go karting project report degree level

GO-KARTING

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

K.B.P. COLLEGE OF ENGG. SATARA.(Production Engg. Dept.)

GO-KARTING

Figure 1: Go-kart

In the 1950’s a group of tinkerers and thrill seekers in Southern California welded

together a crude frame from steel tubing, mounted it on wheels intended for wheel barrows,

powered the contraption with a small 3 HP engine intended for lawn mowers and raced it around

the parking lot of the Rose Bowl in Pasadena. These vehicles, now called "go-karts" have grown

into a multi-billion dollar industry in the USA and throughout the developed world. They are

made, sold, and used exclusively as recreational racers. They are not designed for transportation

and it is illegal in most places to drive them on the road.

These vehicles are typically 30 inches wide, 4 to 5 feet long, and weigh between 50 and

70 pounds. They are simple and inexpensive to build and operate and they can travel on rough

terrain and roads at speeds exceeding 20 miles per hour. It is estimated that large volume export

OEM contracts could be negotiated somewhere near half this amount. Alternate Asian sources

particularly China or S. Korea might yield lower cost designs. Chinese-made 4-cycle irrigation


GO-KARTING

pump engines are widely available in Asia for around $100 and these may be substituted for

lawn mower engines in Asian designs. An additional consideration in favor of the irrigation

pump engines is that 4- cycle engines are less polluting and many countries in Asia are phasing

out the use of 2-cycle engines for that reason.

Normally a 30-inch wheelbase is used with 1" by 36" threaded axles and 3 to 6 inches of

ground clearance depending on type of terrain the vehicle is expected to traverse. A very

elementary steering system of the tie-and-rod variety is sufficient. Brakes may be 4-1/2 inch

band or drum design. Eight-inch to 14-inch standard wheels from the garden supply industry

may be utilized. The other significant components are the clutch and sprocket assembly,

bearings, and a throttle control assembly.

Even in their most primitive forms go karts may be adapted as transportation technology

in developing countries to leverage economic growth and poverty alleviation. Go karts offer a

simple and inexpensive technology that meets many rural transportation needs. The technology

is a bridge between simple pushcarts and rickshaws on one hand and the automobile and truck

technology designed to western specifications on the other. The relative inefficiency of the

former technology is the very cause of poverty in many areas while the cost and technology

burden of the latter make them inaccessible to the poor.


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Feasibility of a Sustainable Go-Kart

The necessary conditions for sustainability of a go-kart project for rural development

include economic, social, and technical issues. Some of the questions that must be addressed

include the following: (Howe and Richards 1984, World Bank 1996, Howe 1999)

Transport infrastructure : Can the existing rural road network be used by

go-karts?

Demand for new services : Will the villagers use this technology? Do they

need it?

Financial feasibility : Will capital be available for investment in go-kart

manufacturing?

Financial feasibility : Can the villagers afford to purchase, operate, and

maintain go-karts? Will credit be available?

Economic feasibility : Will the use of go-karts by villagers increase their

standard of living?

Technical feasibility : Does the technical expertise exist among villagers to

operate and maintain these machines?

Industrial feasibility : Does an industrial infrastructure exists that can

supply parts and labor for the manufacture of go-karts?

Political feasibility : Will go karts and their environmental and economic

impact on rural life be acceptable to those in power?

Social sustainability : Will the new technology be adopted as an integral

part of the rural society and will benefits of improved transport reach all

sections of the community? Will it help the poor?

A well-developed cottage industry infrastructure exists in Bangladesh even in rural areas

for the introduction of go-kart technology. Both machine shops and welding shops may be found

at most small population centers throughout the country and the operators are skilled in their

work. Small two-cycle engines have been adapted for urban and rural transport as "baby taxis"

and "tempos" throughout the country. These are 3-wheeled passenger as well as freight vehicles.

Their maintenance and chassis manufacture is a wide-scale cottage industry in both urban and

rural areas.


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Bicycles, rickshaws, and rickshaw-based freight vehicles called "vans" are also

manufactured in small shops throughout the country. Truck maintenance shops provide yet

another source of technical skill that may be adapted for the introduction of go-karts to the

country as a cottage industry in a de-centralized implementation. There are many motor sports in

the world. Bikes, Cars, Formula one are examples of them. The drivers in these are very

professional. They can drive it very fast. But there are also motor sports which do not need

professional drivers and need no great speed. The vehicles used are also very cheap. Such a

motor sport is Go-Karting

They resemble to the formula one cars but it is not as faster as F1 and also cost is very

less. The drivers in go-karting are also not professionals. Even children can also drive it. Go-

karts have 4 wheels and a small engine. They are widely used in racing in US and also they are

getting popular in India.

Scope of the project


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Go-Karting is a big craze to the Americans and Europeans. It is initially created in United

States in 1950s and used as a way to pass spare time. Gradually it became a big hobby and other

countries followed it. In India go-karting is getting ready to make waves. A racing track is ready

in Nagpur for go-karting and Chennai is also trying to make one.

Indian companies are also producing go-karts in small scale. MRF and Indus motors are

the major bodies in karts and they are offering karts between 1lakh and 3 lakh. But to make go-

karts popular, the price must come down. For that, many people are trying to build one under 1

lakh and we had also take up the challenge. A go-kart just under Rs. 25,000/-. So we are sure that

our project will have a high demand in the industry and also we are hoping to get orders from the

racing guns.

About go – karts

Go-kart is a simple four-wheeled, small engine, single seat racing car used mainly in

United States. They were initially created in the 1950s. Post-war period by airmen as a way to

pass spare time. Art generally accepted to be the father of karting. He built the first kart in

Southern California in 1956. From them, it is being popular all over America and also Europe.

A Go-kart, by definition, has no suspension and no differential. They are usually raced on scaled

down tracks, but are sometimes driven as entertainment or as a hobby by non-professionals.

Karting is commonly perceived as the stepping shone to the higher and more expensive ranks of

motor sports. Kart racing is generally accepted as the most economic form of motor sport

available. As a free-time activity, it can be performed by almost anybody and permitting licensed

racing for anyone from the age of 8 onwards.

Kart racing is usually used as a low-cost and relatively safe way to introduce drivers to

motor racing. Many people associate it with young drivers, but adults are also very active in

karting. Karting is considered as the first step in any serious racer’s career. It can prepare the

driver for highs-speed wheel-to-wheel racing by helping develop guide reflexes, precision car

control and decision-making skills. In addition, it brings an awareness of the various parameters

that can be altered to try to improve the competitiveness of the kart that also exist in other forms

of motor racing.

Go-Karts in India


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Go-karts emerged in India in 2003 from MRF, which has a 250cc two-stroke engine,

which produce 15 bhp of power, which costs around 3 lakh. Indus motors are also offering Go-

karts for 1 lakh to 3 lakh. There are racing tracks in Nagpur for go-karting, which is known as

the home of go-karts in India. Many people take part in the racing and its getting popular.

