Global History Review Sheet

First humans to walk upright (hominids)- Australopithecines (Lucy) - East AfricaPaleolithic Age- Old Stone Age-homo habilis (man of skill)-1st to make stone tools-homo erectus (upright man)    - tools to make life easier (digging, scraping, cutting)    - use of fire (warmth food and to frighten animals away or into  spaces)      -first language- homo sapiens(wise men)----Neanderthals (developed rituals/religions) died out-----Cro Magnons(planned hunts, stalked prey, advance language) fast  population growth-----------hunter-gatherers (women gathered fruits berries and roots,  men hunted)-----------art (cave paintings)Neolihic Age-New Stone Age - Neolithic Revolution- agricultural  revolution-------from food gathering to food producing-due to climate changesFarming=steady food supply-----slash and burn farming- burn down trees and use ashes to  fertalize soil------domestication of animals(taming)----------pastoral nomads- moved herds of animals wih themNortheastern Iraq- birthplace of agricultureVilages- one of the first=Jarmo--Laid foundation of modern life------Catal HAyuk- showed benefits of settled lifeLocated in South-central turkeySkilled workers and developed religionFarming develops in several places- In Fertile River VAlleys-Africa- Bread BAsket in Nile River Valley-grew wheat barley and crops-China- grain near Huang He and wild rice near Chang JuanMesopotamia-----Ur in Sumer- 1st civilization------viliages increase=complez social relations------vilage life--> city lifeCity Life

-----cultivated land, more crop production-----------irrigation systems-----artisans-----------pottery,metal objects, weave-Trade-----wheel & sail invented (transport goods over long distances)------social classes grew------religion(nature, Animal spirits, after life)- polytheistic- each  god in charge of seperates aspects-civilization=complex culture--advanced cities-> central of trade--specialized workers-> artisans(development of skills in one specific  kind of work)--complex institutions-> organizations in a community------ziggurat(god lived in a temple-> regulated the city)-------religion-priests in charge of government affairs, economic  center. Irrigation, food distribution-record keeping- scribes-used cuneiforms(wedge-shaped wriing)-----wrote about cities culturesevnts history tax collections passage  of laws and storage of grains-advanced. TechnologyBronze Age-> bronze weapons- Zumerian military advantage over enemies----ox-drawn plows----shaped jugs bowlsFertile Cresecnt- Mesopotamia(land between two rivers;Tigris and EuphratesFlood=silt=fertile plains=surplus of harvest--DIsadvantages1. Unpredictable flooding- land dry at times2. No natural barriers for protection3. Limited natural resourcesSolutions1. Irrigation ditches2. Built City walls from mud bricks3. Traded= needed laws and leaders to organize all theseDynasties formed- series of rulers from a single familyCultural diffusion-> tradeEhlil-most powerful god demons lowest of godsEpi of GilgameshGods have human like characteristics but Gods are immortAl and all 

powerfulAfter life= gloomy and full of miseryHierarchy1. Preists + Kings2. Wealthy merchants3. Commoners(field workers)4. Slaves(foreigners from war capturing or children of poor families)Women-> much freedom from future civilizations-> weere able fo hold  all occupations but no education considering no female scribesp

Sumerian city states weren’t strong enough to hold off invaders but their civilization continued

-1st Empire (brings togeather several people, nation, or independent city-states under oen ruler) Builders

---Sargon of Akkad-> (Semetic- speaks a language rlated ot Arabic/Hebrew)-conquered Sumer and helped spread the Sumerian culture beyond Mesoptomia

---Death of Sargon dynasty=internal fighting+invasions

---Ammortie invade Mesopotamia- capital Babylon-climax at time fo Hammurabi-created first written code of laws

------code=”an eye for an eye” – principle of retaliation

----------applied to everyone but varied upon wealth and gender

----------reinforced principle that government had responsibility for what had occurred in the society.

Egypt- Nile

------yearly flooding predictable---a cycle---food,plant,harvest

----------worshipped god of the nile- Heredotus

Delta- broad triangular area of marsh land that forms deposits of silt.

