KKKH 4284 Sustainable Urban Planning

GLOBAL WARMING REPORT

NAME : NOR AZRA AB. WAHAB

MATRIC NUMBER : A127235

DEPARTMENT : CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

FACULTY : ENGINEERING AND BUILD ENVIRONMENT

LECTURER : PROF. DR. IR. RIZA ATIQ ABDULLAH BIN O.K.

RAHMAT

UNIVERSITI KEBANGSAAN MALAYSIA

Supposed you are living in a coastal city. The city administrator has noticed that the mean sea

level has been rising for the past 50 years. The raising is small but over a long period of time it

may cause problems in the city centre as the level of that part of the city is quite low. If you are

hired as a consultant, write a plan of action on what can be done to reduce or mitigate the

problems.  Your report must include Mitigation and Adaptation measures.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Sea levels around the world are rising. Current sea-level rise potentially affects

human populations for those living in coastal regions and on islands and the natural between

1870 and 2004, global average sea levels rose 195 mm (7.7 in). From 1950 to 2009,

measurements show an average annual rise in sea level of 1.7 ± 0.3 mm per year, with satellite

data showing a rise of 3.3 ± 0.4 mm per year from 1993 to 2009, a faster rate of increase than

previously estimated. Two main factors contributed to observed sea level rise. The first

is thermal expansion whereas ocean water warms, it expands. The second is from the

contribution of land-based ice due to increased melting. The major store of water on land is

found in glaciers and ice sheets.

During the past decades, some of these impacts were observed, such as:

a. The extinction of some species of plants, animals and birds, retreat of glaciers.

b. Closed lakes are particularly vulnerable to increased evaporation due to higher

temperatures.

c. Fresh waters will diminish and there will be severe shortages of fresh waters in urban

centers.

d. Coral reefs are at particular risk, a matter that threatens tourism, fisheries and coastal

protection.

Sea level rise is one of several lines of evidence that support the view that the climate has

recently warmed. It is very likely that human-induced warming contributed to the sea level rise

observed in the latter half of the 20th century. The raising is small but over a long period of time

it may cause problem especially to city centre where a place for humans to live. Making it worse

when the level of city centre is quite low. So there is necessary for a consultant to identify a plan

of action to reduce or mitigate the problems.

2.0 MITIGATION

2.1 Energy Conservation

Term energy conservation refers to different methods and processes that have the main purpose

in reducing the total amount of energy that is currently being used by industry, households and

various other sectors of our society. Energy conservation is important from many different

perspectives. Energy conservation methods are also extremely important from the environmental

point of view because we are still heavily dependent on fossil fuels, and by reducing our energy

needs we are also reducing the global level of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to

climate change and global warming.

There are various ways on which you can contribute to energy conservation. You can, for

instance, contribute to global energy conservation efforts by not always using your car, instead

choosing either walking or riding the bike. Also, when buying new devices for your household,

make sure that they are energy efficient devices because energy efficiency plays extremely

important role in energy conservation.

The ever-increasing demand for more and more energy is in most cases satisfied with the

increased energy production and countries often tend to forget about energy conservation

methods as a more logical solution to satisfy increased energy demand. Energy conservation is at

this point much better solution than increased energy production, especially because increased

energy production means even more fossil fuels, and even bigger dependence on foreign fuel

import. The continuous dependence on foreign fuel import deteriorates our future energy security

and makes us vulnerable to volatile oil prices. We can reduce the demand by :

a. Promoting customer rebates for energy efficiency.

b. Making all municipal buildings energy efficient.

c. Creation of green space and park out of city

d. Planning for the car with odd and even number in alternative days

There is wide range of energy sources that provide energy needs with minimal impact on the

environment through using technologies with high energy-conversion efficient designs.

However, the use of these resources in an environmentally acceptable manner while providing

for the needs of growing populations and developing economies is a great challenge. The

following are the main sources of energy:

a. The alternative liquid fuels such as coal-to-liquids, gas-to-liquids, oil shale, tar sands,

heavy oils, and bio-fuels. But, it is still uncertain how and to what extent these

alternatives will reach the market and what the resultant changes in global GHG

emissions.

b. Coal can be converted to liquids and gases by the use of technologies with high energy-

conversion efficient designs.

c. The use of energy carriers with increased efficiency and convenience, particularly away

from solid fuels to liquid and gaseous fuels and electricity.

d. Nuclear energy could make an increasing contribution to carbon free electricity and heat

in the future, if the concerns of recycling, safety, waste management, security and

proliferation are solved.