Go-Karts in Foreign Countries

Go-karts in foreign countries have much more performance than the Indians. One type is

a single engine 160cc 4-stroke kart with a maximum speed of around 40 mph and second type, a

twin-engine 320cc 4-stroke kart used in outdoor with a maximum speed of 70 mph. There are

hundreds of racing tracks in US for karting and also they are much more professional than the

Indians.

Parts of a go – kart


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In a Go-Kart, there are mainly six parts. They are,

1. Chassis

2. Engine

3. Steering

4. Transmission

5. Tyres

6. Brake

7. Electric Starter

CHASSIS:

The chassis is an extremely imported element of the kart, as it must provide, via flex, the

equivalent of suspension to give good grip at the front. Karts have no suspension, and are usually

no bigger than is needed to mount a seat for the driver and a small engine. Chassis construction

is normally of a square tube construction, typically MS with different grades. In this kart, we use

MS tube with 1” diameter. The chassis support the power unit, power train, the running system

etc.

The Chassis construction:

The chassis of a Go-Kart consists of following components suitably mounted:

i. Engine

ii. Transmission system, consisting of the chain sprocket, rear axle.

iii. Road wheels.

iv. Steering system.

v. Brake.

vi. Fuel tank.

All the components listed above are mounted on the conventional construction, in which

a separate frame is used and the frameless or unitary construction in which no separate frame is

employed.


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Conventional Construction: In this type of chassis construction the frame is the basic unit to

which various components are attached and body is bolted onto the frame later on.

Function of the frame:

1) To support the chassis components and body.

2) To withstand static and dynamic loads without undue deflection or distortion.

Loads on the frame:

1) Weight of the vehicle and the passenger, which causes vertical bending of the side members.

2) Vertical loads when the vehicle comes across a bump or hollow, which results in longitudinal

torsion due to one wheel lifted (or lowered) with other wheels at the usual road level.

3) Loads due to road chamber, side wind and cornering force while taking a turn, which results

in lateral bending of side members.

4) Load due to wheel impact with road obstacles may cause that particular wheel to remain

obstructed while the other wheel tends to move forward, distorting the frame to parallelogram

shape.

5) Engine torque and braking torque tending to bend the side members in the vertical plane.

6) Sudden impact loads during a collision, which may result in a general collapse.

Frame construction: A simplified design representing the frame shows the longitudinal

members ‘A’ and cross members ‘B’. The frame is narrowed at the front as shown in to have

better steering lock, which gives a smaller turning circle. ‘C’ is the brackets supporting the body.

The extension of the chassis frame ahead of the front axle is called Front overhung, whereas its

extension beyond the rear is called Rear overhung. The engine and the transmission are all

bolted together to form one rigid assembly which is mounted usually on the rear end of the

frame. Various cross-sections used for the side members or cross-members of the chassis frame.

We used Channel section. It is seen that the channel section have bending stiffness’s as 6.5 and

7.2 compared to a Solid square with equal cross-sectional area whose stiffness is taken as 1.


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Materials for frame: There are so many materials can be used for making frames like steel,

iron. We used MS for chassis.

Defects in frame: The only prominent defect that usually occurs in the frames due to accidents

is the alignment fault. This may be checked by means of a plumb line. The vehicle is placed on a

level surface and by suspending plumb line from four different points on each side of the frame;

their position on the ground is marked. The vehicle is then taken away and the diagonals are

measured between corresponding points. These should not differ by more than 7 or 8 mm. If any

of the corresponding diagonals do differ by more than this amount, the frame is out of alignment.

The possible cause, then, may be any one of the following:

1) The dumb irons or side members may be bent.

2) Cross members may be bulky.

3) Some rivets may be loose or broken.

If the damage to the frame members is small, they can be repaired by means of a hydraulic jack

and wringing irons. If the damage is more, the bent frame member may be heated to straighten it.

Another alternative may be to cut the damaged part and weld a new one instead.

Engine:

An engine of a go-kart is usually a small one about 80cc. In this kart, we use a kinetic

Honda Single Cylinder 98cc 2-stroke petrol engine, which produces about 7.7 BHP@5600 rpm..

We use 2- stroke engine because this is used for racing. So there is no need of mileage.

Steering system:

The steering of a go-kart is very sensitive. Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming

the most common type of steering on cars, small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple

mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gear set is enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack

protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.

The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering wheel, the

gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack connects to the steering arm on

the spindle


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Transmission

Transmission means the whole of the mechanism that transmits the power from the

engine crankshaft to the rear wheels. In this vehicle, the power from the engine is transmitted to

the sprockets using chain, i.e. this is chain drive. The driver sprocket has 9teeth and driven

sprocket has 45 teeth. Usually go-karts do not have a differential and so we eliminate differential

from our vehicle also. And also this go-kart has no clutch and gears because this is automatic

transmission. Belt and pulley type CVT issued in this kart. The power from the engine is

transmitted to the rear two wheels using chain drive. We use chain drive because it is capable of

taking shock loads.

Introduction: The word ‘transmission’ as introduced in the beginning of this book means the

whole of the mechanism that transmits the power from the engine crankshaft to the rear wheels.

Necessity of Transmission: The question as to how far is the transmission necessary in a vehicle

may be answered by considering.

Variation of resistance to the vehicle motion at various speeds.

Variation of attractive effort of the vehicle available at various speeds.

Chain Drive:

Determining the number of teeth for the driver sprocket Choose the suitable number of

teeth in Accor- dance with the recommendations regarding sprocket selection criteria.

Determination of chain speed on grounds of the sprocket revolution is based on the formula:

chain speed:

v = do.n/19,100 (m/s) wherein:

do = sprocket reference diameter in mm

n = sprocket revolution (r.p.m)

v = chain velocity (m/s) 19,100 = constant

The sprocket revolution can also be derived from chain speed and the reference diameter

by simply rearranging the above formula: Sprocket revolution: n = (r.p.m.)

finally, the required sprocket reference diameter can be derived from the shaft

revolution and chain velocity:do = (mm)


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Tyres

For go-karts, wheels and tyres are much smaller than those used on a normal car. The

tyres will have increased grip and a hard one. And also it can withstand the high temperature. In

this kart, we use tyres having 15” dia for front and for rear. This is used for an aerodynamic

shape. The tyres must have pressure of at least 18 psi.