Nile- reliable sytem of transportation-only flows North=promoted trade+unified Egyptian villages

----Too much flow=destroy eveyrhting

----too little=starvation

Desserts on two side of the river=natural barriers+forced people to live near the Nile

Mesopotamia started to trade with Egypt

----Egypt borrowed idea of estabslhign city=states and writing system (hieroglyphics- pictures stood for an idea)

Menes brought togetahe rupper and lower Egypt (red=white=both)

Pahroahs=God; Mesoptomaian kings=servants of gods

Theocracy-ruler is a divine figure; type fo gov’t repsonsible for the kingdom (flow of nile=truth and justice)

-Pyramids- immense structures made for the burial of pharaohs- preserved though mummification (spirts(Ka) ruled over Egypt after death)

Old Kingdom-great age of pyramid building

----vast resources—limestone+granite=blocks fr pyramid (great measaurments=archtiectutral skills)

-----represented the strength of Egypt’s cilvization (economcial+leadership of gov’t)

----confident and optimistic lifestyle- polytheistic- built huge temples of worship

--Bleak(unwelcoming) view of death- believed in afterlife

Osirirs (croc king) measured heart

---lighter then a feather= pre and honest—moves on, others devoured by the croc

Egyptians-writer of Book of the Dead

Hierarchy

King+Queen+royal family

Upperclass= wealthy landowners, gov’t officials, preists, army commanders

Lower class- peasants farmers, unskilled ;laborers

Slaves (conquered people)

poepel could move up social classes through marriahe and success n job

people with reading and writing= most respected and rich

-Sucesses= skillful engineers+developed calnders+explored the human anatomy

MIddel Kingdom- improved trade+transportation- built dikes for irrigation

Hykos invaded Egypt

Indus River Valley- seprated south east form rest of Asia- filled with natural barriers- Hindi Kush,

Monsoon- seasonal winds that dominate India’s climate blowing dry air across the country in the winter and carrying moisture from the ocean in great rain clouds in the spring.

Reincarnation- a process by which an individual soul or spirit is born again and again until moksha is received.

Moksha- a state of perfect understanding of all things through two people exploring how a person can achieve liberation from desires and suffering-reincarnation.

Caste- a social system that divided the ranks of the Indus people into 4 categories, Brahmins in the top, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras in the bottom. People were born into their caste permanently which had decided their jobs and the people they would associate with.

Untouchable- people who did unclean jobs such as butchers and gravediggers had endangered the ritual purity of others by even a simple touch were therefore placed outside of their caste structure.

Karma- the good or bad deeds one has which follows him throughout all of his lives while reincarnating-good karma brought good fortune and bad karma brought bad fortune.

Dharma- Buddhist doctrine-laws

Four Noble Truths- first sermon of Buddha which had 4 main ideas; everything in life is suffering and sorrow, the cause of all suffering is people’s selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of this world, the way to end all suffering is to end all desires, the way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold Path, which is called the Middle Way between desires and self-denial.

Nirvana- Buddha’s word for the release of selfishness and pain.

Create an Outline and briefly provide three analyses for each aspect:

Geography -Is separated from the rest of the Asian continent by the 3 land elevations of; Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya all of which help refer to this South Asian section as the Indian subcontinent including; India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh.

-Mountains of the North and the desert of the west count as natural barriers for the Indus River Valley which prevented invasions but didn’t keep the people from communication with other outside this are because the Indus River was directed towards the sea where trade was established.

major cities -The first largest cities were; Kalibangan, Mohenjo-Daro,and Harappa- called citadels- all of which had established through organization with the grid system.

-Buildings were constructed of oven-bakes bricks cut into standard sizes.

-Engineers of the valley had built plumbing and sewage systems.

change in society -With the Indo-European s migrating toward the South-

-The Hittites and established themselves in Anatolia while the Aryans came into India by crossing over he Northwest mountains and established themselves into India.

-The Aryans developed a caste system in which they were the nobles due to their arrogance.

One of the kings, Magadha the most ambitious one had created a kingdom and soon planned out to expand out.

-Later the great epic of, Mahabharata set to the beginnings of a new religion-bringing the Aryans and non-Aryans to assimilate with each other.

Buddhism - Brought about by the Buddha-enlightened one- Siddhartha Gautama who listed the 4 Noble truths.

- Established the ways a person could pass the Eightfold and reach nirvana.

-Made up the Three Jewels where people took refuge in Buddha, the dharma, and therefore was part of the sanghra.

Veda -4 collections of prayers, magic spells, and instructions for performing rituals-the sacred

literature of the Aryans.

-Set the bases for Hinduism and their gods- the Rig Veda contained 1028 hymns extolling all the Gods.

- Incorrect pronunciation of the literature was baleful and resulted in consequences.

Hinduism -They saw their religion to be “one of liberating the soul from the illusions, disappointments, and mistakes of everyday existence”- basically to end their ephemeral lives and reach moksha.

-Believed in karma- good deeds led to a a good life and bad deeds led to a bad life.

- Believed that Buddha was just a form of Vishnu- one of the Gods just reappearing himself- therefore they though Buddhism itself was not a religion but a part of Hinduism.

