511© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 R.W. Hartel et al., Confectionery Science and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61742-8

Glossary

Absorption Moisture uptake; when candy gains moisture from surrounding air.

Aldehyde An organic molecule with the gen-eral formula R-C(=O)H group, containing a carbonyl group (C=O double bond) and an additional carbon compound, R.

Alkalization Process of raising the pH of chocolate components (cocoa, nib, liquor) to manipulate color and flavoring; also called Dutch processing.

Alkaloid Chemical compounds found in choc-olate – theobromine and caffeine.

Amorphous A state of material where the mol-ecules have a random arrangement.

Apparent viscosity The instantaneous viscos-ity of a material; defined as shear stress over shear rate.

Autoxidation A mechanism of lipid oxidation based on the presence of oxygen.

Baumé Units used to designate specific gravity of glucose syrups.

Belt coater Semiautomatic method of panning using an endless belt to provide the tumbling action to coat centers.

Binder (1) Solution, often made of corn syrup and a stabilizer (gelatin, gum arabic, etc.), that holds particles together in a wet granulation for making tablets. (2) Dry material (gelatin, etc.) that holds particles together in dry granu-lation process for making tablets.

Binding forces The intergranular forces, usu-ally from binder solution, that hold a granule together.

Bloom Undesirable formation on the surface (and sometimes interior) of chocolate; may be either sugar or fat bloom.

Bloom strength Firmness rating for gelatin gels, based on the weight required to depress a plunger into a 6.67 % gel a distance of 4 mm.

Bob syrup A thinning syrup that dilutes fon-dant to allow for depositing.

Bonding The forces, both physical and chemi-cal, that holds particles/granules together within a tablet.

ºBrix Units used to designate sugar syrup con-centration based on equivalent sucrose con-centrations (measured by refractive index).

Bulk density Mass of powder particles in a unit volume, where the volume includes par-ticles, inter-particle void volume, and internal pore volume.

Butyl rubber (IIR) An elastomer found in gum base; a co-polymer of isobutylene and isoprene.

Caramel A chewy confection comprised of sugars and milk ingredients, characterized by browning due to heating of sugars and/or milk ingredients.

Carr’s index A dimensionless number that provides an indicator of how well a powder will compress.

Casson model A rheological constitutive equation that defines the relationship between shear stress and shear rate; see Equation 15.1.

Chocolate panning The coating of centers with chocolate with a tumbling action to pro-duce round individual pieces.

Cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) A natu-ral fat that has nearly identical chemical composition and physical properties as cocoa butter. CBC have a high compatibility with cocoa butter.

512

Cocoa butter replacer (CBR) Natural fats (nonlauric) that can be used to replace a portion of cocoa butter in a compound coating.

Cocoa butter substitute (CBS) Natural fats (lauric) that can be substituted for nearly all of the cocoa butter in a compound coating.

Cold flow The ability of a confection to flow, or change shape, at room temperature. In caramel and fudge, structural elements including pro-tein aggregates, fat globules and sugar crystals dispersed through the matrix helps prevent cold flow of the amorphous mass.

Compaction Production of a tablet from a pow-der by application of pressure, compression.

Conche High torque mixing machinery for smoothing flavors, reducing moisture and vis-cosity of chocolate.

Critical micelle concentration (CMC) The concentration of emulsifier where no further reduction of interfacial tension is observed and above which micelles form.

Crystallinity Relative mass of a confection that is crystalline.

Deliquesence The ability of a solid (crystal-line) material to pick up moisture and dissolve into a liquid.

Deliquescent point Relative humidity at which a solid is dissolved by water vapor in the air.

Denaturation Loss of secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of a protein through unfolding of a protein structure, usually caused by heat, but also may be caused by pH changes, addition of salts or organic solvents.

Density Weight per unit volume, given in units of g/ml.

Desorption Drying out; when candy loses moisture to surrounding air.

Dextrose equivalent A measure of the reduc-ing power of a starch solution, calculated in terms of the equivalent reducing power of glu-cose (dextrose).

Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) A device for quantifying enthalpy changes of a sample relative to a reference.

Diffusion Molecular movement from a region of higher concentration (activity) to lower concentration (activity).

Doctor An ingredient added to a confection to control sucrose crystallization (i.e., glucose syrup, invert sugar, etc.).

Dropping point temperature The tempera-ture when a solidified fat softens to the point where a spherical droplet begins to sag.

Drum coater A large volume self-contained revolving drum used for panning; usually pro-grammed to automatically control the process and require minimal operator input.

Dry charge The application of powdered sweetener to a center in soft panning.

Dye A molecule dissolved in water that absorbs certain wavelengths of light to produce a vis-ible color.

Encapsulation A method of protecting fla-vor, sweetener or active ingredients to control release.

Engrossing The process of building layers on a center during the panning process before polishing and sealing occur.

Engrossing syrup Sweetener syrup applied to centers in a pan.

Enrobing The process of putting a layer around a piece by passing the center through a curtain of liquid coating.

Equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) The relative humidity at which a candy neither gains nor loses moisture.

Fat bloom Surface discoloration (and some-times interior) of chocolate and compound coatings caused by fat recrystallization.

Frappe’ A protein-stabilized foam or whip with a low density (≈0.2–0.3 g/ml) used to aerate confections.

Fudge Technically a grained caramel. A highly grained confection containing sugars and milk ingredients with sufficient sugar crystals to provide a short, soft texture.

Fugacity Thermodynamic property related to the “escaping tendency” of a gas.

Gelatinization The process of hydrating and disrupting (or fracturing) starch granules in excess water. See Pasting

Glass An amorphous state of matter charac-terized by a sufficiently high viscosity that a glass has solid-like properties.

Glass transition temperature, Tg The temper-ature (or range of temperatures) over which a material goes from being more fluid-like to more solid-like (and vice- versa). Typically thought to occur when viscosity is about 1012–1014 kPa-s.

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513

Glazing The process of applying components that seal the surface of a panned candy from environmental factors.

Glyceride (or acyglycerol) Esters formed from glycerol and fatty acids.

Graining factor Ratio of crystallizing sugar to total sugar content.

Granule Particle made of aggregated crystals of base material, held together by binder.

Gum base Complex mixture of elastomers and other components (as defined in FDA Code of Federal Regulations) that provides chewing and bubble-blowing characteristics to gum.

Hardness The resistance of a material (such as a tablet) against penetration into the surface.

Hard panning The process of putting a hard, brittle sugar shell on a center.

Heat of dilution The enthalpy change associ-ated with the addition of a solvent to a solution.

Heat of solution The enthalpy change asso-ciated with dissolution of a solid substance in solvent, which typically involves three stages: (1) breaking solute-solute attractions (endothermic), (2) breaking solvent- solvent interactions (endothermic) and (3) forming solvent-solute interactions (exothermic).

HSH/hydrogenated starch hydrolysate A sugar free hydrogenated glucose syrup or sugar alcohol version of glucose syrup.

Humectant A substance that promotes reten-tion of water.

Hydrocolloid A substance that forms a gel with water (see Chapter 5).

Hydrophillic-lipophillic balance (HLB) A scale used for emulsifiers telling whether it is more hydrophilic or lipophilic.

Hygroscopic The characteristic of rapidly picking up moisture from the air.

Iodine value A measure of the degree of unsaturation of a fat. High values mean more unsaturated fats.

Interfacial (surface) tension The force of the molecules at the surface of either air-water or oil-water interface.

Ionic strength A measure of the number of ionic species (dissociated salts, etc.) present in a solution.

Isoelectric point The pH at which point there is a net zero charge on a protein. At this point, pro-teins aggregate and precipitate out of solution.

Inversion The hydrolysis of sucrose into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose and fructose.

Invert sugar/syrup The syrup resulting from complete hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose.

Invertase An enzyme that hydrolyzes sucrose into fructose and glucose to make invert sugar syrup.

Jujube A fruit-flavored gum drop that typi-cally has a low moisture content and a firm gel.

Ketone An organic molecule with the general formula RC(=O)R’ containing a carbonyl group (C=O double bond) and additional car-bon compounds, R and R’.

Lake A particulate form of color with dye mol-ecules bound to an alumina particle.

Lauric fat Natural fat with a high content of lauric acid (C-12), namely palm kernel oil and coconut oil.

Lecithin An emulsifier, or an amphiphilic mol-ecule, containing phosphatidyl polar groups and fatty acid alkyl groups; used to reduce vis-cosity in chocolate and compound coatings.

Licorice A chewy flour-based confection that contains extract of licorice root.

Lipolysis Breakdown of glycerides into fatty acids, often caused by enzymes in foods.

Lozenge Product made by binding particles together with a mucilage (or binder) followed by drying to make a hard product.

Milk crumb A dairy ingredient in chocolate made by cooking milk solids and sugar (and sometimes chocolate liquor).