Renewable energy sources must either be used in a distributed manner or concentrated to

meet the higher energy demands of cities and industries. The use of non-hydro renewable

energy-supply technologies such as solar, wind, geothermal and biomass must be enlarged.

a. Solar Energy

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Sunlight can be converted directly

into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly with concentrated solar power (CSP),

which normally focuses the sun's energy to boil water which is then used to provide power. Solar

electricity uses photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the sun's rays into electricity for use in the home.

Photo voltaic' panels do represent a piece of the solar pie, many more solar-powered products

and technologies utilizing the sun's energy now exist. One of the biggest is solar hot water,

whether for residential or commercial the use of the sun's heat to warm a potable water supply

instead of electricity is a very efficient method and truly cost-effective. Solar HVAC systems,

battery-backed off-grid systems, solar farms and more are at the forefront of the solar power

world innovations, with more to come. Excess energy is often sold back to the electricity grid.

The Australian Greenhouse Office, a Federal Government initiative, offer rebates for those

wanting to install PV cells.

b. Wind Energy

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind

turbines to make electrical power, windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for water

pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships. Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a

tower to capture the most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more aboveground, they can take

advantage of the faster and less turbulent wind. Turbines catch the wind's energy with their

propeller-like blades. Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.

A blade acts much like an airplane wing. When the wind blows, a pocket of low-pressure

air forms on the downwind side of the blade. The low-pressure air pocket then pulls the blade

toward it, causing the rotor to turn. This is called lift. The force of the lift is actually much

stronger than the wind's force against the front side of the blade, which is called drag. The

combination of lift and drag causes the rotor to spin like a propeller, and the turning shaft spins a

generator to make electricity.

Wind turbines can be used as stand-alone applications, or they can be connected to a utility

power grid or even combined with a photovoltaic (solar cell) system. For utility-scale sources of

wind energy, a large number of wind turbines are usually built close together to form awind

plant. Several electricity providers today use wind plants to supply power to their customers.

c. Biomass Energy

Biomass is another term for plant or animal matter. Energy from biomass is produced when

the biomass is burnt, in an acceleration of a natural decaying process. For example, heat is

produced when burning wood, which can then be used for cooking or heating. Large amounts of

biomass are used by industry. It is common for sugar cane processing facilities to burn the sugar

cane waste product (bagasse) to create steam to turn turbines that create electricity. Biomass also

releases gas when organic matter rots without oxygen. It can be collected from sewage treatment

plants and from landfill sites. Burning this gas turns turbines which produce electricity for

distribution via the network. If developed properly, biomass can and should supply increasing

amounts of biopower. In fact, in numerous analyses of how America can transition to a clean

energy future, sustainable biomass is a critical renewable resource

d. Hydro Energy

Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water and running

water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low,

making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a

hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. Hydro is also a

flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to

changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local

ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and

wildlife. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and

has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil

fuel powered energy plants.

2.2 Transportation

The Transportation sector includes the movement of people and goods by cars, trucks, trains,

ships, airplanes, and other vehicles. The majority of greenhouse gas emissions from

transportation are CO2 emissions resulting from the combustion of petroleum-based products,

like gasoline, in internal combustion engines. The largest sources of transportation-related

greenhouse gas emissions include passenger cars and light-duty trucks, including sport utility

vehicles, pickup trucks, and minivans. These sources account for over half of the emissions from

the sector. The remainder of greenhouse gas emissions comes from other modes of

transportation, including freight trucks, commercial aircraft, ships, boats, and trains as well as

pipelines and lubricants.

Relatively small amounts of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are emitted during

fuel combustion. In addition, a small amount of hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) emissions are included

in the transportation sector. These emissions result from the use of mobile air conditioners and

refrigerated transport. Transportation planners should assess and regularly monitor regional

transportation system vulnerabilities to climate impacts, design new transportation projects to be

resilient to end-of-century sea-level rise, and prioritize retrofits for existing infrastructure for

assets that are of significant regional economic value or are irreplaceable, and those that cannot

be relocated and would not otherwise be protected.

There are a variety of opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions associated with

transportation. The table 1 shown below categorizes these opportunities and provides examples. 

Table 1 Opportunities to reduce greenhouse gas emission

(Source : United States Environmental Protection Agency)

2.3 Green Roof

Green roof, or rooftop garden, is a vegetative layer grown on a rooftop. Green roofs provide

shade and remove heat from the air through evapotranspiration, reducing temperatures of the

roof surface and the surrounding air. On hot summer days, the surface temperature of a green

roof can be cooler than the air temperature, whereas the surface of a conventional rooftop can be

up to 90°F (50°C) warmer.