Mandate of Heaven- belief that the royal authority came form heaven, a just ruler had divine approval whereas

a depraved ruler would lose his control..

Dynastic cycle- The pattern of rise, decline, and replacement of dynasties.

oracle bones- animal bones and tortoise shells which priests would scratch out questions for the gods to answer

and by burning them, cracks formed would have to be deciphered for an answer,

feudalism- a political system in which nobles/lords are granted the use of lands that legally belong to the king

and in return the nobles owe loyalty and military service to the king and protection to the people who live on the

estates.

filial piety- respect for elderly and parents.

What were the basic ideas of the following?

a. Confucius – social order, harmony, and good government could be restored in China if society was organized

around five basic relationships; 1. Ruler and subject, 2.) Father and son, 3.) Husband and wife, 4.) Older brother

and younger brother, 5.) friend and friend. The rulers are to be kind and practice virtuous living while the

subjects remain loyal and law-abiding.

b. the Taoists – natural order is more important than social order meaning that the search of knowledge helps

bring about the advances in technology and science, in order to do so humans must live in harmony with their

environment (nature).

c. the Legalists – belief that a highly efficient and powerful government was the key to restoring order

therefore there should be punishments and for the people to be prohibited form thinking critically about the

government .

Create an outline and briefly provide three analyses for each aspect:

Geography, major cities, economy, change in society

geography - China was surrounded by natural barriers among all side; Pacific Ocean to the east,

Taklimakan dessert and Plateau of Tibet to the west, Himalayas to the southwest, Gobi

Desert and Mongolian Plateau to the north.

- About 90% of the remaining land is suitable for farming which lies within the plains

of Huang He river, northern china and Yangtze river, central china.

- Due to living in between all these natural barriers and settling in the heartland the

Chinese belief that they were the only civilized group of people was promoted.

-Environmental changes included the Huang He consistently flooding the land a

detriment because of the collection of loess it had been overflowed.

-Despite natural barriers, China was consistently invaded by people from the west and

north.

major cities -Anyung, the capital of the Shang Dynasty (1532-1027 B.C.)- oldest and built of wood

considering that it stood on a forest clearing.

- Cities surrounded by earthen walls which were chary and were able to be raised and

control large forces of workers to equivocate any trouble such as the extemporaneous

wars taking place at the time where horse-drawn chariots were driven through.

-Walls most likely took a group of 10,000 men over a time period of 12 yrs to build.

economy -Social classes were divided into two groups; consisting of; nobles who owned the land

and the warrior-nobles who governed the land headed with the king.

-Then there were the peasants whom tilted the soil using wooden digging sticks and

hoes and sickle made of stone.

- Based on farming- consisting of mainly rice and wheat.- Feudalism was brought

about.

change in

society

-Zhou effaced Shang and a new dynasty began sharing similar cultural aspects.

- Roads and canals were built stimulating trade along with agriculture and later the use

of coinage.

- Iron was now used and mended to create weapons and tools.

- Zhou dynasty slowly enervated near 771 B.C. when the monarch was murdered and

later was expunged near the 256 B.C.

Zoroastrian- an ancient religion founded by the Persian prophet Zoroaster, the principal belief of which is in a supreme deity and a cosmic contest between two spirits, one good and one evil

1. What advantages did the Phoenician alphabet have over cuneiform? The Phoenicians developed a writing system that used symbols to represent sounds- which made leanrgjn more accessible and easily learnable.

2. Compare and Contrast the significance of Assyrians, the Phoenicians and the Persians.

Assyrians had once captured Phoenician city states of the east only promoting them to set up city-states in the west such as Carthage. The Phoenicians also had their homelands conquered by the Babylonians which was later in the hands of the Persians. Both conquers assimilated to the Phoenician methods considering how adequate their skills of shipbuilding and being a seaman was as well as their proficient writing system which was erudite among several countries through the Persian traders. Persians became famous for their discovery of purple dye, had traveled past Africa and around the Strait of Gibraltar then back, as well as constructing two story homes with balconies and brought about techniques of glass making from silica.

HW #11

Read pages 72-77

Define Terms:

Covenant-The mutual promise between go and the founder of Hebrew people.

Exodus- the period in which the Hebrews fled Egypt with the help of Moses.

Ethical Monotheism- carrying out the right conduct and the worship of one God.

1. How was the Jewish religion revolutionary in ancient times?

The Jewish religion was revolutionary because this was the first type of monotheistic religion to arise and the belief the Yahweh, the name of their god was just and not a physical being therefore no physical images were to be made of him. And there was one servant at a time to be a messenger of God amongst the people through a series of covenants, starting with Abraham and the pledge of loyalty towards Yahweh in return for protection then later Moses and the discovery of the Ten Commandments. The Hebrew idea of ethical monotheism has influenced human behavior for thousands of years through Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

1. Mycenaean and Minoan Culture

-Location by the sea and its mountainous land- created city-states, skilled sailors and traders, and difficult to invade.