Nonlauric fat Natural fat that does not contain high levels of lauric acid; namely, soybean, cottonseed, palm oil, etc.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Method of measuring solid fat content based on dif-ference in response to electromagnetic pulses between liquid and crystal molecules.

Optical rotation The ability of sugar mol-ecules to rotate a plane of polarized light.

Partition coefficient Relative concentration of flavor in hydrophobic phase (gum base) com-pared to water (or saliva) at equilibrium.

Pasting The process of disruption of the crys-talline nature of a starch granule by addition of water and heat. See Gelatinization.

Glossary

514

Peptide A series of several amino acids in a sequence; generally shorter in size than a protein.

Peroxide value Content of peroxides in a fat, representing the level of primary oxidation.

PGPR, polyglycerol polyricinoleate An emulsifier, or a amphiphilic molecule, made from polymerized glycerol and polymerized ricinoleic acid; used to reduce viscosity, and yield stress in particular, of liquid chocolate and coatings.

Pigment Insoluble substance that imparts color through the dispersion of light.

Plastic viscosity Apparent viscosity of liquid chocolate after steady flow has been achieved.

Polishing The process of applying components that provide a shiny appearance to panned goods.

Polymorphism The ability of a molecule to take different crystalline structures.

Polyisobutylene (PIB) An elastomer found in gum base; a polymer of isobutylene.

Polyol A sugar free ingredient produced by hydrogenation of a sugar to yield a sugar alcohol.

Psychrometric chart Thermodynamic dia-gram that correlates properties of water vapor.

Reducing sugar A sugar that contains an alde-hyde group or is capable of forming one. It forms two isomers in solution, the α and β forms.

Refining The process of breaking particles (sugar crystals, cocoa solids) into small sizes to create a smooth chocolate.

Refractive index Ratio of speed of light in air to that in a sugar solution; used as a measure of sugar concentration.

Reversion The polymerization of monosac-charides into longer chain molecules at condi-tions of high temperature and reduced pH.

Rework Typically, hygienic product of unac-ceptable quality to be reused in a subsequent batch.

Rheology The science of flow of materials.Roasting The process of heating cocoa beans,

nibs or chocolate liquor to bring out the choc-olate flavors.

Shear rate Velocity gradient within a sheared fluid, set up by applied shear stress.

Shear stress Stress applied to cause flow of liquid chocolate; defined as force over area.

Shear thinning A rheological behavior that appears as a decrease in apparent viscosity at

higher shear rates; also called pseudoplastic behavior.

Slip point A measure of melt point of a fat based on the temperature when a column of solidified fat in a capillary begins to rise (due to buoyancy) as temperature is increased.

sn-1,2,3 The three carbon bonding sites on a glycerol molecule, used to indicate where each fatty acid is located on a glyceride

Soft panning The process of putting a soft sugar shell on a center.

Solid fat content (SFC) The amount of fat crystals in a partially crystalline fat, based on direct measurement by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR).

Solid fat index (SFI) The relative amount of crystals in a partially crystalline fat, as mea-sured by dilatometry. Note that SFI has been largely replaced by the more accurate SFC.

Specific gravity The relative weight of a spe-cific volume of material compared to the weight of the same volume of water, usually defined at 20 °C.

Stabilizer A substance added to prevent or retard alteration of a physical state.

Sticky point The state between a fluid and a glass where a concentrated sugar matrix is sticky to the touch. Typically defined for sugars as when the viscosity is about 108 kPa-s.

Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) An elasto-mer found in gum base; a co-polymer of sty-rene and butadiene.

Sugar bloom Surface discoloration of choco-late or coating caused by moisture.

Sweatback In soft panning, the moisture migration to the surface after application of a dry charge.

Tempering The process of pre-crystallizing the cocoa butter in chocolate to obtain the desired stable polymorphic crystalline structure.

Thixotropy Time-dependent flow behavior; the decrease in apparent viscosity over time at constant shear rate.

Triacylglycerol (TAG) Also called triglycer-ide, a glycerol molecule with three fatty acids esterified to each carbon atom of the glycerol molecule.

Toffee In the United States, toffee (often called English toffee) is a hard candy made from sugar and butter that often includes nuts. In

Glossary

515

many other parts of the world, toffee refers to a high cook caramel.

Vacuum Any pressure less than atmospheric pressure.

Viscosity The measure of ability for a fluid to flow; for chocolate it is a rheological param-eter that defines the thickness or consistency of liquid chocolate under specified condi-tions such as the NCA method.

Whey The liquid product separated from curds during cheese making. Mainly com-prised of water, whey proteins, lactose, and minerals.

Winnow The process of separating shell from nib of cocoa beans.

Yield stress/value A rheological parameter that defines the force needed to initiate flow in liquid chocolate.

Glossary

517© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 R.W. Hartel et al., Confectionery Science and Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-61742-8

AAcetylated monoglycerides (ACETEM), 402Acid-base reaction, 398Acid hydrolysis, 13, 14

enzyme hydrolysis, 22glucose (corn) syrups, 22high maltose syrups, 23sucralose/tricholorogalactosucrose, 33

Acidscandies

acetic acid vs. pH, 168, 171buffer salts, 170, 172citric vs. fumaric acid, 167, 169empirical, structural formula and MW, 167flavor profile, 166fumaric, 168lactic acid vs. pH, 168, 171malic acid vs. pH, 168, 172sorbic, 168sourness, 169, 170tartaric, 167

chewing and bubble gum, 401Active ingredients, 307

chewing and bubble gum, 404–405compressed tablet candies, 194direct compaction, 196

Acylglycerols, 85Aerated candies

air bubbles, 312chews and taffy, 313cooling and forming, 311, 313, 314dissolving and cooking, 309, 310fat, 313frappé method, 313marshmallow, 312planetary mixer, 312stabilizer addition, 310, 311whipping process, 312

Aerated chocolate, 455Aerated confections

chews and taffy, 304chocolate, 305densities, 302elastic properties, 321fruit chew candy, 303

hard candies, 305ingredients, 301

active ingredients, 309air, 305color, 309emulsifier, 308fats, 307flavors, 308fruit juice, 308gelation, 309humectants, 307hydration requirements, 307inclusions, 309organic acids, 308stabilizers, 306sweeteners, 305texture modifiers, 308

marshmallow hardness, 302–304glass transition temperature, 322storage time, 323

microstructureair cells, 315–317continuous aeration, 317, 318dinner mint, 316fat globules, 321grained confections, 314grained marshmallow structure, 315grained nougat, 317graining, 318–320lipid emulsion, 320taffy aerated, 316ungrained marshmallow structure, 315

nougat, 303, 304physical properties, 320problems

cold flow, 326graining, 324hard/rubbery product, 324improper density, 323mold growth, 325shrinkage, 325starch deposite, marshmallows, 325stickiness, 324weeping, 325

processing (see Aerated candies)

Index

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Aerated confections (continued)salt water taffy, 303shelf life, 322, 323specific gravity, 301sugar crystals, 302sugar mass, 302tensile and textural properties, 321types, 301vacuum process, 304

Aerationcandy mass viscosity, 231chemical, 229continuous cooking systems, 230continuous pulling machine, 230, 231effects, 229metal guard system, 230pulling method, 229typical batch pulling machine, 230vacuums, 230

Agar-agar, 147, 331Agaropectin, 147Agarose, 147Air classifier, 491Air conditions, 505Air injection process, 316Alginates, 147, 148Alginic acid, 147, 148Alitame, high intensity sweeteners, 35, 36Alkalization/dutch processing, 433, 459

flavanols and polyphenols, 460flavor, 459

Alternative sweetenersdisaccharide alcohols, 31–33monosaccharide alcohols, 30, 31nutritional role controversies, 28sucrose, confections, 27sugar alcohols, 28, 29

Amidated pectins, 146Amide bonds, 133Amino acids

aspartic acid, 136α-carbon atom, 133carboxyl (acidic) and amino (basic) groups, 133composition, 133dipolar ion/zwitterion, 133flavors, 138hydrophobic/nonpolar amino acids, 133percentage, 133, 135polar amino acids, 133proteins, 133, 134side chains (R-groups), 133, 134structure, 133

Aminopeptidase, 428Amorphous polymer phase, 413Amylopectin, 125, 126Amylose, 125, 126Anhydrous milk fat (AMF), 497Anthocyanins, 403, 459, 460Antioxidants

chemical structures, 175free radical scavengers, 173

hydrolytic rancidity, 173hydroperoxide, 173oxidative rancidity, 173oxygen scavengers, 174

Applicationschocolate coatings

air conditions, 505air temperature, 504condensation, 505drip and spray nozzle, 504drip feeding, 504hand ladling, 504RH, 504shell, 505solidification cycle, 505spray feeding and nozzle, 504temperature, 504tumbling process, 504, 505viscosity, 504

compound coatingscontraction, 492, 493cooling tunnel conditions, 493Dwell times, 493enrobing candy bars/baked items, 493lauric-based coatings, 492low entrance temperatures, 493molded piece, 492nonhydrogenated PKO-based coatings, 493nonlauric-based coatings, 492nucleators, 493tempering requirements, 492