Figure 2: Parts of tyre

Wheels and tyres

Introduction

The importance of wheels and tyres in automobile is obvious. Without the engine the car

may be towed, but even that is not possible without the wheels. The wheel, along the tyre has to

take the vehicle load, provide a cushioning effect and cope with the steering control. The various

requirement of an automobile wheel are:

1. It must be strong enough to perform the above function.

2. It should be balanced both statically as well as dynamically.

3. It should be lightest possible so that the un sprung the wheel easily.

4. It should be possible to remove or mount the wheel easily.


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5. Its material should not deteriorate with weathering and age. In case, the material

is susceptible to corrosion, it must be given suitable protective treatment.

Types of tyres

The use of solid tyre on automobile is now obsolete and only the pneumatic tyres are universally.

There pneumatic tyres may be classified according of following consideration:

1. Basic construction.

2. Use.

3. Ability to run flat.

Figure 3: Construction of tyre


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Tyre Specifications

1 .Tyre Width:

The75 is the width of the tyre in millimeters (mm), measured from sidewall to sidewall.

Since this measure is affected by the width of the rim, the measurement is for the tyre when it is

on its intended rim size.

2 .Aspect Ratio:

This number tells you the height of the tyre, from the bead to the top of the tread. This is

described as a percentage of the tyre width. In our example, the aspect ratio is 75, so the tyres

height is 75 percent of its width, or 56.25 mm (75 x 75 =56.25 mm, or 2.25 in). The smaller the

aspect ratio, the wider the tyre in relation to its height. Two tyres with different aspect ratios but

the same overall diameter high performance tyres usually have a lower aspect ratio than other

tyres. This is because tyres with a lower aspect ratio provide better lateral stability. When a car

goes around a turn lateral forces are generated and the tyre must resist these forces. Tyres with a

lower profile have shorter, stiffer sidewalls so they resist cornering forces better.

3 .Tyre Construction:

The R designates that the tyre was made using radial construction. This is the most

common type of tyre construction. Older tyres were made using diagonal bias (D) or bias belted

(B) construction. A separate note indicates how many plies make up the sidewall of the tyre and

the tread.

4 .Rim Diameter:

This number specifies, in inches, the wheel rim diameter the tyre is designed for. The

service description consists of two things.

Load Ratings

The load rating is a number that correlates to the maximum rated load for that tyre. A

higher number indicates that the tyre has a higher load capacity. The rating “105,” for example,

corresponds to a load capacity of 2039 pounds (924.87 kg). A separate note on the tyre indicates

the load rating at a given inflation pressure.


GO-KARTING

Speed Rating

The letter that follows the load rating indicates the maximum speed allowable for this tyre (as

long as the weight is at or below the rated load). For instance, S indicates that the tyre can handle

speeds up to 112 mph (180.246 kph). See the chart on this page for all the ratings.

5 . Calculating the tyre Diameter:

Now that we know what these numbers mean, we can calculate the overall diameter of a tyre.

We multiply the tyre width by the aspect ratio to get the height of the tyre. Tyre height = 75 x 75

percent = 56.25 mm (2.25 in) Then we add twice the tyre height to the rim diameter. 2 x 2.25 in

+ 15 inches = 19.5 in (487.5 mm) this is the unloaded diameter; as soon as any weight is put on

the tyre, the diameter will decrease.

Effect of air pressure on tyre performance:

1 .On dry road/ off-road:

Only properly inflated tyres produce quick response and good handling. The

underinflated tyre require more steering input to initiate maneuvers and are slower to respond.

Beside, under inflated tyre also feel out of synchronization during transition, i.e., instead of

moving in unison, the rear tyre reaction lags behind those of the front tyres, resulting in a

detached sensation being transmitted to the drivers.

2 .On wet road:

A significant underinflated tyre would allow the centre of the tread to collapse and

become very concave, trapping water rather than allowing it to flow through the tread design.

Thus driving the vehicle with the underinflated tyres would be more difficult and would force the

driver to show down to retain control.


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Tyre materials include basic ingredients like

1.Polymers: They are the backbone of rubber compounds. They consist of natural or synthetic

rubber.

2.Fillers: They reinforce rubber compounds. The most common filler is carbon black although

other materials, such as silica, are used to give the compound unique properties.

3.Softeners: Petroleum oils, pine tar, resins and waxes are all softeners that are used in

compounds principally as processing aids and to improve tack or stickiness of unvaulcanized

compounds.

4.Antidegradents: Waxes, antioxidants, andantiozonants are added to rubber compounds to help

protect tires against deterioration by ozone, oxygen and heat like merino, resole ML wax.

5.Curatives: During vulcanization or curing, the polymer chains become linked, transforming

the viscous compounds into strong, elastic materials.

6.Sulphur: along with accelerators and activators help achieve.

Tyre specification:

Tyre size

Front 3.5" x 10−4PR (Ply Rating)

Rear 3.5" x 10−4 PR

Wheel And Tyre Trouble Shooting:

1. Wheel bounce or tramp: The most obvious reason for this is the eccentricity of wheel and

tyre. If on checking, eccentricity is not found, the defect may be due to incorrect tyre pressure,

statically unbalanced wheels or statically unbalanced brake drum. To determine which particular

wheels is causing bounce, inflate all tyres to higher pressure of 350 kpa and drive over the same

road. If now the bounce is eliminated, decrease the air pressure to recommended valve in one


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tyre at a time and repeat the road test. Repeat this procedure till the entire tyre has been tested in

manner, i.e., one tyre at the recommended pressure and three tyres at the higher pressure. When

the bounce again develops, the tyre at the recommended pressure is the defective one which must

be replaced. This method of isolating the defective tyres is very effective in case of cross ply

tyres, but is not so effective in case of radial tyres.

2. Wheel wobble or shimmy: This may be due to wearing out of the hub bearing of the wheel

affected in which case it should be replaced. This defect may also be caused due to dynamic

unbalance, which itself may be due to several reasons such as bucked wheel, incorrectly fitted

tyre, bent axle shaft.

3. Side wear of tyres: When the tyre wears more at the side than at the side than at the center, it

is due to low tyre pressure.

4. One-side wear of tyre: This may be due to incorrect camber angle of incorrect toe in or

sagging axle on account of overloading. Continues running on high cambered road may also

result in this type of were.

5. Centre: The reason for this is the high tyre pressure.

6 .Uneven tyre wear: This is due to bucked wheel or the tyre and wheel assembly being out of

balance. Sudden acceleration and braking also result in this type of were.

7. Uniform rapid wear: Driving on rough road or fast driving are the causes of the uniform but

rapid were. It is estimated that were of tyre at a speed of 80 kph. Is approximately twice than at a

speed of 50 kph.

8. Rapid were with feathered edge on the tread: This type of wear may be detected by placing

figure on the tread and moving slowly in the cross direction, first on one side and then on the

other. This means the tyre has also been skidding. This may be due to incorrect wheel alignment.

On rear axle this may be due to misalignment of chassis and displacement of axle.