Mycenaean culture

-Indo-Europeans settled in Greek mainland.

-Warrior-kings ruled with influential and militaristic tactics

- Warrior kings dominated Greece- including Athens and Tiryns.

-Wealthy kings and nobles lived lives of splendor and earned wealth by controlling local production and commercial trade, while also leading armies to plunder.

-Common people-mostly farmers

-conquered Crete and retained Minoan culture: Trade over sea, adaptation of Minoan language to Greek language, art, legends

-Trojan War- Tory supposedly located in modern day Northwestern Turkey- 2 reasons include- a. Mycenaean King’s wife Helen was captured and taken to Troy, b. to gain control of the crucial water ways of the Aegean Sea.

Minoan culture

-A seafaring and trading people that lived on the island of Crete.

-Peaceful civilization, no fortifications

-wall paintings indicated graceful athletic people who loved nature and beautiful objects.

-women had a higher rank than other neighboring societies

- Minoans civilization ended mysteriously but wasn’t able to rebuild due to Mycenaean invasion.

2. Dark Ages of Greece 1

Dorian Age led to a decline in economy and trade because of their lower advancement. No written records during this time- Dorian were savage/war like beings who were illiterate with a less developed culture.

-Homer helped Greek culture to survive through spoken word- he wrote epics-most famous being the Iliad and the Odyssey- myths reflecting on the Trojan War

- Greek gods were said to have human like feelings so the people could develop closer relationships with their deities.

---------Dorian had an oligarchy because they became unhappy with their current aristocrat government system.-People began to separate themselves in terms of wealth and power strict military rule and favored to prevent disorder and maintain peace.

----------Getting out of the Dark Ages- several types of government systems had formed

Government Systems

Monarchy-state ruled by a king, rule is hereditary, some claim divine right. (Practiced in Mycenae)

Aristocracy- state ruled by nobility, rule is hereditary and based on land ownership, social status and wealth support rulers’ authority (practiced in Athens).

Oligarchy-state ruled by a small group of citizens, rule is based on wealth, ruling group controls military (practiced in Sparta)

Democracy-state ruled by its citizens, rule based on citizenship (free adult land owning adult males-slaves and women excluded), majority decides vote (practiced in Athens)

------------- Danger of revolution among poverty stricken farmers=Athens to democracy

---------Athens=individuality, beauty, and freedom

----------Women’s life in Athens under democracy- centered around the home and family- included child bearing, cloth weaving, preparing meals, managing household- limited power.

Unlimited possibilities-can use psychological manipulation

Sparta- military state due to danger of Helot revolt- obtained the greatest Greek army- conquered Mycenae- made the Mycenaean helots- 2nd to last lowest class in order of hierarchy

(ruling family, landowners)- original inhabitants

(commercial workers, laborers)- free non-citizens

(Messenians)- helots

---------------------slaves

2 group government

a. assembly- free adult males- elected officials- voted on major issues

b. council of elders-proposed laws (assembly voted on these laws) + ephors (5 elected officials)- carried out laws the council passed= controlled education and prosecuted court cases.+ 2 kings- ruled Sparta’s military

Boys-----------Men=Tough soldiers

7-no shoes, army barracks, marched all day, slept on hard benches, ate coarse black porridge.

Girls---------------Women= roles worthy of men, just as much power yet no vote

ran, wrestled, played sports, managed family estates

Spartans= service over family= S/F=no culture, duty strength and discipline.

limited possibilities-strength alone-only aggressive force

Persian War

Invasion of Persian armies= lead Sparta and Athens to greatest glory

Persian War= Battle at Marathon- tactic of Greek pharynx + Battle at Thermopylae and Salamis- Spartan Sacrifice+ naval battle (fight at sea)

= Athens becomes new feared and Greek civilization power- head of Delian League- 140 polis under rule

Leads to:

3. Golden Ages of Greece

Pericles

-Appealed to the needs and wants of his people, he gained power and was able to build up the government and helped strengthen city state

-Goals were:

Glorify/Beautify Athens- used money from Delian League- bought god, ivory, marble- most money spent on the artisans of the Parthenon to honor Athena- protector of Athens- 38 feet tall statue

-------------Classical art- order, balance, proportion

Hold and Strengthen Empire--------money from Delian League- to build Athens 200 ship navy- strengthen the safety of Athens specially in its waterways- overseas trade to gain grain/raw materials.