Aqueous starch slurry, 131Aroma, 161Aspartame, 34, 136, 402Astragalus (thorny shrubs), 149Atomic force microscopy (AFM), 290Automated pans, 507Autoxidation, 94, 95

BBacillus species, 427Batch gum mixing, 405–407Batch processing, 281Batch whipping, 315Beet sugar, 11Belt coaters, chocolate panning, 505, 506Binders, granulation method, 191Bloom

development, 489fat, 479–480formation, 488, 489, 493, 497problems, 487rating, 140stability, 487storage, 475–479, 498strength degradation, 140, 141sugar, 473, 474, 498undertempered chocolate, 474, 475untempered chocolate, 474

Bob syrup, 254

Index

519

Boiling point elevationatmospheric pressure effects, 50, 51curve, 217, 219glucose, sucrose and 42 DE corn syrup, 50, 51low moisture content, 50pressure dependence, 48solute molecules, 49sucrose concentration effects, 49, 50vacuum operation, 52vapor pressure, temperature dependence, 48, 49water content control, 48

Brazilian cocoa butter, 503Browning reactions

caramelization (see Caramelization)Maillard reaction, 16–19nonenzymatic, 16

Bubble gumand chewing (see Chewing and bubble gums)cut and wrap, 410, 411

Buffer salts, 170–172Butyl rubber (IIR), 412, 413Butylhydroxyanisole (BHA), 398Butylhydroxytoluene (BHT), 398

CCalendars/laminators, 409Calorimetry

DSC, 101–103Jensen/Shukoff cooling curves, 101melting and crystallization behavior, fats, 101

Candy bar, 424Candy coated chewing gum, 411Candy-shaped depressions, 255Cane sugar, 8–11Caramel, fudge and toffee

color and flavor, 279, 280, 287, 288CS, S and W ratio, 295dairy ingredients

cream, 277dried milk powders, 276evaporated milk, 276fats, 277, 278nutrient value, 275, 299sweetened condensed milk, 276whey proteins, 275–277

emulsifier, 278fat content, 290formulations, 275hydrocolloids, 279identified compounds, 288inclusions, 280maillard browning, 273microstructure (see Microstructure)processing

batch processing, 281caramelized/burnt sugar, 280cooking and browning, 282–285cooling and forming, 285, 286emulsification, 282hard candy, 281

mixing, 281, 282rework product, defined, 281schematic, 280

protein, 273salts, 279shelf life

graining, 293, 294lipid oxidation, 292microbial growth, 294moisture migration, 293

sugar-free versions, 275sweeteners, 274, 275water content, 273, 274

Caramelization, 284, 287absence of protein (amine groups), 19carbohydrate polymers, 20continuous cooking techniques, 19flavoring/coloring, 19reducing sugars, 20volatile flavor compounds, 20

Caramelized/burnt sugar, 280α-Carbon atom, 133Carr’s Index (CI), 198Carrageenan (Irish Moss), 148Casson model, 463–465Casson plastic viscosity, 464Cellulose fibers, 396Certified dyes

azo dyes, 153Blue 2, 154chemical and physical properties, 155, 156classification, 153exempt color certification

annatto, 156β-apo-8'-carotenal, 156beet colorants, 156canthaxanthin, 156caramel, 157carrot oil, 157fruit juice, 157iron oxides, 157saffron, 157spirulina blue, 157titanium dioxide, 158US, 153uses, 158

Red 3, 153uses, 156

Chewing and bubble gumsactive ingredients, 404–405advantages, 393candy coating, 411clean teeth and freshen breath, 393colors, 393, 403components, 395cooling tunnel, 394cost and quality, 395flavors, 393, 402, 403, 415–417fruit acids, 401, 402gum base, 395–398higher molecular weight polymers, 394

Index

520

Chewing and bubble gums (continued)high-intensity sweeteners, 403–404humectants/softeners, 402ingredients, 394lower molecular weight polymers, 394manufacture (see Manufacture process)medical and psychological reasons, 393, 394microstructure and physical properties, 412–415problems

cud too small/large, 419gritty texture, 419imperfect shape, 418, 419loses color/fades, 420poor bubble blowing capability, 419poor flavor release/retention, 419stickiness gum, 420sweating gum, 420too hard/soft, 419

Semple’s patent, 393shelf life, 417–418State of Maine Spruce Gum, 393stick and tape, 409–410sugar-free gums, 395sweeteners, 398–401

Chocolatealkalization/dutching, 433chocolate mass, 438–441cleaning and sorting, 431coating, 501, 504, 505, 507cocoa beans (see Cocoa beans)cocoa butter, 425, 435, 436compound coatings/confectionery coatings, 424conching, 441–442cooling tunnels, 455–457crystallization, 470–472cultivation and development, 423definition, 423, 485development, 423emulsifying agents, 423flavor, 457–459forming (see Forming)ingredients, 423, 424, 431melting profile, 467–470milk processing, 437–438nib grinding, 434–435polymorphic nature of cocoa butter, 424polymorphism, 470–472polyphenols and flavanols, 459–461processing steps, 431, 432properties, 424reworking, 481rheology, 461–467roasting, 433, 434solid/hollow chocolate, 424stability and shelf life (see Shelf life, chocolate)Standard of identity (US), 424tempering, 442–447, 470–472types, 423, 424warm and cycling temperatures, 425winnowing, 431–433

Chocolate bar, 424Chocolate-coated nuts, 508Chocolate confections, reworking, 481, 482Chocolate-flavored products, 485Chocolate liquor, 430, 434Chocolate mass, mixing and refining, 438–441Chocolate molding, 256Chocolate-panned candy, 501, 502Chocolate panning

applications, 504–505automated pans, 507belt coaters, 505, 506centers

candies, 501density, 502dust, 502efficient operation, 501firmer texture, 502minimal free moisture/fat, 502product quality, 501round, 502size, 501, 502surface irregularities, 502temperature, 502commercial panned products, 503

compound coatings, 503conventional revolving pans, 505, 506cut-away, belt coater, 506, 507dark, 503definition, 501factors, 503finishing, 507–508fragile/flexible, 507layers of chocolate coating, 501milk, 503pre-coating, 503problems, 509–510production volumes, 506real chocolate, 503storage and handling, 508, 509traditional revolving pans, 505white, 503

CI. See Carr’s Index (CI)Coal tar, 153Coarse fondant/creams, 269, 270Coarser chocolate, 440Cocoa beans

agricultural raw material, 431chocolate confections, 431classification, 425cocoa-related products, 459composition and quality, 429–431Criollo, 425drying, 429fermentation, 426–429, 460Forastero, 425heating, 433mature pods, 425molecular DNA sequencing, 425and nibs, 433

Index

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processing steps, 426producing regions, 425surrounded by white mucilaginous pulp, 425, 426Trinitario, 425trunks and lower branches of tree, 425warm and humid environments, 425winnowing, 431, 433

Cocoa butter, 435, 436, 485, 487, 488Cocoa butter equivalent (CBE), 104, 487, 490, 493, 494Cocoa butter extenders (CBEx), 487Cocoa butter improvers (CBI), 487Cocoa butter replacers (CBR), 487

hydrogenation, 494phase behavior, 496

Cocoa butter substitutes (CBS), 487, 488, 497Cocoa mass, 423Cocoa powder, compound coatings, 435, 436, 488, 490Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 395, 423, 424, 485Cold flow, 295, 296, 326Cold press forming shell technology, 453, 454Color

certification (see Certified dyes)chewing and bubble gum, 403classification, 152compound coatings, 489, 490compressed tablets, 193–194fondants, 248hard candy

aeration, 215certified FD&C, 215choice of, 215pastes/granules, 215stability of, 216usage rate for, 215

permitted additives and E-number, 152regulatory aspects

certified dyes, 152EEC, 152, 154UN, 153US, 151

Compaction pressures, 201, 202Compound coatings

applications, 492–493characteristics

melting profile and fat modification, 494–495phase behavior, 495–497viscosity and flow properties, 497–498

cocoa prices, 485confectioners, 485enrobed bars, 486fat phase and modification, 485food industry, 485formulations, 490hydrogenation, 485imitation chocolates, 485ingredients, 485

cocoa powder, 488colors, 489, 490dairy based powders, 488, 489emulsifiers, 489

fat, 486–488flavors, 489nucleator, 489physical attributes, 486sweetener, 488

manufacturing, 490–492panned goods, 486, 503pastel coatings, 485properties, 486shelf life, 486, 498, 499smells and tastes like chocolate, 485Standard of Identity, 485warmer temperature, 504