9. Tread cracking:This is due to overloading, over inflation or under inflation.Typically,go-

karts will have a single rear drum brake, which is situated on the rear axle.The brake will capable

for stopping the kart running in 40 mph. The pedals actuated by the left leg operate the brakes.


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BrakePrinciple: A drum brake is a brake that uses friction caused by a set of shoes or pads that press

against a rotating drum-shaped part called a brake drum. It goes without saying that brakes are

one of the most important control components of vehicle. They are required to stop the vehicle

within the smallest possible distance and this is done by converting the kinetic energy of the

vehicle into the heat energy which is dissipated into the atmosphere. The term drum brake

usually means a brake in which shoes press on the inner surface of the drum.

Figure 4: Drum Brake

Braking Requirements: The brake must be strong enough to stop the vehicle within a minimum

distance in an emergency. But this should also be consistent with safety. The driver must have

proper control over the vehicle during emergency braking and the vehicle must not skid .The

brakes must have good ant fade characteristics, their effectiveness should not decrease with

constant prolonged application. This requirement demands that the cooling of the brakes should

be very efficient.


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Stopping Distances for brake on basis of efficiency:

Table No: 1

Efficiency % Stopping Distance

30 km/h 50 km/h 80 km/h 100 km/h

100 3.2 9.8 25.2 25.2

80 4.4 12.2 31.5 31.5

60 6.0 16.3 42.0 42.0

30 12.0 32.6 84.0 84.0

The distances given in the table are approximate only and they vary with the type of the

road surface and condition of tyre tread. Thus the actual stopping distances will be more than the

values given in table which is based upon deceleration only. These depend upon:

1. Vehicle speed

2. Condition of the road surface

3. Condition of tyre tread

4. Coefficient of friction between the tyre tread and the road surface

5. Coefficient of friction between the brake drum and the brake lining

6. Braking force applied by the driver.

Construction: Drum brake components include the backing plate, brake drum, shoe, wheel

cylinder, and various springs and pins.

Backing plate: The backing plate provides a base for the other components. It attaches to the

axle sleeve and provides a non-rotating rigid mounting surface for the cam, brake shoes, and

assorted hardware.

Brake drum: The brake drum is generally made of a special type of cast iron that is heat-

conductive and wear-resistant. It rotates with the wheel and axle.

Cam: It is situated between two brake shoes, which are operated by the brake pedal. It pushes

Brake shoe outward.


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Brake shoe: Brake shoes are typically made of two pieces of sheet steel welded together. The

friction material is either riveted to the lining table or attached with adhesive. The crescent-

shaped piece is called the Web and contains holes and slots in different shapes for return springs,

hold-down hardware, parking brake linkage and self-adjusting components. The edge of the

lining table generally has three “V"-shaped notches or tabs on each side called nibs. The nibs rest

against the support pads of the backing plate to which the shoes are installed. Each brake

assembly has two shoes, a primary and secondary.

Brake lining: Linings must be resistant against heat and wear and have a high friction

coefficient unaffected by fluctuations in temperature and humidity. Materials that make up the

brake shoe include, friction modifiers (which can include graphite and cashew nut shells),

powdered metal such as lead, zinc, brass, aluminum and other metals that resist heat fade,

binders, curing agents and fillers such as rubber chips to reduce brake noise.

Normal braking: When the brakes are applied, cam get operated, which in turn pushes the brake shoes

into contact with the machined surface on the inside of the drum. This rubbing action reduces the rotation

of the brake drum, which is coupled to the wheel. Hence the speed of the vehicle is reduced. When the

pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their rest position.

Automatic self-adjustment: As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance

to reach the drum. When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism

automatically reacts by adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are closer to the drum.

Here, the adjusting lever rocks enough to advance the adjuster gear by one tooth. The adjuster

has threads on it, like a bolt, so that it unscrews a little bit when it turns, lengthening to fill in the

gap. When the brake shoes wear a little more, the adjuster can advance again, so it always keeps

the shoes close to the drum.


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Figure 5:Internal Structure Of Drum Brake


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Electric start

Both Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal-combustion engines require the pistons to be moving

before the ignition phase of the cycle. This means that the engine must be set in motion by an

external force before it can power itself. Originally, a hand crank was used to start engines, but it

was inconvenient and rather hard work to crank the engine up to speed. It was also highly

dangerous. Even though cranks had an overrun mechanism to prevent it, when the engine started,

a crank could begin to spin along with the crankshaft. The operator had to pull away

immediately, or else risk a broken wrist, or worse. Moreover, as engines evolved, they became

larger and compression ratios increased, making hand cranking an increasingly difficult matter.

The modern starter motor is a series-wound direct current electric motor with a solenoid switch

mounted on it. When low-current power from the starting battery is applied to the solenoid,

usually through a key operated switch, it pushes out a small pinion gear on the starter motor's

shaft and meshes it with the ring gear on the flywheel of the engine. The solenoid also closes

high current for the starter motor and it starts to run.

Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the solenoid assembly pulls

the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter motor stops. Modern starter motors have

a "bendy" — a gear and integral freewheel, or overrunning clutch, that enables the flywheel to

automatically disengage the pinion gear from the flywheel when the engine starts.

Starter motor assembly

Other than the main parts, the kart also contains some parts such as Mufflers. The muffler we use

is Baffle type. In baffle type, the exhaust gas passes through a series of baffles, which causes

maximum restriction and hence back pressure. The noise reduction takes place because the

length of travel of exhaust gases increases considerably. Other main part is the headlight. Head

light is provided at the front of the kart for sane night racing. The requirement of automobiles is

that these should illuminate the road ahead at a reasonable distance with sufficient intensity. Also

there is a plastic seat in the kart for the driver. The kart is single seated. There is also a bumper in

front of the kart.


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CHAPTER 2

DESIGN CALCULATION


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Specifications of a go – kart

Engine Displacement (cc) = 98

No. of cylinders = 1

Type of Fuel = Petrol

No. of Strokes = 2

Maximum power (bhp) = 7.7 bhp @ 5600 rpm

No. of gears / variator = Variator

Overall Length (mm) = 1600

Height (mm) = 700

Wheel Base (mm) = 900

Ground Clearance (mm) = 200

Kerb Weight (kg) = 4.43

Fuel tank capacity (litre) = 3.75

Brake = Drum

Type of Cooling = Air cooling


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Design and drawings

Chassis:

Type of Material =Square Tube

LxB= 40x40 mm

Axle:

Type of Material = M S

Length of Axle = 900 mm

Diameter of axle = 30 mm

Brake:

Position = Single Rear

Type = Drum Brake

Brake Diameter = 110 mm

Sprocket:

Type of Material = M S

Outer radius of sprocket =180 mm

No. of Teeth = 45

Fuel Tank:

Material = Sheet metal.(Galvanized steel)

Capacity = 3 .75 Liter

Steering Spindle:

Diameter of tube =25 mm

Material = Galvanized iron Tube.