Stronger Democracy

- increased number of citizens who could hold a paying position in office

- Poorest could serve if elected

- Athens had more citizens engaged in self-government

-Direct democracy- no representatives- council of 500- randomly chosen

-helped the poor build houses, get jobs, etc…

-During this age, drama, sculpture, poetry, philosophy, architecture, can science reached new heights. 1st theaters- portrayed civic pride+ tributes to gods

----------Comedies + tragedies

4. Dark Ages of Greece 2

Peloponnesian War- Sparta declares war on Athens due to unfair use of treasury

-Athens resides in city walls-------Athenian power declines due to plague= close proximity+ unsanitary conditions

--------------Pericles’ strategy to battle at sea---------Athens surrender

*After the Peloponnesian war, Athens lost its empire, power, and wealth. Confidence in democracy faltered...Bad leaders did not help; Greece was declining. Philosophers (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle), rose during time of uncertainty and questioning

7. Philosophy- search for the truth (lovers of wisdom) questioning why what happened- why the society faltered?

Socrates-

-“unexamined life is not worth living” “if a person fully understands what the good is, then he will do the good”- vice or evil is the absence of knowledge------referring to self-knowledge

- Contradictory to Athenian citizen beliefs-Socrates sentenced to death------physical death would not be of a great evil if he met it, it would follow that he would suffer harm to his soul. Harm will be greater for those juror and ambitious prosecutors who sentenced him unjustly than it will be for him- because executioners will be tormented- endure a mark of wrong doing.

INDUCTIVE REASONING + SOCRATIC METHOD

question and answer-----shows the several contradictory opinions-------------give me a definition and not an example

Plato-

Socrates died under a democracy due to the jury disagreeing with him and therefore Plato his student thought democracy was the worst form of government because the people were ignorant and would lead the society to a downfall. --------didn’t want a repeat of Socrates’ unjustified death.

Appetites and Spirits

Soldiers and Guards (Spirited)

Willing to die and sacrifice for country->morale ->LOYALTY

Farmers and Artisans (appetites)

They are always striving for more; unsatisfied because they are the bottom of the pyramid->desires->AMBITIOUS

“Knowledge is virtue”- so the soul must operate within limits, avoiding excess so as not to usurp the authority of other parts of the gov’t= appetite + spirit + reason

Virtues

temperance (rational control of appetites)

courage (rational ordering of spirits)

reason

justice (inner harmony)

“Philosophy begins in wonder”

“I saw clearly, with regard to all states now existing that without exception their system of government is bad.”

“Can never grow into a reality or see the light of day, and there will be no end to the trouble of states, or indeed of humanity itself, till philosophers become kings in this world, or till those we now call king sand rulers really and truly become philosophers.”

Aristocracy the best form of government= aristos =best+ kratos+rule

----------Rules by a philosopher king- the most intellectual and wise one

Timocracy- society based on the honor of military glory

Plutocracy- the wealthy and poor are subdivide- seek pleasure

Democracy- 2nd to worst form- based on the power of the people – majority (consensus rules)- ignorant- uneducated- there are more desires- biased+ foolish decisions- minorities are excluded

Despotism- is the worst because desires overcome reason and logic. ruled by an aggressive tyrant who abuses his power and leaves the people under fear, this fear eclipses their judgment of wrongdoing of the ruler and leads people to selfish doing-creates chaos.

Aristotle

Syllogism- conclusion deduced by a formal law of logic-

3 laws

principle of contradiction- a statement cannot be true and false at the same time

principle of the excluded middle- a statement must be true or false.- no third possibility

principle of identity- everything is equal to itself-

Features Inductive reasoning-reaching conclusion based on observation

“induction proceeds through an enumeration of all the cases”

not based on logical or reasonable deduction like Aristotle’s ideal for reasoning.

Square of opposition- remind us that to defeat such a universal affirmative thesis we only need one example----------- few arguments are deductive-probability-

Political Thinking

“In order to fulfill himself, a man must activate his social life which requires existence within his society.

3 best forms of government: monarchy(one intellectually and morally superior person), aristocracy(a few people whop are intellectually erudite and moral), polity- good and laudable for having the welfare of their citizens at heart

3 worst forms- tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy- defective- rulers seek their own personal gain first.

Slavery+ Master+ Gov’t

Aristotle agrees with slavery considering that slaves lack the intellect to think for themselves and need to be commanded

Alexander

“I set no limits to laborers to a man of spirit. It is a lovely thing to live with courage and to die, leaving behind an everlasting renown.