Compressed tabletsbase preparation, 196careful attention, 196compaction pressures, 201, 202constant cleaning, 202construction practices and designs, 202development of, 189direct compaction, 198dry granulation process, 189, 197, 198environmental conditions, 202fire containment strategies, 202hardness of, 190ingredients

acidulants, 192active, 194binder, 191–192colors, 193–194disintegrant, 192flavors, 193lubricants, 192tablet base, 191

interparticulate bonding, 203mechanical properties, 207–209microstructure, 190, 204, 205pharmaceutical industry, 189porosity and density, 205–207powder conveyance, 198, 199problems

capping/laminating, 210pitting/sticking, 209scoring, 210size/shape variation, 210

stability, 209tablet press (see Tablet press)textural characteristics, 190volatile flavors, 190wet granulation process, 189, 196, 197

Concentric cylinder rotational viscometer, 463, 464Conching

batch conches, 442continuous conches, 442dry and crumbly stage, 441elongational mixing, 441flavor, 459functions, 441high energy shearing device, 441liquid/wet stage, 442

Index

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Conching (continued)pasty stage, 441, 442shearing action, 441stages, 442storage temperatures, 442types of equipment, 442viscosity and fat standardization, 442

Confectioners coatings, 485Confectionery fats, 486Confections, states of sugars

amorphous and glassy confections, 63categorization, 63cotton candy, 65, 66cystal/glass, 64, 65equilibrium curves, 64partially-crystalline, 64premature crystallization, 64processing and storage, 64rock candy, 66, (see also Water; Water activity;

Water content)Conjugated proteins, 137Continuous mixing, gum, 407–408Continuous molding machines, 448Continuous tempering unit, 444, 445Conventional revolving pans, 505, 506Cooking and browning

batch processing, 283continuous cooker/evaporator, 284continuous operations, 283flavors and colors, 285pre and post-caramelization, 285scraped surface mixers, 283small-scale batch operations, 282SSHE, 283, 284temperatures, 282

Cooling tunnelsair flow circulation, 455, 456at depositing temperature, 456breaking seed, 457cocoa butter crystallization, 455condensation of moisture, 457conduction and convection heat transfer, 456crystallization, 457dwell times, 455heat transfer and crystallization rate, 455–457moderate temperatures and minimal air flow, 457radiation cooling, 457sensible heatand latent heat, 455solidification, 456temperatures, 455, 457warmer air, 457

Co processed excipients for direct compaction, 191Corn starch, 127, 128Cotton candy, 39, 65Cream, 277

batch formulations, 246beater, 251candies, 246cast, 246, 253

chocolate, 254colors and flavorings, 246deposited (cast) cream (see Deposited (cast) creams)extruded, 246, 247, 256, 257frappé, 245hard cream, 246invertase (see Ivertase)one-shot depositing technology, 246problems

coarse, 269, 270controlling, 268hard., 268, 269quality, 268soft, 269sticky, 269white surface discoloration, 270

shelf life (see Shelf life)Crystal coarsening, 267, 268Crystallization

chocolate, 470–472control additive/doctoring agent, 247creams, 255description, 57desired crystalline content, 59vs.drying, 382–385of fats, 107–110fondants

cooling, 251–253process, 249seeding, 62

fudge, creams and nougat, 62graining, 298growth, 60importance of, 57–58nucleation, 59, 60primary kinetic barriers, 58rate, 60–63solubility concentration, 58supersaturated sugar solution, 58, 59thermodynamic driving force, 58

Cured cocoa beans, 430Cut and wrap bubble gums, 410, 411Cut-away of belt coater, chocolate panning, 506, 507“Cut rock” candies, 228

DDairy based powders, 488–490Dairy ingredients

cream, 277dried milk powders, 276evaporated milk, 276fats, 277, 278nutrient value, 275, 299sweetened condensed milk, 276whey proteins, 275–277

Dark chocolate, 423, 503DE. See Dextrose equivalent (DE)Debossed lettering, 201

Index

523

DE glucose syrup, 247Degrees Brix (°Brix), 46, 48Denaturation, 137Deposited (cast) creams

bob syrup, 254chocolate molding, 256chocolate wafer, 257colors, 254flavors, 254fluid, 255formulation, 246, 254frappé, 254process, 254starchless molding, 255–256starch molding, 255thinning process, 254

Depositing/molding, chocolatebook mold with spinning device, 451cleaned and temperature conditioned molds, 448cold mold temperatures, 449condensate, 449cool and solidify, 447drop/chip requires, 450fluid/semi-fluid centers in shell molding, 449hollow forms, 451in industrial processes, 448piston depositors, 449rheology, 448rotary depositors, 449rotating arm, 451single-shot deposit, 450, 451sizes and types, 449solid forms, 451tempered chocolate, 450three-dimensional molded pieces, 451uncontrolled crystallization, 449very cold temperatures, 449warming, 449

Depositing system, 225, 227Derived proteins, 137Dextrose, chewing and bubble gum, 399Dextrose equivalent (DE)

calculation of, 21description, 21glucose syrup composition profile, 21

Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), 413, 414characteristic melting pattern indicative, 101description, 101melting curves, milk fat, 102melting curves, tempered and untempered cocoa

butter, 102Dipeptide, 133, 136Direct compaction method, 198Disaccharides, 6–12

alcoholsconfectionery ingredients, 31HSH syrups, 33isomalt, 31–33lactitol, 33

maltitol, 33in confections, 6lactose, 12–13maltose, 12structures, 6, 10sucrose (see Sucrose)

Disintegrants, 192Doctoring agent/crystallization control

additives, 247Dried cocoa beans, 429, 430Dried fruits, 180Dried milk powder, 276, 437Drip and spray nozzle applications, 504Drum roaster, 433Dry fractionation process, 495Dry granulation method, 190, 197, 198Drying, cocoa bean, 429Dry powders, 503Dry refining, 491Dry slugging process, 190Dyes, 151, 152

EEdible molasses, 27Egg albumins, 143Egg proteins, 142Elaidic acid, 111, 487, 492Elastomers, 409Embossed lettering, 201Emulsification, 281, 282Emulsifiers, 278, 279, 402

chemical structures, 119chemistry and food applications, 117compound coatings, 489confections

characterization, 119CMC, 118functions and applications, 118, 119hydrophilic and lipophilic components, 118hydrophobic and hydrophilic (water-loving)

components, 117molecule at oil-water interface, 118water and oil droplets, 118

lecithin orientation, 120MAG/DAG, 122orientation of, 120PGPR, 121processing aids, 122STS, 122surface-active agents, 117synthetic lecithins, 121unrefined lecithins, 120

Emulsifying agents, 423Engrossing syrup

acids, 367glucose and glucose syrup, 372hard panning, 365soft panning, 365

Index

524

Enrobingair velocity, 453bottoming device, 451built-in tempering unit (in-board), 452coating characteristics, 453cooling step, 452countercurrent, 453decorating units, 453definition, 451external tempering unit (out-board), 453process, 452rheology, 453rotating rollers, 453systems, 452temperature-controlled cabinet, 452tempering, 452thickness of chocolate coating, 453types of designs, 453well-tempered chocolate, 453

Enzymatic hydrolysis, 14acidity, fondant solution phase, 264, 265chemical reaction, 264commercial, 264fructose and glucose, 264, 265glucose (corn) syrups, 22, 23glycol, 264sucrose, 264temperature, 264, 265water content and activity, 265, 266

Epicatechin, 428Equilibrium relative humidity (ERH), 239 (see also

Water activity)Erythritol, monosaccharide alcohols, 30Eutectic phase behavior, 488, 496, 497Evaporated milk, 276Extruded (roll) cream, 247, 256, 257Extrusion forming, 454–455Extrusion process, 330, 394, 404, 408, 409, 411

FFat bloom and lipid migration, 479–480Fat modification and melting profile, compound coatings

cocoa butter, 494, 495fractionation, 494–496hydrogenation, 494, 495interesterification, 495natural fats, 494SFC, 494trans fatty acids, 495

Fat phase, 485, 503CBE, 487CBR, 487CBS, 487, 488cocoa butter and milk fat, 486confectionery, 486specifications, 486trans fatty acids, 486

Fatsbutter/milk, 277, 278fondants, 248

hard candy, 216hardened vegetable, 278

Fats and oilschemical structures

fatty acids, 86, 87, 90FFA, 92glycerides, 87–93IV, 93, 94minor lipid composition, 92, 93primary constituents, 86PV, 93–94refractive index, 93 (see also Crystallization of

fats; Emulsifiers)lipid oxidation (see Lipid oxidation; Modification

technologies)physical properties, 86, 95–98, 103–107

calorimetry, 101–103melting point, 99, 100phase diagrams (see Phase diagrams)polymorphism (see Polymorphism)SFC, 100, 101solid fat curves, 98

physical state at room temperature., 85sources, 85

Fatty acidschain lengths, 86common structures, 87generic structure, 86natural fats in confections, 87, 90nonlauric fats, 87