Green roofs can be installed on a wide range of buildings, from industrial facilities to

private residences. They can be as simple as a 2-inch covering of hardy groundcover or as

complex as a fully accessible park complete with trees. Green roofs are becoming popular in the

United States, with roughly 8.5 million square feet installed or in progress as of June 2008.

In addition to mitigating the greenhouse effect, the benefits of green roofs include:

Reduced energy use: Green roofs absorb heat and act as insulators for buildings,

reducing energy needed to provide cooling and heating.

Reduced air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions by lowering air conditioning

demand, green roofs can decrease the production of associated air pollution and

greenhouse gas emissions. Vegetation can also remove air pollutants and greenhouse

gas emissions through dry deposition and carbon sequestration and storage.

Improved human health and comfort by reducing heat transfer through the building

roof, can improve indoor comfort and lower heat stress associated with heat waves.

Green roofs can reduce and slow stormwater runoff in the urban environment; they

also filter pollutants from rainfall.

Improved quality of life: Green roofs can provide aesthetic value and habitat for many

species.

2.4 Expand Tree Canopy

Tree canopy (TC) is the layer of leaves, branches, and stems of trees that cover the ground when

viewed from above. Tree canopy provides many benefits to communities by improving water

quality, saving energy, lowering ambient temperatures, reducing air pollution, enhancing

property values, providing wildlife habitat, facilitating social and educational opportunities, and

providing aesthetic benefits. First, as they grow, trees take carbon dioxide out of the air and

transform it into roots, leaves, bark, flowers, and wood. Over the lifetime of a tree, several tons

of carbon dioxide are taken up (McPherson and Simpson 1999). Second, by providing shade and

transpiring water, trees lower air temperature and, therefore, cut energy use, which reduces the

production of carbon dioxide at the power plant. Two-thirds of the electricity produced in the

United States is created by burning a fuel (coal, oil, or natural gas) that produces carbon dioxide.

On average, for every kilowatt hour of electricity created, about 1.39 pounds of carbon dioxide

are released (eGRID 2002).

It is certainly true that not emitting carbon dioxide in the first place is a good strategy.

Lowering summertime temperatures by planting trees in cities is one way to reduce energy use

and thereby reduce carbon dioxide emissions. And planting trees is an immediate solution. Even

if we were able to switch immediately to fuel sources that do not emit carbon dioxide, the levels

in the air will remain high for decades or even centuries because of the long “lifetime” of carbon

dioxide. Urban forestry doesn’t require the development of new technologies or massive

investment in alternative energy sources. Planting a tree to shade a building is something all of

us can do now.

3.0 ADAPTION

3.1 Sewer and Drainage Upgrade

Titus et al. (1987) examined the replacement of a century-old street drain in Charleston, South

Carolina. He said if drainage and sewer is designed for the current 5-year storm, such a system

might be insufficient if sea level rises one foot or the severity of the design storm increases 10

percent, necessitating a completely new system long before the end of the project's useful life.

On the other hand, installing slightly larger pipes sufficient to accommodate climate change

might cost only an additional 5 percent. In such a case, designing for an increases in precipitation

might prove to be worthwhile if these changes occur even if they do not occur, there would be

some benefits because the system would provide protection during the more severe 10-year

storm.

Drainage can be enhanced by using larger pipes or wider drainage channels.

Communities with drainage systems in place can either install supplemental pipe systems or

replace old pipes with larger ones. In many cities, new larger pipes will be preferable because the

area underground may already be overcrowded. Furthermore, most older cities may have to

replace old broken pipes anyway. Thus, incorporating greater capacity in anticipation of sea level

rise as part of a necessary overhaul will tend to favor the use of larger pipes. Installation of a

supplemental system, on the other hand, would generally occur as a reaction to sea level rise

because little can be saved by implementing such a system before it is actually needed.

The upgrade of sewerage will improve the performance and capacity of the Coastal

Carrier System (CCS) - which is almost 30 years old to protect the community and environment

against wastewater overflows and meet future demands in these popular areas. It involves:

a. building 6.5km of wastewater pipelines at North Avoca, Avoca and Ki cumber

b. refurbishment of the major wastewater pump stations at North Avoca and Ki cumber

c. upgrades to two minor pump stations in Avoca

d. other various associated works including valve replacements and improvements to

current odor control systems

3.2 Land Use

Coordinated land use planning are effective ways for mitigation and adaptation to climate

change. The local authorities have developed comprehensive land use plans which take into

account the projected climate change impacts.