- Hellenism

-After Death of Alexander during the Hellenistic period, another period of dark fragmentation arose. Philosophy again rose, with different ideals, and a desire to search for individual freedom within the chaos. They struggled over how to relate to the universe when the world around them dismantled.

4. School of Philosophy

Stoicism- founded by Zeno who urged humans to want only those things a human can control and submit themselves to a divinely ordered cosmos where reason ruled the universe. A divinity controlled the universe and should believe in ethics-storic means rigid

Epicureanism- founded by Epicurus who did not believe in gods, and argued that people should and could live without fear of gods.

-Life instead controlled by nothing

-Therefore, people should renounce politics and be free from worries and the -craziness of the world.

-Seeker of pleasure

Cynicism- founded by Diogenes. The word cynic means canine

-Behavior often revolting to those around him, as he urinated around banquet tables and challenged special norms.

-The world should be avoided and lived at minimum level of spiritual and material needs.

1. Beginning of Rome Legend goes:

- Founded by Romulus and Remus, twin sons of the gods Mars and a Latin Princess. - Abandoned on the Tiber River, raised by a she-wolf. - Decided to build a city near that spot.2. Rome had developed because of its strategic location:a. Fertile Soil, allowing for the development of agriculture. b. near the midpoint of the Mediterranean Sea, acting as a trade opportunity as well as a form of transportation. c. Being in the center of the Mediterranean they were too far form invasion.- Three groups inhabited the Italian Peninsula : the Latins, the Greeks, and the Etruscans. Latins: - Farmers and shepherds, wandered into Italy across the Alps.- Settled on either side of the Tiber River, a region they called Latium. - Built the original settlement at Rome, a grouping of wooden huts on one of the seven hills, Palatine Hill. - The first Romans. Greeks- Established 50 colonies on the coasts of Southern Italy and Sicily. - Brought all of Italy, including Rome, into closer contact with Greek civilization.- Taught Romans how to grow grapes and olives. Etruscans - Native to Northern Italy. - Skilled metalworkers and engineers. - Had their own system of writing, Romans adopted their alphabet- Influenced Roman’s architecture, especially the use of the arch. Generally: - Romans borrowed religious ideas from both the Greeks and the Etruscans. - Romans adopted Etruscan rituals that the Romans believed assisted them in winning the favor of the gods. - Roman gods took on the personalities and legends associated with the Greek Gods.- Gave the Greek gods different names. - (ex) Zeus (in Greek religion) became Jupiter (in Roman religion), Hera (Greek) became Juno (Roman) Republic - Derived from Res Publica, meaning public affairs. - A form of government in which power rests with citizens who have the right to vote to select their leaders. - Citizenship with voting rights was granted only to free-born male citizens. - Early Republic: Two divisions: Patricians and Plebeians- Patricians: Aristocratic landowners who held most of the power. - Plebeians: The common farmers, artisans, and merchants who made up a majority of the population.- Patricians inherited power and social status, claiming their ancestry gave them authority (to make laws for Rome and its people) - Plebeians were citizens with the right to vote, prevented from holding important government positions.- Tribunes are representatives of the Plebeians.

- Tribunes were elected as a result, by the Senate, protecting the rights of the Plebeians from unfair acts of Patrician officials.- Plebeians inflicted pressure upon the Patricians, gaining them additional political power. The Twelve Tables - With no written laws, Patricians often interpreted the law to suit their needs.- Victory for the Plebeians would result from the creation of a written law code. - 451 B.C., Group of 10 officials wrote down Rome’s laws. - Carved onto twelve tablets or tables and hung in the Forum. - Became the basis for later Roman law. - Established idea that all free citizens, patricians, and plebeians had a right to the protection of the law. Roman Government (cont.) - Had the best features of monarchy (government by a king), aristocracy (government by nobles), and a democracy (government by the people)- In place of kings, they had consuls, or two officials who commanded the army and directed the government. Consuls: - Term only one year long.- Same person could not be elected as a consul for another ten years. - One consul could always veto the other’s decisions, acting as a form of checks and balances. Senate- The aristocratic branch of Rome’s government. - Had both legislative and administrative functions in the republic. - According to tradition, 300 members were chosen from the upper class of Roman Society; however, Plebeians were later allowed to join the Senate. - Senate provided continuity, membership was for life. - Exercised influence over both foreign and domestic policy. Centuriate Assembly- More of the Democratic side of the government. - Members of the Centuriate Assembly were citizen-soldiers. - Early days of the republic, Patrician controlled assembly appointed the consul and made laws.- Less power than the Senate. Tribal Assembly - Organized by the Plebeians. - Elected tribunes and made laws for the common people. - Eventually, won the right to make laws for the republic. Rome spreads its power- Power grew slowly but steadily as the legions battled for control of the Italian Peninsula. - 4th Century B.C., Rome dominated most of central Italy. - 390 B.C. - Suffered a Major Defeat, Gauls, Celtic people from the Po River Valley, destroyed Rome.- Romans quickly recovered and rebuilt the city. - Reestablished control by subduing one country after another.- Defeated the Etruscans and the Southern Greek City States. - 265 B.C. – Masters of all of Italy except the Po Valley. Rome’s Commercial Network