Fermentation, cocoa beananaerobic conditions, 427bacterial activity, 427catechin levels, 428cell death, 427chocolate flavor, 426enzyme activity, 427, 429epicatechin, 428factors, 427Forastero beans, 426glycosidases, 428hydrolysis (inversion) of sucrose, 428invertase activity, 428lactic acid bacteria, 427microbial species, 427microorganisms, 427, 428over-fermentation, 426piling beans, 426PPO, 428roasting, 426types of proteinases, 428under-fermentation, 426yeasts convert sugars and citric acid, 427

FFAs. See Free fatty acids (FFAs)Filled hard candies

casings, 233equipment, 232high quality control parameters, 233insertion method, 233operation, 233organic acid penetration, 233

Index

525

powdered centers, 233variety of, 232

Finishing, chocolate panning, 508, 509Flavanols and polyphenols

alkalization/dutch processing, 460anthocyanins, 459, 460catechin and epicatechin content, 461cocoa/cocoa-related products, 459, 460commercial chocolates, 461epicatechin and soluble, 459fermentation, 459proanthocyanadins, 459processing of cocoa beans, 460procyanidins, 461quantifying and categorizing, 459in raw cocoa beans, 459reducing fermentation time, 461roasting, 460

Flavoring materialsclassification, 162natural

coffee, 163essential oils, 162–164fruits, 162herbs and spices, 163vanilla, 165

solvents/carriers, 165, 166storage, 166synthetic, 165

Flavorsaroma, 161balance, 160binding of proteins, 138caramel, fudge and toffee, 279chewing and bubble gum, 402–403chocolate

alkalization/dutching, 459choice of bean, 458conching, 459Criollo beans, 458dairy ingredients, 459desirable and undesirable aroma compounds, 457development, 458dissolution of sugar, 459drying and roasting, 458enzymatic reactions, 458fermentation process, 458Maillard browning, 458manufacturing plant, 458melting of fat, 459method of water removal, 459mixture ofchemical components, 457polyphenols and alkaloids, 458select/influence, 458

citrus oils, 214colors, 215compound coatings, 489compressed tablets, 193consumer appeal and satisfaction, 214criteria, 159defined, 158, 159

fondants, 247, 248labeling, 159large-scale continuous processing lines, 214loss of volatile components, 214natural/artificial sources, 160, 214oil/propylene glycol-based, 215oil-soluble, 215perception, 160psychological factors, 160taste, 160, 161texture, 162trigeminal sensations, 161

Fluid viscosityconcentration and temperature dependence, 41, 42confectioner, 40defined, 40engrossing syrup, 40glucose syrup viscosity dependence, 41, 42Newtonian fluids, 41process engineers, 40shear flow, 40sucrose and invert sugar comparison, 41

Foaming, proteins, 138, 139Fondants

batch formulations, 246colors, 248confectionery ingredient, 245confections and confectionery applications, 245continuous fondant beating tube, 252cooling drum, 251, 252crystalline and liquid phases, 270, 271crystalline sweetener, 246crystals govern texture, 257doctoring agent/crystallization control additive, 247effects of corn syrup, 262fats, 248flavors, 247, 248frappé, 248honey, crystallized, 245humectants, texture and shelf life enhancers, 247invertase, 249, (see also Invertase)liquid phase, 257manufacturing

additional ingredients, 253candy, 249cooling and crystallization, 251–253crystallization process, 249packaging, 253steps, 249syrup preparation and concentration, 250, 251

mass, 245microstructure (see Microstructure)opened continuous fondant beating tube, 253particle size, 257powdered, 253preservatives, 248, 249problems, 269–270process steps, 250product characteristics, 245, 263quality, 257remelted, 255

Index

526

Fondants (continued)seed crystallization, 245sheal life (see Sheal life)sucrose to glucose syrup (42 DE) ratio, 261water content, 245

Fondant seeding, 62Food-grade synthetic rubber polymers, 396Forming

chocolateaeration, 455cold forming shell technology, 453, 454depositing/molding, 447–451enrobing, 451–453extrusion forming, 454–455panning, 455

gumcandy coated chewing gum, 411characteristics /modifications, 409cut and wrap, 410, 411gum-filled hard candy, 411hollow/filled gum balls, 410nozzle, 409stick and tape chewing gum, 409–410

Frappé method, 313creams, 254fondants, 248

Free fatty acids (FFAs), 92, 115, 172Fructose

D-fructose and α and β configurations, 6, 9diabetic foods, 6honey, component, 6liquid form, 6

Fruit acids, chewing and bubble gum, 401, 402Fruit and fruit products

candiedbatch process, 179continuous process, 179crystallized and glacé fruit, 180

composition, 177, 178dried fruits, 180jam, 177preservation, 179purèes, 177

Fruit chew candy, 303

GGalactose, 6, 7Galacturonoglycans [poly(α-D-galactopyranosyluronic

acid)], 144Gelatin

amino acid composition, 140ash composition, 140, 142bloom rating and strength degradation, 140, 141cattle and pig sources, 139concentration on viscosity, 140, 142extraction processes, 139, 140ossein and hides, 140parameters of edible gelatin, 140properties, 140

temperature, 140type A and B, 139, 140

Gelatin gummiesamidation pectin, 351bloom strength, 350glucose syrup, 350melting point, 349sol-gel transition, 350

Gelling mechanisms, pectin, 145–146Generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status, 487Glass transition temperature, 289

defined, 55dry corn syrup-sucrose mixtures, 56, 57hard candies, 57, 213, 215, 217, 218, 223, 231, 232,

235–237and moisture contents, 238sweeteners, 56texture and shelf stability, 57water content effect, 57

Glaze coat, 508Glazes and waxes

beeswax, 177candelilla wax, 177carnauba wax, 177shellac, 174–176zein, 176

Glucose (corn) syrupscomposition, 23–24crystalline product, 20DE, 21, 22production of

acid hydrolysis, 22enzyme hydrolysis, 22, 23

properties, 24, 25starch hydrolysis, 20

Glucose/dextroseconfectionery sweeteners, 4crystallization, 6α- and β-D-glucopyranose, 5, 8D and L glyceraldehyde, structures, 4, 5D-monosaccharides, 5, 7pyranose and open chain forms, 4, 5

Glucose powder, chewing and bubble gum, 399Glucose syrup, 259, 261, 400Glycerides

free fatty acids, 87structures, 87triacylglycerols (TAG)

components, 87concentration (mole%), 91degree of saturation, 87, 90cocoa butter, 89, 91coconut oil, 91, 92palm kernel oil, 91, 92peanut oil, 91, 93specific fatty acids, 87

Glycerol monostearate (GMS), 402, 467, 489Glycosidases, 428Graining, 293, 294

crystallization, 318, 320

Index

527

GF, 319, 320nougat and marshmallow, 318, 319sucrose, 319

Graining factor (GF), 319, 320Grinding particulates, compound coatings, 491Gritty texture, 419Guar gums, 149Gum arabic, 148, 149Gum base

chewing and bubble gumacid-base reaction, 398acid resistance, 396antioxidants, 398characteristics, 395, 398Code of Federal Regulations, 395component, 395composition, 396, 398food-grade synthetic rubber polymers, 396fruit flavors, 398ingredients, 396manufacturing, 398, 399mixture of plasticized rubber polymers, 395natural rubbers, 396physical properties, 398structures of synthetic polymers, 396, 397temperature, 398

higher molecular weight polymers, 393ingredients, 396microstructure and physical properties, 412–414

Gum-filled hard candy, 411Gummies and jellies. See HydrocolloidsGums

agar-agar, 147alginates, 147, 148candies, 146Carrageenan (Irish Moss), 148chewing and bubble (see Chewing and bubble gum)eating properties, 394forms and types, 393Guar gum, 149gum arabic, 148, 149hydrocolloid, 146ingredient capabilities, 394locust bean (carob) gum, 149manufacturing technologies, 394multi-phase material, 394natural/synthetic polymers, 393polysaccharides characterization, 146shear thinning, 146shelf life, 394tasteless, odorless and colorless, 146tragacanth, 149xanthan, 149, 150

Gum tragacanth, 149

HHard candies, 305

characteristics, 212chemical changes

color development, 235, 236inversion/sucrose hydrolysis, 235reversion/polymerization, 236

compressed tablet candies, 211cough drops, 211defined, 211forms and shapes, 212glass-blowing process, 212glass transition temperature, 213ingredients, 212

colors, 215, 216dairy ingredients, 217fats, 216flavors, 214, 215fruit juices, 216–217organic acids, 216sweeteners, 213, 214typical compositions, 213

manufactureball rollers, 225, 226batch process/continuous production line, 217batch roller, 223chain die former, 225, 226color, flavor and acid addition, 221, 222cooking, 219–221cooling, 222, 223depositing system (see Depositing system)drop rollers, 224, 225extrusion of, 224mixing and dissolving, 218, 219plastic state formation, 217, 218process flow diagram, 217rope sizers, 224rotary die former, 225, 226sugar crystallization, 218

microstructure, 236–239milk ingredients, 212problems

appearance, 243, 244eating quality, 243–244

shapes, sizes and characteristics, 211shelf life of years, 212stability/shelf life