Pedal:

Type of material = M S


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Diameter of Rod = 75 mm

Muffler:

Material = Aluminum

Greater diameter of muffler = 100 mm

Total Length = 450 mm

Smaller diameter of muffler = 50 mm


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Calculation of turning angle

Figure 6: Steering Gear Mechanism


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Calculation

COTθ=BP/IP

=3000/900

=3.33

1/tanθ=2.44

1/2.44=tan

θ=16.69°.

tan−1 0.40

COT∅=AP/IP

=3850/900

1/tan∅=4.27

∅=13.15°

Cotθ-Cot∅=c/b


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DesignDesign consists of application of scientific, principles, technical information and imagination for

development of new or improvised machine or mechanism to perform a specific with maximum

economy and efficiency.

Hence a careful design approach has to be adopted. The total design work has been split

up into two parts;

• System design

• Mechanical Design

System design mainly concerns the various physical constraints and ergonomics, space

requirements, arrangement of various components on main frame at system, man + machine

interaction, No. of controls, position of controls, working environment of machine, chances of

failure, safety, measures to be provided, servicing aids, ease of maintenance, scope of

Improvement, weight of machine from ground level, total weight of machine and a lot more. In

mechanical design the components are listed down and stored on the basis of their procurement,

design in two categories namely,

• Designed Parts

• Parts to be purchased

For designed parts detached design is done and distinctions thus obtained are compared to next

highest dimensions which are readily available in market. This amplifies the assembly as well as

postproduction servicing work. The various tolerances on the works are specified. The process

charts are prepared and passed on to the manufacturing stage.

The parts which are to be purchased directly are selected from various catalogues and specified

so that any body can purchase the same from the retails shop with given specifications.

System design

In system design we mainly concentrated on the following parameters:-

1. System Selection Based on Physical Constraints


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While selecting any machine it must be checked whether it is going to be used in a large – scale

industry or a small –scale industry. In our case it is to be used by a small scale industry .So space

is a major constrain. The system is to be very compact so that it can be adjusted to corner of a

room.

The mechanical design has direct norms with the system design. Hence the foremost job is to

control the physical parameters, so that the distinctions obtained after mechanical design can be

well fitted into that.

2. Arrangements of Various Components

Keeping into view the space restrictions the components should be laid such that their easy

Removal or servicing is possible. More over every component should be easily seen none should

be hidden. Every possible space is utilized in components arrangements.

3. Components of System

As already stated the system should be compact enough so that it can be accommodated at a

corner of a room. All the moving parts should be well closed and compact. A compact system

design gives a high weighted structure which is desired.

Man Machine Interaction

The friendliness of a machine with the operator that is an important criteria of design. It is the

application of anatomical and psychological principles to solve problems arising from Man –

Machine relationship. Following are some of the topics included in this section.

Lighting condition of machine.

4. Chances of Failure

The losses incurred by owner in case of any failure are important criteria of design. Factor safety

while doing mechanical design is kept high so that there are Less chances of failure. Moreover

periodic maintenance is required to keep unit healthy.

5. Servicing Facility

The layout of components should be such that easy servicing is possible. Especially those

components which require frequents servicing can be easily disassembled.


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Scope of Future Improvement

Arrangement should be provided to expand the scope of work in future.

Such as to convert the machine motor operated; the system can be easily configured to required

one. The die and punch can be changed if required for other shapes of notches etc.

6. Height of Machine from Ground

For ease and comfort of operator the height of machine should be properly decided so that he

may not get tried during operation. The machine should be slightly higher than the waist level,

also enough clearance should be provided from the ground for cleaning purpose.

7. Weight of Machine

The total weight depends upon the selection of material components as well as the dimension of

components. A higher weighted machine is difficult in Transportation and in case of major

breakdown; it is difficult to take it to workshop because of more weight.

Mechanical design

Mechanical design phase is very important from the view of designer as whole success of

the project depends on the correct design analysis of the problem.

Many preliminary alternatives are eliminated during this phase Designer should have

adequate knowledge above physical properties of material, loads stresses, deformation, and

failure. Theories and wear analysis. He should identify the external and internal force acting on

the machine parts.

This force may be classified

1] Dead weigh forces

2] Friction forces

3] Inertia forces

4] Centrifugal forces

5] Forces generated during power transmission etc.

Designer should estimate these forces very accurately by using design equations. If he

does not have sufficient information to estimate them he should make certain practical


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assumptions based on similar conditions. This will almost satisfy the functional needs.

Assumptions must always be on the safer side.

Selection of factors of safety to find working or design stress is another important step in

design of working dimensions of machine elements. The corrections in the theoretical stress

value are to be made according in the kinds of loads, shape of parts and service requirements.

Selection of material should be made according to the condition of loading shapes of products

environments conditions & desirable properties of material

Provision should be made to minimize nearly adopting proper lubrications methods.In,

mechanical design the components are listed down and stored on the basis of their procurement

in two categories.

1] Design parts

2] Parts to be purchased

For design parts a detailed design is done and designation thus obtain are compared to the next

highest dimension which is ready available in market.

This simplification the assembly as well as post production service work. The various

tolerances on the work are specified. The processes charts are prepared and passed on to the

work are specified.

The parts to be purchased directly are selected from various catalogues and specification

so that anybody can purchase the same from retail shop with the given specifications.


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Axle rotational speed calculations

(1). 5600RPM Motor x 9 Tooth Drive Clutch = (x) RPM x 45 Tooth Sprocket

(x) RPM = 1120 rpm

(2). 5600RPM Motor x Ratio (1) = (x) RPM x Ratio (5)

(x) RPM =1120 rpm

(3). 5600 RPM Motor x (4 x .375) = (x) RPM x (21.0164 x .375)

(x) RPM = 1066

9 Tooth Sprocket Pitch = 4

Tooth Sprocket Pitch = 21.0164

Chain Pitch = .375

15" Tire Diameter - Circumference = 47.125" or 3.9375' (Per Revolution of the

Tire)

1120RPM x 60 min./1 hour = 67,200 Rev/Hour

67,200 Rev/Hour x 3.9375 Feet/Rev = 264600 Feet/Hour

264600Feet/Hour x 1 Mile/5280 Feet = 50.11 Miles/Hour [MPH] (5600 Motor

RPM)

For the Standard/Recommended Motor RPM of 3600 the Speed = 29.6 RPM

Drive Selection Calculations:

Input Speed - 5600 RPM

Output Speed - 1120 RPM

H.P. - 7

Service Factor - S.F. -1.7 (Heavy Shock Load, Internal Combustion Engine)

Design Power - S.F. x H.P. = (1.7) x (7) = 12 H.P.