- Location of Rome gave it easy access to the riches of the land pertaining to the Mediterranean Sea. - Merchants moved by land and sea.- Traded Roman wine and olive oil for a variety of foods, raw materials, and manufactured goods from other lands. - Large and powerful cities interfered with Roman access to the Mediterranean.- (ex) Carthage, located on a peninsula near the North African Coast, fought bitterly against Rome for control of the Mediterranean. War with Carthage- 264 B.C. - Rome and Carthage went to war, beginning of a long struggle known as the Punic Wars.- 264-146 B.C. fought three wars. - First war: Lasted 23 years (264-241 B.C.) ended in the defeat of Carthage. Rome gained Sicily as the chief prize.- Second War: Began in 218 B.C., led by Hannibal, a 29 year old military strategist, who wanted to avenge Carthage’s earlier defeat. Romans prevented Hannibal from capturing Rome. - Third War: 202 B.C. Scipio, Roman equivalent of Hannibal. Defeated Hannibal at Zama near Carthage. 146 B.C. Carthage set on fire, Inhabitants sold into slavery. - Carthage became the new province of Africa. Collapse of the Republic- Tensions between the social classes (the rich and the poor) laid the foundation for the republic’s collapse. - Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, brothers, tried to assist the poor.- Became tribunes and proposed reforms, such as limiting the size of the estates of those of the wealthy and giving land to the poor. - Brothers strongly opposed by senators, meeting violent deaths, resulting in a conflict between the groups within the same country. - Soon, powerful political army leaders arose.- Recruited soldiers who fought for land, resulting in allegiance to only their commander. - Previous recruited soldiers were loyal to the republic and so as it was falling apart, the employment of soldiers who worked for pay allowed the leaders to take over by force, resulting in rivalries between generals. - Two such generals, Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla, fought, resulting in Sulla being declared dictator. - Rivalries between generals continued, threatening the republic. Triumvirate- a group of 3 rulers- First triumvirate: Julius Caesar, Crassus (a wealthy Roman), and Pompey (a popular general) - Pompey had eventually begun to fear Julius Caesar’s ambitions, due to the fact that Pompey had become his rival and Caesar’s successes made him popular. - 46 B.C., Caesar appointed dictator for life and an absolute ruler: one who has total power- Caesar increased pay for soldiers, started colonies where the landless could own land, helped the poor by creating jobs.- His power, success, and popularity intimidated nobles and senators, planned his death, Caesar murdered 44 B.C. (March 15) “Ides of March” Rome as an Empire - After Caesar’s death, civil war broke out and destroyed the remains of the republic.

- Three of Caesar’s supports: Octavian, Lepidus, Mark Antony formed an alliance in order to stop the assassins. - Triumvirate ended in jealous and violence. - Octavian forced Lepidus to retire; Octavian and Mark Antony became rivals. - Later, 31 B.C., Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra, resulting in them committing suicide. - Octavian stated he would restore the republic, accepted the title of Augustus, meaning exalted one. - Became an unchallenged ruler of Rome. Pax Romana, meaning Roman Peace. - A period of peace and prosperity. - Rome had been at the peak of its power during Augustus’ rule from 27 B.C. to A.D. 180.

Differences between Hinduism and Buddhism1. Hinduism is regulated by the principles within the Aryan Caste System, whereas, Buddhism rejected it completely. The Caste System 1. Brahmins (Priests)2. Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors) 3. Vaishyas (Peasants and Traders) 4. Shudras (laborers) Untouchables were considered to not be a part of the Hindu Caste system and were regarded as the most impure because of their occupation (i.e. butchers, gravediggers, collectors of trash) they were known as untouchables because even engaging in contact with them was said to ruin the spiritual purity of others. 2. It was said that only Brahmins had a hope of achieving moksha ( a state of perfect understanding) whereas, in Buddhism, it was stated that anyone could achieve nirvana (similar to moksha in Hinduism; the release from selfishness and pain) Buddhism1. The Four Noble Truths a) Everything in life is suffering and sorrowb) The cause of all suffering is people’s selfish desire for the temporary pleasures of this world.c) The way to end all suffering is to end all desires. d) The way to overcome such desires and attain enlightenment is to follow the Eightfold path, which is called the Middle Way between desire and self denial. e) (The eightfold path is like a staircase, where the individuals who wanted to achieve nirvana had to master one step at a time, which often occurs over many lifetimes, implying that Buddhism accepted the Hindu idea of reincarnation.