ERH, 239flavor loss, 242, 243graining/crystallization, 241, 242stickiness, 239–241

technologiesaeration, 229–231candy canes, 229carbonated, 231, 232“cut rock” candies, 228filled hard candies (see Filled hard candies)lollipops/suckers, 233popping candy, 232rework processing, 234striped candies, 228

typical compositions, 213United States, 211volatile, sensitive/reactive components, 212

Index

528

Hard fondants/cream, 268, 269Hard panning

moisture migration, 386, 387shelf life, 387, 388sugar panning, 365, 366sugar shell, 372–374

Hard sugar shell, 508Heat of crystallization, 60Heterogeneous nucleation, 59High fructose (corn) syrup (HFCS), 24High intensity sweeteners

acesulfame-potassium, 35alitame, 35, 36aspartame, 34bulking agents, 34chewing and bubble gum, 403–404Luo Han Guo (Monk fruit) concentrates, 36neotame, 36regulatory status and/or limitations, 34steviol glycosides, 36structure, 34, 35sucralose, 34thaumatin/talin, 36

High-methoxyl (HM) pectins, 145, 146Hollow/filled gum balls, 410Homogeneous nucleation, 59HSH. See Hydrogenated starch hydrolysate (HSH)

syrupsHumectants/softeners, 262, 307, 402Hydrocolloids

agar, 333chocolate enrobing, 343–344colors, 334–335curing/stoving, 342, 343extrusion, 337finishing, 343, 344flavors, 334flour, 332force-deformation curves, 345forming, 338–342gelatin, 332, 333, 357gum acacia, 333licorice, 335, 344, 345microstructure

flavor molecules, 355, 356gelatin gummies, 349–351licorice and licorice type confections, 352–354mixed hydrocolloids, 330, 354, 355pectin jellies, 351, 352shelf life, 356, 357starch jellies, 346–348

oiling and polishing, 343open kettle cooking, 336organic acids, 333, 334panning, 343pectin, 333pressure cooking, 336–337sanding, 343slab and cut, 339SSHE, 337

stabilizers, 331–333starchless molding, 340–342starch molding, 331, 332, 339–342static cooker, 337steam injection cooker, 338sweeteners, 330, 331syneresis, 358type of candy, 357

Hydrogenated starch hydrolysate (HSH) syrups, 401catalytic hydrogenation, 33, 34confections, 33dental caries, 33glucose syrups hydrogenation, 33low average molecular weight, 33

Hydrogenation, 112bubbling hydrogen gas, 113cis and trans isomers, 112confectionery applications, 112fat modification and melting profile, 494, 495natural fats, 485trans fatty acids, 113of vegetable oil, 113

Hydrogen bonding, sweetners, 14, 15Hydrolysis (inversion) of sucrose, 428Hydrolytic oxidation, 95Hydroperoxides, 173Hydrophilic flavor molecules, 416Hydrophobic amino acid, 136Hydrophobic gum base, 416

IImitation chocolates, 485Interesterification

confectionery fats, 495description, 115enzymatic, 117fat modification, 116FFA, DAG and MAG, 116lower molecular weight fatty acids, 115melting profile change, cocoa butter, 116monounsaturated TAG, 116random rearrangements, single TAG, 115SFC at high temperatures, 115

Inulin, 26Inversion/sucrose hydrolysis

description, 235saccharide compositional analysis, 235

Invertaseenzymatic hydrolysis, 264–265fondants, 249industry, 263physical changes, 265, 266viscosity reduction, 264

Invert sugaracid hydrolysis, 13, 14candy manufacturing, 13enzyme hydrolysis, 14grained dinner mints production, 13humectant and flavor release, 13

Index

529

sucrose solution, hydrolysis of, 13under normal commercial candy cooking, 13

Iodine value (IV), 93, 94Isomalt

conversion of sucrose, 31, 32direct sucrose replacement, 32hydrolysis of, 32, 33sugar-free hard panning, 32two-step process, 31white, odorless, crystalline, nonhygroscopic

substance, 31Isoprene-isobutylene copolymer, 396Isosolids/isotemperature diagrams, 105–107

JJensen/Shukoff cooling curves, 101

KKarl Fischer titration, 73Kneader, mixing gum base, 407, 408

LLactitol, 32, 33, 321Lactose, 12, 13, 272Lakes/liquid dispersions, 403Lattice enthalpy, 41Lauric-based coating, 485–487, 490Lauric-based compound coatings, 490, 493Lauric fats, 486–488, 490, 494, 497Lecithin, 119, 120, 276, 402, 464Licorice

cooking methods, 344cream pastes, 345extract, 334SSHE, 344twin screw cooking extruder, 344

Licorice and licorice type confectionscharacteristics, 352, 353textural property, 353, 354

Lipid migration and fat bloom, 479–480Lipid oxidation

autoxidation, 94, 95hydrolytic oxidation, 95photooxidation, 95rancid, off-flavors formation, 94

Lipidsaliphatic/aromatic hydrocarbons, 85confections, role in, 85defined, 85moisture migration prevention, 86phase behavior and crystallization kinetics, 86

Lipolysis, 95Liquor roasting, 434LM pectins, 146Locust bean (carob) gum, 149Lollipops/suckers, 233Low-methoxyl (LM) pectins, 145

Lozenge/wafer-type productscandy tablet compression, 194, (see also Compressed

tablets)description, 190, 195dough mixing, 195drying, 195, 196forming and shaping, 195interparticulate bonding, 203microstructure, 203–205physical characteristics, 190steps for, 194

α-L-rhamnopyranosyl, 144L-rhamnose, 144Lubricants, 192Luo Han Guo (Monk fruit) concentrates, 36

MMAG/DAG. See Mono- and di-glycerides (MAG/DAG)Maillard browning process, 273, 275, 284, 287, 288, 428,

433, 458amine source, 19fermentation, 17flavours and compounds, 17minerals and metals, 19moisture content, 19pH, 19phases of, 17reactant concentration, 17reducing sugars, 16sugar type, 17temperature, 19with glucose, 17, 18

Maillard reaction, 132, 138Malaysian cocoa butter, 503Malted milk balls, 501Malt extract, 27Maltitol syrups, 33Maltodextrin, 25Maltose, 12Mannitol, monosaccharide alcohols, 30, 31, 401Manufacture process

compound coatingsair classifier, 491dry powder mixture, 491dry refining, 491fine-particulate powder, 491formulation, colors and flavors, 492grinding particulates, 491liquid coating, 492mixing the ingredients, 490particle size reduction techniques, 491processing steps, 490, 491refiner conche, 491refining operation, 491roll refiner, 491solid coatings, 490

gumbatch mixing, 405–407continuous mixing, 407–408

Index

530

Manufacture process (continued)flow diagram, 405forming, 408–412ingredients, 405one-step mixing, 408

Maple syrups, 3, 26, 27Marshmallows, 302–304Melting profile, chocolate

cocoa butter, 467, 468cooling effect, 468different growing regions, 468, 470fatty acid distributions, 468, 469hardness and snap, 468manufacturers, 468material, 469SFC, 467TAG distributions, 468, 469temperature, 468

MethoxylationHM pectins, 145LM pectins, 145

Microorganisms, cocoa bean fermentation, 427, 428Microstructure

air cells, 315–317caramel and fudge, 291, 292confections, 314continuous aeration methods, 317, 318dinner mint, 316fat globules, 321fondants

beating intensity and temperature, 258crystalline and liquid phases, 256–258crystal size distribution, 258factors, 258formulation effects, 260–262liquid phase, 258manufacturing effects, 260–261primary kinetically-governed characteristics, 260supersaturation, 258thermodynamic and kinetic parameters, 260

gum baseamorphous polymer phase, 413before consumption, 414–415bubble blowing ability, 412complex multi-phase material, 413composition, 412continuous structure, 412crystalline network, 413DSC, 413, 414elastic modulus, 413, 414high molecular weight polymers, 412photomicroscope image, 413physical properties, 412plasticizers, 412polymer science principles, 412softening point, 413upon mastication, 415viscoelastic nature, 412

graining, 318–320

lipid emulsion, 320marshmallow structure, 315nougat, 317taffy aerated, 316toffee, 292ungrained caramel

fat globules, 291glass transition, 289pH, 291physical characteristics, 289, 290stickiness, 289, 290whey proteins, 291

ungrained marshmallow structure, 315Milk chocolate, 422, 441, 470, 503Milk coatings, 488Milk processing

crumb, 438powders, 437–438

Milk proteins, 140–142Mixed confectionery syrups, 54–56Mixed hydrocolloids, 330, 354, 355Modification of starches

acid and enzyme treatment, 130cross-linking, 131, 132heat, 132oxidized starch, 131, 132substitution reactions, 131