Ratio = 5


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N2(Driven) = N1 Driver x Ratio = 9 (Teeth) x 5 = 45 (Teeth)

n2= n1(N1/N2) = 5600 RPM (9 Teeth/45Teeth) =1120 RPM

D1= p/sin(180°/N1) = 0.375 in./sin(180°/9 Teeth) = 1.09in. (Driver)

D2= p/sin(180°/N2) = 0.375 in./sin(180°/45 Teeth) = 5.37 in. (Driven)

Center Distance - "C" - 40 Pitches (Usually between 30 and 50)

40 x 0.375 in. = 15 in. (Theoretical)

(Actual Center Distance is 16"), so 16" = (x) Pitches x0.375 = 42.7 Pitches

Chain Length - L = 2C + N2+N1/2 +(N 2−N 1 ¿¿2/4P2C

Chain Length - L = 2(42.7) + 45+9/2 + (45-9)/4P2(42.7)

Chain Length = 135.130 Pitches

Integral Number of Pitches for the Chain Length and Compute the Actual Theoretical

Center Distance

C = 1/4 [ (L-(N2+N1/2)) +( (L−N 2+N 1/2¿¿2- (8(N 2−N 1¿2/4 P2 ¿¿1/2)

C = 1/4 [ (135 -(45+9/2)) + ((135−45+9 /2¿¿2-8(45−9¿¿2/ 4 P2¿1/ 2

C = 42.6 Pitches = 42.6 pitches x (.375 in.) = 16 in.

Angle of Wrap

Small

= 180° - 2sin−1¿ )

= 180° - 2sin−1¿)

= 164°

Large

= 180° + sin−1¿ ¿

= 180° + 2sin−1¿

= 195.3°


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Summary

Pitch of No. 35 Chain = 0.375 inch

Length = 135 Pitches = 135(0.375 inch) =50.62 inches

Center Distance = C = 16.0 in. (Maximum)

Sprockets = Single Strand, N0. 35, 0.375 in. Pitch

Small: 9 Teeth, D = 1.09 in.

Large: 45 Teeth, D = 5.37 in.


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Bearing calculation

Data: Rear Axle RPM =1120 RPM @ 5600 RPM Motor Speed

Go-Kart Speed is 50.11 MPH @ 5600 RPM Motor Speed

Rear Tires are 15” O.D. Diameter

13” Tires – Circumference = 40.841” = 3.403’ / Revolution

3.403 Feet/Revolution x 1 Mile/5280 Feet = .000645 Mile/Revolution

50.11 Miles/Hour x 1Rev/.000645 Mile = 77689.92 Rev/Hour

77689.92 Rev/Hour x 1 Hour/60 Minute = 1290 RPM

Front Axle RPM =1290 RPM @ 5600 RPM Motor Speed

Rear Bearings – 1120 RPM – Inner Race Rotating and Outer Race is Stationary

Front Bearings – 1290 RPM – Outer Race Rotating and Inner Race is Stationary

Radial Loads Front - 560 lbs.

Back - 690 lbs. Worst Case Scenario

An assumption was made for the axial loads. These loads only occur during the time the is

turning or skidding on its terrain. The highest axial loads on the bearings would occur at the

point where the Go-Kart is going at a high speed, turning while all wheels are on the ground, and

is at it’s fastest point before it overcomes the friction between the tires and its terrain. According

to the Machinery’s Handbook, the rubber can have a coefficient of friction as high as 4.0

depending what material it is riding/working on. For the go kart the following calculations were

made:

Coefficient of Friction = 2.0

Normal Force at Right Rear Tire = 153 lbs

Maximum Force on Tire Before Skidding = 306 lbs

For everyday use, normal driving and turning conditions, and various terrains, a friction factor of

2.was used and an axial load of 200 lbs. will be used for the bearing selections.


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Calculations

Rear Bearing Calculations

Radial Loads - 690 lbs. Bearing Calcs, Tables, and Bearing Selections were all

Axial Loads - 200 lbs. completed from our School Book.

Speed - 1120 RPM

Design Life of 2000 Hours (2 years)

Shaft Diameter - 30 mm

V = 1.0 (Inner Race Rotates) P = VXR +YT

X = .56

P = (1.0)(.56)(690 lbs.) + (1.5)(200 lbs.)

R = 690 lbs.

P = 684.4 lbs.

Y = 1.5 Assumption

T = 200 lbs.

fn= .355

fl= 1.58

C = Pfl/fn

C = (686.4)(1.58)/(.355) C = 3055 lbs.

(6206) Bearing [30 mm Shaft]

(6206) Bearing Co= 2320 lbs.

T/Co= 200 lbs./2320 lbs. = .086

e = .281

T/R = 200 lbs ./690 lbs. = .290

T/R > e


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Y = 1.54

P = (1.0)(.56)(690 lbs.) + (1.54)(200 lbs.) = 694.4 lbs.

C = (694.4)(1.58)/(.355) = 3090.6 lbs.

Bearing # 6206 "C" = 3350 lbs., which is > than calculated "C". [This Bearing is acceptable)

Figure 7: Bearing Mounting


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Front Bearing Calculations

Radial Loads - 560 lbs.

Bearing Calculations, Tables, and Bearing Selections

(280 lbs. per Bearing)

Axial Loads - 200 lbs.

were all completed from our School Book.

(100 lbs. per Bearing)

Speed - 1290 RPM

Design Life of 2000 Hours (2 years)

Shaft Diameter - 17 mm

The Front Wheels will use (2) Ball Bearings per Wheel.

V = 1.2 (Outer Race Rotates) P = VXR +YT

X = .56 (Table 14-5) P = (1.2)(.56)(280 lbs.) + (1.5)(100 lbs.)

R = 280 lbs.

P = 338.16 lbs.

Y = 1.5 Assumption

T = 100 lbs.

fn= .34

fl= 1.58

c=pfl/fn

C = (338.16)(1.58)/(.34) C = 1571 lbs.

(6203) Bearing [17 mm Shaft]

(6203) Bearing Co= 1010 lbs.

T/Co= 100 lbs./1010 lbs. = .099


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e = .30

T/R = 100 lbs./280 lbs. = .36

T/R > e

Y = 1.45

P = (1.2)(.56)(280 lbs.) + (1.45)(100 lbs.) = 333.2 lbs.

C = (333.2)(1.58)/(.34) = 1548.2 lbs.

Bearing # 6203 "C" = 1660 lbs., which is > than calculated "C". [This Bearing is acceptable]


GO-KARTING

Steering system designSteering system requirements

A steering system must offer sufficient precision for the driver to actually sense what is

happening at the front tyres contact patch as well as enough “feel” to sense the approach to

cornering limit of the front tyres. It must be structurally stiff to avoid components deflections.