Role of pyramids in Egypt1. Often times, Pharaohs were expected to rule forever and their tombs were thought to be of more importance than their palaces.2. A pyramid was regarded as the resting place after death, in which their ka (eternal spirit) and the ka remained much like a living king in its needs and pleasures.

Geography of China 1. To the west lays the Taklimakan Desert and the icy plateau of Tibet.2. To the southwest are the Himalaya Mountains. 3. To the east is the Pacific Ocean4. To the north is the Huang He River (Yellow River, named for the color of the silt) 5. In the center of China is the Yangtze River. The Silk Road was established during the Han Dynasty, in which, it began from the Yellow Sea (northeastern) and continued until the Mediterranean Sea (northwest)

Geography of India1. India is separated from the rest of Asia by the Hindu Kush, Karakoram and Himalaya ranges. 2. The mountains guard a fertile plain formed by two rivers, the Indus and the Ganges. 3. These two rivers stretch 1500 miles across northern India and the area that they water is referred to as the Indus Ganges plain. 4. Below the plain is the southern part of the subcontinent, which is a peninsula and verges south into the Indian Ocean, referred to as the Deccan. Environmental Challenges 1. The flooding of the rivers was unpredictable.2. If there was too little rain, plants withered and died, causing people to succumb to death due to starvation. If there was too much rain, floods would sweep away whole villages. Benefits1. The world’s tallest mountains to the north and the desert to the west (the Thar Desert) acted as natural barriers and protected the Indus Valley from invasions. The Indus Valley also provided a link to the sea.

Confucianism 1. Social order, harmony, and good government should be based on family relationships.2. Respect for parents and elders are important to a well-ordered society.3. Education is important both to the welfare of the individual and to society.

Hammurabi’s Code1. Set different punishments for the rich and the poor, as well as different punishments for men and women. 2. Applied the principle of retaliation (an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth)3. Has 282 laws that deal with everything that affected the community (family relations, business conduct, and crime)

Sumerians 1) Sumer is located in Mesopotamia. 2) Based upon civilization, which most scholars define as, a complex culture with five characteristics: 1. Advanced cities, 2. Specialized workers, 3. Complex institutions, 4. Record keeping, and 5. Advanced technology. 3) Food surpluses provided for specialization, the development of skills in a specific kind of work.

4) Artisans: skilled workers who made goods by hand. 5) Established cuneiform, meaning wedge shaped, in which the writing system consisted of pictographs, symbols of the objects or things they represented.

Cultural diffusions occur through trading and generally through contact with other civilizations. Some examples are migration, a tendency to copy another civilization’s characteristics, and also for cultural traits to originate in larger cities and then be followed by smaller cities.

Geography of Greece 1. Consists of a majority of mountainous region, approximately three fourths. 2. Neighboring seas of Greece are the Aegean Sea, the Ionian Seam and the Black Sea (acting as a link between parts of Greece, due to the fact that transportation by land was difficult) 3. Only about 20% of the region of Greece was arable. 4. The climate of Greece was moderate, allowing for a life spent in the outdoors. 5. Often met to discuss public issues, exchange news, and take an active part in civic life.

Philosophy of Greece 1. A philosopher means lovers of wisdom. 2. Socrates believed that standards did not exist for truth and justice, however, encouraged individuals to question their moral character. 3. Plato, student of Socrates, wrote the Republic, which talked about an ideal society, in which it was a perfectly governed society and the citizens would fall into three groups, artisans, warriors, and the ruling class. The one with the most insight and intellect from the ruling class would be deemed philosopher king. 4. Aristotle questioned the nature of the world and of human belief. He invented a method for arguing according to logic and provided the basis of the scientific method used today.

Hunters- Gatherers1. Nomadic groups of people whose food supply depended on hunting animals and collecting plant surpluses. 2. Hunters gathered experienced pressure to find new food sources due to the fact that temperatures were rising and more suitable for agriculture. 3. Slash and burn-farming: a process in which trees of grasses were cut and burned in order to clear a field, in which the ashes would fertilize the soil. They would then plant crops for a year or two and then moved on, in which after several years the trees and grass grew back, allowing for a repeat of this process. 4. Domestication: the training of animals in order to keep as a constant source of food as well as to transport items at a quicker pace.