Modification technologiesfractionation, 113–115hydrogenation, 112, 113interesterification, 115–117physico-chemical characteristics, 111

Moisture loss, fondants and creams, 266, 267Moisture migration

chocolate-covered candy bar system, 79, 80difference in water activities, 79diffusion rates and viscosity, 80hard-panned candies, 386, 387packaging materials, 80parameters, 79shelf life, 81soft-panned candies, 385, 386structural elements, 80water barriers, 80, 81

Moisture/oil migration, 503Mono- and diglycerides (MAG/DAG), 122, 489Monosaccharides

building blocks, 4confectionery industry, 4, 30erythritol, 30fructose, 6, 9galactose, 6glucose/dextrose, 4–8mannitol, 30, 31sorbitol, 30starch hydrolysate syrups, 4xylitol, 30

Monotropic polymorphism, 95Mush method, 444

Index

531

Mutarotationglucose and cupric ion, 16sweetners, 15

NNatural rubbers, 396Natural sweeteners

edible molasses, 27honey, 26malt extract, 27maple syrup, 26, 27

Near infrared (NIR) analysis, 73Neotame, 36Nib grinding, chocolate, 434–435Nonhydrogenated PKO-based coatings, 493Nonlauric fats, 87, 486, 487, 490, 492, 494Nucleation

external energy input, 109growth, 110, 111heat of crystallization, 60heat of fusion, 107heterogeneous and homogeneous, 59lipid molecules, 107minor impurities, 109polymorphic transition, 111polymorphs, 107rate and free energy change, 107–108seeding, 110TAG, 109triacylgycerol association, 107

Nucleators, compound coatings, 489, 493Nutrasweet® (aspartame), 34Nuts

almonds, 181brazil nuts, 181, 182cashew nuts, 182coconut, 182composition, 180, 181hazelnut, 182macadamia nuts, 183peanut

quality, 183, 184storage, 184varieties, 183vegetable oil, 183

pecans, 184pistachio nuts, 184variety, 181walnut, 184

OOff flavors

chocolate, 480shelf life, compound coatings, 499

Oil separation, 297One-step mixing process, 408Organic acids, 401

acid functionality, 216

acidulants, 216buffering salts, 216hard candies, 216

Organic fibers, 396Osmophilic molds, 325Ossein, 140Overtempered chocolate, 447Oxidative deterioration, chocolate, 480Oxidative rancidity, compound coatings, 499Oxidized starch, 131, 132

PPalm kernel oil (PKO), 486–488, 490, 493–497Palm kernel stearins (PKS), 495, 496Panned gums, 418Panning

chocolate (see Chocolate panning)confection, 501, 502forming chocolate, 455

Particle size reduction techniques, 491Paste gum, 411, 412Pastel coatings, 485Pectins

galacturonoglycans [poly(α-D- galactopyranosyluronic acid)], 144

gelling mechanisms, 145–146fruits, 144methoxylation, 144–145plant cell walls, 144polygalacturonic polymers, 144sodium salt form, 144substances, 144testing, 146

Penetrometer, 418Peptide bonds, 136Peroxide value (PV), 93–94PGPR. See Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR)Phase behavior compound coatings

CBE, 496CBR, 496CBS, 497cocoa butter and coating fat, 495ICCB, 497milk fat, 497mixing properties, 495molecular size and shape, 495PKO, 497polymorphic behavior, 495SAMF, 497thermal properties, 495

Phase diagramseutectic, 103gibbs free energy diagram, pure TAG, 103isosolids/isotemperature diagrams, 105–107molecular compound/double eutectic, 103monotectic continuous solid solution, 103monotectic partial solid solution, 103monounsatured TAGs, solubility of, 104SFC curves, 105

Index

532

Phase transitions, 60Phenylalanine, 136Photooxidation, 95Physico-chemical properties

boiling point elevation (see Boiling point elevation)crystallization (see Crystallization)density/specific gravity, 46–48dextro-rotary direction, 43fluid viscosity, 40, 41glass transition temperature, 55–57heat of solution, 41–43refractive index, 44–46solubility/saturation concentration (see Solubility/

saturation concentration)specific optical rotation, 44sweetness of sugars, 39, 40

Pigments, 151Piston depositors, 449Planetary mixer, 312Plasticizers, 412Polishing

agent, 149and glazing, 377, 378panned products, 508

Polydextrose, 26Polygalacturonic polymers, 144Polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR), 121Polyisobutylene (PIB), 396Polymer science principles, 412β Polymorph, 488, 492Polymorphism

chocolate, 470–472cocoa butter, classification, 98fats, 95lipids, 95melting points and latent heats, 96monotropic, 95, 97stable, natural fats, 97x-ray spectroscopy, 97

Polyols, 400, 401 (see also Sugar alcohols)Polypeptide chain, 136Polyphenol oxidase (PPO), 428Polysaccharides

bulking agents, 25inulin, 26maltodextrin, 25polydextrose, 26

Polyvinyl acetate (PVAc), 396Powdered fondant, 253Powdered sweeteners, 490Pre-coating, chocolate panning, 503Preservatives, fondants, 248, 249Proanthocyanadins, 459Protein graining, 298Proteins

amino acids, 133, 134candy composition, 132conjugated, 137denaturation, 137derived, 137egg albumins, 132, 143

functional propertiesflavor/flavor binding, 138foaming, 138, 139solubility, 138

gelatin, 139–140lupine, 143milk proteins, 140–142peas, 143pumpkin seeds, 143rice and algae, 143simple, 136, 137soy protein, 143structure, 133–136whey protein, 141–143

Proximate composition of dry corn, 127Pump actuators, 256PV. See Peroxide value (PV)

RRancidity, compound coatings, 499Raw cocoa beans, 429Real chocolate, 503Reducing sugar, 15, 16Refiner conche, 491Refining and mixing, chocolate mass

batch process, 438breakage mechanisms, 440cocoa butter, 438conching, 440continuous mixing devices, 438cooling water circulation, 439five-roll refiner, 439grinding, 440particle size reduction, 439, 440pre-refiner, 439RPM, 439temperature, 439two-roll pre-refiner, 439universal chocolate system/refiner-conche, 440

Refractive index, 93Corn Refiners Association, Inc., 44DE and HFCS, 44, 45degrees Brix (°Brix), 46description, 44refractometers, 45sucrose and 42 DE glucose syrup mixtures, 46sucrose and invert sugar solutions, 44, 45

Reversion/polymerization method, 236Revolving pans

conventional, 505traditional, 505tulip-shaped, 506

Rheology, chocolateCasson model, 463–465characteristics, 465chemical/electrostatic interactions, 462cocoa butter, 462emulsifiers like lecithin, 466fat content, 465fluids, 461

Index

533

hysteresis, 464irregularly shaped sugar crystal, 466lecithin, 466, 467liquid, 462melted, 461, 462minor lipid composition of cocoa butters, 466, 467parameters, 463PGPR, 466physical characteristics, 461plastic viscosity, 464, 465polar lipids, 466properties, 461pseudo-plastic behavior, 463shearing conditions, 462shear-thinning fluid, 462surface-active lipids, 465surface characteristics, 463, 466time dependent, thixotropic and behavior, 462viscometer, 463–465viscosity and yield value, 462, 465yield stress, 463–465

Ridgelimeter method, 146Roasting

chocolate, 433, 434flavanols and polyphenols, 460

Robins egg malted milk balls, 508Rock candy, 39

crystallized sucrose, 66deliquescent point, 66growth of sugar crystals, 66

Roll refiner, 491Rotary depositors, 449Rotating pans, 502Rotor-stator design, 318Rubber

butyl, 396components, 413food-grade synthetic rubber polymers, 396higher molecular weight, 398molecular weight distribution, 395molecules stretch, 412natural, 396plasticized rubber polymers, 395polymers, 412SBR, 396, 412synthetic/natural food-grade, 396, 412types, 412

SScanning electron microscopy (SEM), 316Scraped surface heat exchanger (SSHE), 283Semi-sweet/bittersweet chocolate, 423Separation of starches

arrowroot, 127corn starch, 127, 128potato, 127tapioca, 127wheat, 127

Shear-thinning fluid, 462

Shelf lifechewing and bubble gum

accelerated storage studies, 418moisture gain and loss, 417panned gums, 418penetrometer, 418physical properties, 418softer and hardness, 418testing, 418water activity, 418

chocolatefat, 479–480lipid migration, 479–480off flavors, 480oxidative deterioration, 480storage conditions, 473, 475–479sugar bloom, 473–474undertempered, 474, 475untempered, 474

compound coatingsmoisture uptake, 498, 499off-flavors, 499rancidity, 499storage and sugar bloom, 498

fondants and creams, 264–266graining, 293, 294lipid oxidation, 292–293microbial growth, 294moisture migration, 293sugar panning

hard-panned candies, 387, 388soft-panned candies, 387

Shredded gum, 411Sigma-blade mixers, 405Simple proteins, 136, 137Single-shot depositors, 450, 451Smaller MW polyols, 401Small-scale operations, 251Softening point, 413Softer fondant, 245Soft fondant/cream, 269Soft panning

moisture migration, 385, 386shelf life, 387sugar panning, 364, 365sugar shell, 370–372