For example, when we promotes high density residential neighborhoods with mixed land-use

which increases the use of public transit and non-motorized transportation such as biking and

walking. Land use and transportation planning will play a key role in mitigation because it can

reduce vehicle miles travel, taking into account that the main source of greenhouse gas emissions

in the county is transportation. Hence, Land use patterns integrated to transportation choices has

the potential to shape travel behavior of present and future generations in the county.

Additionally, changes in land use patterns and climate friendly transportation choices are

adaptive strategies too. The reduction of car dependency will reduce dependency on fossil fuels,

improve air quality and provide opportunities for more physically active and healthier

population.

The other aspect of land use planning related to mitigation and adaptation to climate

change is the protection of forests. While protecting forests is a key factor in the reduction of

greenhouse gas emissions, it also creates ecological resilience to climate change since forests are

less vulnerable to changes in climate conditions.

3.3 Education

Efforts to prepare for climate change can only be as enlightened as the people who must carry

them out. Education must be critical component of any effort to address the greenhouse effect

because there will be an increased need for personnel in some professions, people in other

professions will need to routinely consider the implications of global warming, and an informed

citizenry will be necessary for the public to support the public expenditures and institutional

changes that may be required.

For many professions, the likelihood of a major expansion due to global warming will

depend on how society ultimately responds to global warming. Will our response be in

agriculture be primarily to develop new crops to grow on existing farmland (plant scientists) or

to facilitate the migration of farmers to newly productive areas. Will our response to coastal

wetland loss be to remove development from lowlands so that they can migrate naturally

(planners), or to maintain existing land uses and support existing wetlands artificially

(hydrologists and ecologists)?

Nevertheless, the demand for coastal engineers will almost certainly increase as cities

erect levees and resorts pump sand onto their beaches. An unfortunate paradox is that at the very

moment when the public is becoming increasingly concerned about sea level rise, and the need to

develop new environmentally-sensitive responses, the field's founding fathers are retiring and are

not always being replaced.

Professionals in various disciplines must be educated about global warming so that

decision makers can consider its implications. This process has proceeded farthest in the case of

sea level rise, where federal and state agencies have sponsored several large conferences on the

subject each year since 1983. This process is now beginning to unfold in the fields of utility

planning and water-resource management, and may soon emerge in other fields.

With the exception of universally-recognized crises such as war and disease,

governments do not usually take the lead in creating public awareness. In the short run, that

function is generally carried out by the news media; in the long run, it is performed by school

systems. Nevertheless, governments can support these institutions by sponsoring public meetings

and translating the results of technical studies into brochures and reports that are accessible to

reporters, teachers, and the general public.

4.0 CONCLUSION

The worldwide reaction to recent warm years suggests that there may soon be a public consesnus

to solve the problems associated with the greenhouse effect. But unless planners begin preparing

rational responses, politicians will not know what to do when they are ready to act. In some cases

they may be willing to commission studies and wait. But they are just as likely to act (or not act)

based on whatever options are available at the time. Even if better options are discovered later,

there is no guarantee that there will be a public outcry to revisit the issue.

The example responses we have outlined suggests that for most problems, one can

envision a number of easy solutions that would at least begin to address the problem without

arousing a constituency in opposition or subsequently appearing to be ill-advised. The examples

also suggest that in many cases, the more costly options necessary to solve the whole problem

would still prove to be good investments even if the climate does not change as expected.

Because of the severity of the potential impacts, it is completely appropriate for policy

makers and the public to focus primarily on measures to limit the extent to which humanity

raises the earth`s temperature in the years ahead, an issue outside the domain of most planners.

Nevertheless, past and current emissions suggest that it is too late to completely prevent a change

in climate, so we will have to learn to live with the consequences. Public will have to decide the

type of world we plan to achieve: If something has to give, should our priority be to maintain

current patterns of land and resource use, to avoid tax increases, or to protect the environment?

For communities and governments to successfully counter the severe impacts of global Climate Change, Mitigation and Adaptation strategies must be intertwined and complement each other. Although some researchers say that there are a number of cases in which Mitigation and Adaptation strategies may conflict, I don’t see any conflict between these two tracks. The most important option that communities and governments must focus on, in my view, is to develop local and national strategies in which Mitigation and Adaptation plans complement each other.