The steering must be fast enough so that the vehicle’s response to steering and to steering

correction to happen almost instantaneous and it must also have some self returning action.

The feel, feedback and self returning action are function of the kingpin inclination, scrub radius,

castor angle and self aligning torque characteristics of the front tyre.

Design of the steering system geometry

Although modern cars do not use 100% Ackerman since it ignores important dynamic

and compliant effects, the principle is sound for low speed man oeuvres. The competition track

set up allows only for low cornering speed. In this case the tyres are at small slip angles

therefore, 100% Ackerman is the best option.

In consultation with the team, in our primary phase of the design we decided the wheelbase and

the track width. However, at the beginning of the second semester a major decision was made to

use for this year competition the previous year chassis. Since the geometry used last year proved

to work well, the decision was made to use for this year project same 100% Ackermann

geometry.

Ackermann condition

For the Ackermann analysis the Ackermann condition is used to determine the

relationship between inner and outer wheel in a turn and the radius of turn.

General equation:

1tan θo- 1

tan θi= L

B

Where:

θo= turn angle of the wheel on the outside of the turn

θi= turn angle of the wheel on the inside of the turn

B= track width

L= wheel base

b= distance from rear axle to centre of mass


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Figure 8: Steering mechanism

From the general equation we can calculate the turn angle of the wheel on the

Outside of the turn for a given inside wheel angle as follows:

B=900 mm

L=1550 mm

Θi=30°

1tan θO= 1

tan θi+LB =16.32°

Selection of the steering parameters

The initial decision of zero degree kingpin inclination had to be reconsidered since the 56

mm of scrub radius resulted is large and will give an excessive feedback to the driver. Therefore

4 degree kingpin inclination is to be build in the front upright design that will result in an amount

of scrub radius of 30mmcalculated for last year wheel offset. Since this amount is still grater than

10%of the thread width (Heisler 1989), new wheels with less offset have been found therefore

the resulting scrub radius is about 20 mm that is the amount we aimed for. The amount of castor

angle was set to 3.5 degree and is also build in the front Uprights. However, castor angle can be

adjusted by adjustment of the upper wishbone. This requires that one arm of the wishbone to be


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shortened while lengthening the other arm by screwing in or out the adjustable spherical rodents.

Another possible adjustment is to assemble the upright in an inclined position on the hub axle but

this is not a handy method of adjustment.

Selection of the steering mechanism

From all manual steering systems the more suitable is rack and pinion steering for the

following reasons:

-has a simple construction;

- is cheap and readily available;

- has a high mechanical efficiency;

- has a reduced space requirement.

Since last year rack and pinion steering mechanism had an undesirable amount of free

play the decision was made to modify one of the two steering mechanisms sourced by the team

members as donations for the project. The rack and pinion steering box selected is from a Honda

Civic 1983 and has a5 teeth pinion gear and a pitch on the rack of 4.5mm.The steering box

assembly have been modified by Bruce Llewellyn, one of the team members. The rack has been

shortened and the assembly was kept in the original steering box. The input shaft is not in a

central position therefore the steering column will be connected to the input shaft through a

universal joint.


GO-KARTING

Steering movement ratio

The rack and pinion mechanism is designed to transfer the circular input motion of the

pinion into linear output movement of the rack. It was measured that for a full travel of the rack

of 295 mm the pinion has to be rotated 3.5turns

Xo=2953.5 =84.28

Therefore for one turn, the rack travel will be:

Considering the pinion to make one revolution then the input steering movement is

Xi=2πR

Where, R = 190 mm is the radius of the steering wheel.

And the output rack movement is:

Xo=2πr

r=84 .282 π =13.42

Then, the movement ratio can be calculated as input movement over output:

MR= XiXo=2 πR

2 πr =19014 =13.57

Therefore the movement ratio is 14:1

We needed to know the movement ratio in order to determine the output load transmitted to the

tie rods for a given input load. For an effort of 20 N applied by each hand on the steering wheel

and considering no friction, the output load will be:

Fo= F1 xMR=560

Therefore the load transmitted to the tie rods is 560


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CHAPTER 3

SYSTEMS USED

IN A GO – KART


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Systems used in a go – kart:

Like every automobile, go-karts also have various systems. Mainly

There are 4 systems in this kart.

1. Fuel system

2. Ignition system

3. Lubrication system

4. Cooling system

1. Fuel system

The purpose of fuel system in SI engines is to store and supply fuel and then to pump to

carburetors. The fuel supply system also prepares the air-fuel mixture for combustion in the

cylinder and carries the exhaust gas to the rear of the vehicle. The basic fuel supply system

used in the vehicle consists of the following.

a) Fuel tank

b) Fuel strainer or Fuel filter

c) Air cleaner

d) Carburetor

The type of combustion that takes place in an engine is commonly called Burning.

Burning is an example of chemical change. In a chemical change as substance losses those

characteristic by which we recognize it and is changed to a new substances with different

properties. The petrol is burned in the engine and the products that result no longer resemble

petrol.

The petrol in the fuel lines differs from the petrol that is drawn into the engine. As it

passes through the carburetor and intake manifold and is mixed with aim some of the petrol is

changed from liquid to vapour. This process of vaporization is called a physical changed. No

new substance is formed since the petrol vapour is still recognized as petrol.


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Diesel fuel oil and petrol are both mixtures of volatile hydrocarbons compounds of

hydrogen and carbon. A compound is a substance that can be separated by chemical means into

two or more simpler substances. Hydrogen and carbon are examples of elements. In chemistry an

element is defined as a substance, which cannot be separated into simpler substances by

chemical action.

Fuel Tank: It is reservoir of fuel oil for an engine. It is kept in and elevated position so that the

fuel will flow to the carburetor through the filter by gravity. Our fuel tank has a capacity of

5litre.

Fuel Filter: Dust, particles of dirt or other unwanted particles might be present in the petrol. This

petrol should be free from these particles. Therefore, the petrol filter is used.

Air Cleaner: Since the atmospheric air is highly cornices and contains dust and dirt particles, it

is allowed to enter the engine intake manifold only through an air cleaner.

Carburetor: The mixture of petrol and air burns in the combustion chamber of the engine. The

carburetor is a device to mix the petrol with air in the proper ratio for the purpose of combustion.

The quantity of petrol and air can be indifferent ratios. The quantity of petrol can sometimes be

more and sometimes less. The speed of the engine changes according to the richness of the petrol

in the mixture.

Function of a carburetor is

a) Meter the quantity of charge to give correct air-fuel mixture.

b) Atomize petrol into fine particles so that it burns quickly.