Solid fat content (SFC), 100, 101, 467, 471, 494–497Solid/hollow chocolate, 424Solidification

cast creams, 255cycle, 505

Solidified gum base, 398Solubility/saturation concentration

approach, 52description, 52mixed confectionery syrups, 54–56polyols, 53, 54regular solubility curve, 52sugars, 52, 53thermodynamic equilibrium, 52

Index

534

Soluble liquid colors, 403Solute-solute (endothermic environment), 41Solvent-solvent (exothermic environment), 43Sorbitan monostearate (SMS), 479, 489Sorbitan tristearate (STS), 122, 489Sorbitol, monosaccharide alcohols, 30Sorption isotherms, dextrin, 131Sorption profiles

common moisture isotherms, 78gain/loss of moisture, 77temperature effects, 79water activity, saturated salt solution, 82–83

Soy protein, 143Specific gravity, 47, 48, 301, 302, 309, 312, 322, 326Specific optical rotation, 44Spray-dried flavors, 417Spray nozzle, 504Stabilizers, 306, 307Starch

acid and enzyme treatment, 130anti-stick agent, 127color of iodine, 127, 128cross-linking, 131, 132description, 125–127gelatinization, 128–130gelling agent, 125genetic engineering, 132granules, 127heat, 132mineral oil, 132molding, 129–131oxidized starch, 131, 132separation, 127shape, 125–127size, 125–127substitution reactions, 131

Starch jelliesamylose and amylopectin, 346, 347numerous chemical/physical modifications, 348pasting, 346, 347

Starchless molding, 255, 256, 340–342Starch mogul, 255Starch molding

deposited (cast) creams, 255depressions, 340gummy and jelly candies, 339mogul conveyor, 340, 341moisture content and temperature, 339

Steam injection cooker, 338Stecker degradation, 138Steviol glycosides, 36Stick and tape chewing gum, 409–410Stick-spurt instability, 455Sticky fondant/cream, 269Storage bloom

shelf life, compound coatings, 498tempered chocolate

atomic force microscopy, 476co-crystallization, 478

crystal network, 478emulsifiers, 475, 479fat bloom, 475formation, 478formulation factors, 475improper storage conditions, 475inhibitors, 478liquid phase, cocoa butter, 476mechanisms, 475milk fat, 479mixtures of cocoa butters, 475polymorphic transformation, 478pores/cracks and crevices, 476recrystallization, 476, 478stability, 478storage conditions, 479surface appearance, 476, 477synchrotron x-ray powder diffraction, 478TAG, 475, 478, 479

Stoving/curing, 342, 343Striped candies, 228STS. See Sorbitan tristearate (STS)Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), 396, 412Sucralose, high intensity sweeteners, 34Sucrose

beet sugar, 11cane sugar, 8–11chewing and bubble gum, 398, 399α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose, 6granular structure of, 11mutarotation, 6size, 11sugar types, 12

Sugar alcoholscatalytic hydrogenation, 28chewing and bubble gum, 400, 401confectionery products, 28cooling effect and noncariogenic, 28description, 28properties of, 28, 29

Sugar bloom, shelf lifechocolate, 473–474compound coatings, 498

Sugar-free coating, 488Sugar-free fondants, 247Sugar-free gums, 395, 400Sugar graining, 241, 242Sugar panning

acids, 367centers, 363, 364characteristics, 378, 379colors, 366, 367crystallization, 361, 362flavors, 367hard panning, 365, 366moisture migration (see Moisture migration)multicomponent layering, 379polishing and glazing (see Polishing)pre-coat material, 364

Index

535

shelf life (see Shelf life)soft panning, 364, 365sugar shell (see Sugar shell)

Sugar shellmicrostructure

hard panned candies, 381–385soft panned candies, 380, 381

sugar panningbelt coater, 374–375candy center motion and scale-up, 376, 377continuous panning, 376cylindrical drum panning systems, 375, 376hard panning, 372–374revolving pans, 368–374soft panning, 370–372

Sunflower seeds, 501Sweetened condensed milk, 276Sweeteners. See also High intensity sweeteners

browning reactions (see Browning reactions)carbohydrates, 3 (see also Alternative sweeteners)chemical characteristics, 3chewing and bubble gum

dextrose, 399glucose syrup, 400polyols, 398sucrose, 398, 399sugar alcohols, 400, 401

compound coatings, 488control of crystallization, 3disaccharides (see Disaccharides; Glucose (corn)

syrups)hard candy

cost, 213desired end product characteristics, 213higher DE syrup, 213long-chain polymers, 214sugar-free, 214

hydrogen bonding, 14, 15invert sugar (see Invert sugar)manufacture of confections, 3monosaccharides (see Monosaccharides)mutarotation, 15natural sweeteners (see Natural sweeteners)original candies, 3 (see also Physico-chemical

properties; Polysaccharides)reducing sugar, 15, 16sugar alcohols/polyols, 3texture determination, 3

Swept-surface heat exchanger (SSHE), 337

TTablet press

compression forces, 201debossed lettering, 201detailed operations, 199, 200discs, 201embossed lettering, 201model Stokes 328 MFA, 199, 200rotary, operating steps, 199

sequential feeding zones and compression steps, 201

Tempering chocolate, 470–472cocoa butter, 443continuous tempering unit, 444, 445depositing/molding, 450fat phase, 444liquid oil migration, 443melted mass, 444mush method, 444polymorphic form, 444properties, 443at room temperature, 443seeding methods, 444shiny/glossy appearance, 443solidification, 443state of cocoa butter, 445, 446surface roughness, 443tempermeters, 445–448type of seed, 444untempered/undertempered, 443β V polymorph, 442, 443well-tempered chocolate, 443

Tempermeterscooling device, 445cooling profile, 446, 447insufficient number of seeds, 446temper meter curves, 446, 448type of calorimeter, 445untempered, undertempered, well-tempered and

overtempered chocolate, 446, 447Thaumatin/talin, 36Theobroma cacao, 425Thin-film roasters, 434Three-dimensional molded pieces, 451Tocopherols, 173, 398Traditional revolving pans, 505Tragacanth acid/bassorin, 149

Triacylglycerols (TAG)CBEs, 487chain length as cocoa butter, 496cocoa butter and palm kernel stearin, 498composition, 487, 492, 494, 496degree of unsaturation, 499fatty acids, 487milk fat in PKO, 497natural fat, 494and polymorphic behavior, 495types, 487

Tropical fats, 487Tulip-shaped revolving pan, 505, 506Type A gelatin, 139, 140Type B gelatin, 140

UUnconched chocolate, 441Undertempered chocolate, 446, 447, 474, 475United States Code of Federal Regulations, 433Universal chocolate system/refiner-conche, 440Untempered chocolate, 447, 474

Index

536

VVacuum-expanded confections, 304Vegetable fats, 487Vertical bean roasting system, 434Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 368

WWater

process operations enhancement, 69properties

dissolved metals, 70hardness, dissolved minerals, 70microbial content, 71pH, 71

quality and shelf life, 69 (see also Sorption profiles)

temperature changes, 69Water activity

coefficients, 73confectionery categories, 74defined, 73food industry, 73hydrogen bonding energies, 74measurement of

boiling point elevation, 77dew point methods, 75, 76hygrometry, 75Norrish constant K values, 76product composition, 76RVP, 76 (see also Moisture migration)

microbial stability, 77normal evaporation, 74ratio of fugacities, 74

relative humidity and vapor pressure, 74, 75Water/alcohol based colors, 403Water-based polish, 508Water content

and cook temperature, 71, 72Karl Fischer titration, 73loss on drying, 72, 73NIR analysis, 73solid content measurement, 72typical activities, confections, 71

Water hardness, 70Wax-based polish, 508Waxes, 177West African cocoa butter, 503Wet granulation method, 189, 196, 197Wet milling process, 127, 128Whey products, 141–143, 277Whey protein nitrogen index (WPNI), 437White chocolate, 422, 478, 503White surface discoloration, 270Winnowing, 431–433

XXanthan gum, 149, 150Xylitol, 401

glass transition temperatures, 54monosaccharide alcohols, 30polyols properties, 28relative sweetness, sugars, 38

YYogurt-flavored compound coatings, 483–484

Index