton f buldng fom (Kng, 990b) We need caefulhstocal studes of the mages plans, deas and symbols hch aenceasngly makg the old s ctes smultaneously smla to, anddffeent fom, each othe

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global culture nationalism globalization and modernity a theory culture and society special issue

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