2. Ignition system

The ignition system used for small two-stroke engine is flywheel magneto type. The

advantage of this system is that it is set combined. The flywheel magneto is basically used only

for a single cylinder engine though ones suitable for multi-cylinder engine have also been

developed. The principles of this type of ignition can be easily understood with following

description.


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Magneto Generator

The ignition magnet of a magneto generator, which produces alternating electrical

impulses in a low-tension armature winding or coil. At an appropriate moment the circuit

through the winding is broken by means of an interrupter, which forms an integrate part of the

magneto. A condenser connected across the breaker assures rapid cessation of the primary

current, and this results in the induction of a high tension impulse in a fine wire secondary

winding, which either surrounds the primary winding or is surrounded by it, both being wound

on a magnetic coil. Advantage of the magneto is its self-contained character. All the demands of

the system are in on compact unit from which it is necessary only to run a low-tension cable to

the lighting system and high-tension cable to the spark plug.

Fly wheel magneto (rotating magnet type)

1. Ignition Coil

2. Spark Plug

3. Ignition Switch

4. Flywheel Magnet

A small magnet is provided with laminated pole pieces and the assemblies cast in the

engine flywheel, which also acts as a cooling fan. In addition to the magnet, the magneto consists

of a coil with a w-shaped or three pole laminated core, an interrupter and a condenser, all of

these parts being mounted on a base plate or starter plate. The two curved slots in the stator plate

permit of adjusting the spark timing. As the poles of the core pass those of the magnet, the

magnetic flux passes through the coil first in one and then in the opposite direction and

alternating electric impulses is induced in it. When the flux has been well established the primary

circuit is closed and a moment later when the primary current is at its maximum, the circuit is

broken by the interrupter, which is actuated by a cam on the crankshaft. Magnetos also have a

device coupled to it so that the timing is advanced as the engine speed increases. This helps in

ignition of the charge in the cylinder. The magnetos are either fitted with build-in type of two

coils – one ignition coil and the other lighting coil or alternately they have separate ignition coil.

These are attached to a starter or fixed plate and terminate in soft-iron pole-pieces closely

matching the shape of the flywheel which rotates around them.


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Ignition Coil

The coil consists, in fact, of two coils which may be considered as separated electrically,

although they are both wound on the same iron core and share a common terminal. One coil,

known as the primary, is fed from the battery, and the principle of operation depends upon the

fact that, if the supply to this coil is suddenly interrupted, then the voltage is created or induced

in the other coil known as the secondary. The voltage in the two coils can be considered for our

purpose to be in the same ratio as the number of turns of wire on the two coils, so that by

providing relatively few turns on the primary winding, and a very large number on the secondary

the necessary, high voltage is obtained. The voltage required to cause a spark between the

sparking plug points depends upon both the pressure of the mixture with the cylinder and the gap

between the points under average conditions a voltage of the order of 10,000 volts is needed.

Earlier it has been stated that the development of the higher voltage in the secondary winding of

the ignition coil only occurs when the electricity supplied to the primary winding is suddenly

interrupted. This interruption is arranged to take place at the correct time by the contact breaker

points.

Figure 9: Ignition Coil


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Spark Plug

An essential part of the ignition system is the provision of electrodes within the engine

cylinder, across which the ignition spark can discharge. It is desirable to arrange that these

electrodes shall be easily accessible and they are, therefore, mounted on a screwed-in plug. A

sparking plug consist essentially of a steel body which bears the earthed electrode, an insulator,

and a central rode which forms the other electrode, fed from the distributor. The lower part of the

body is threaded to suit a screwed bole provided in the engine, the length of the threaded portion

known as the reach and varying with the plug design. The body of the plug seats on to a soft steel

washer when it is screwed into the engine. The insulator operates under particularly arduous

condition since not only must it withstand the high ignition voltage, but it’s lower and is

subjected to the full bear of combustion and it is also liable to mechanical shock. At one time, the

insulator was mode from porcelain but modern plugs use ceramics based on sintered aluminum-

oxide.

The central electrode is seated into the insulator and is provided with a screwed terminal

at the upper exposed end, often shaped on connector. The tip of the electrode, at which the spark

occurs, usually has an insert of heat-resisting metal such as nickel. The ignition voltage is about

25,000 volts and the distance between the central and earthed electrodes is about. 202 inch and is

adjusted by bending the outer electrode.


GO-KARTING

Figure10: Spark plug

3. Lubrication system

It is a common known that if two rough surfaces are rubbed together, there is a resistance

to the motion and heat is generated. In an IC engine surface which rubs together are not tough by

normal standards, yet if they are allowed to run in direct contact get one another, the temperature

more rise to so high a degree that local melting will occur and the surfaces will slide to seize. It

has been shown than even if the surfaces are super finished, seizing will occur unless lubrication

is provided.

The primary objective of lubrication is to reduce the friction and wear between bearing

surface. Lubrication accomplishes this requirement by interposing a film of oil between the

sliding surfaces. Other function of lubricating oil in internal combustion engines are, such as the

pistons by packing up heat and dissipating it through the crank case and reducing compression

losses by acting as a seal between the cylinder walls and piston rings.


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A lubricant must be able to perform certain task in order to accomplish its purpose

satisfactorily. It must possess sufficient viscosity and oiliness to protect mechanical devices of

the necessary speeds, pressures and temperatures.

Types of Lubricants:

Lubricants are classified in three forms - fluid, semisolid and solid. Fluid oils are used in

automobile engine lubrication systems, semi solid oils are used in chassis lubrication. Solid

lubrication is done by using graphite and mica. Graphite often with oil to lubricate automobile

springs. The use of these types depends upon the work required and the surface to be lubricated.

Splash Lubrication System:

The lubrication system used in the engine is splash lubrication system. In this system, oil

is splashed over different working parts of an engine. Oil is contained in a through or sump. The

big end of connecting rod is provided with a ‘spoon or dipper’ or ‘scoop’. When the piston is at

the bottom of its stroke, the big end of connecting rod and crankpin dip into oil. The dipper picks

up oil and as the crankshaft rotates, oil is splashed up due to centrifugal force.

The splashed oil is in the form of a dense mist sprayed into fine particles over surfaces in

contact. Small cups are provided close to the bearing of the crankshaft. There are small holes in

these cups. The splashed oils fill up these cups from where it is supplied to the bearing.

Oil that is splashed onto cylinder walls speeds well when piston reciprocates while the piston

rings scarp the oil and get themselves lubricated. Drops of splashed oil drip from the inner side

of the piston and lubricate the gudgeon pin and bearings. The crankshaft bearings, valve

mechanism and timing gears are also lubricated by splashed oil.


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Figure 11: Lubrication system

4. Cooling system:

A lot of energy is produced due to the combustion of fuel inside the engine cylinder.

Only 30% of heat energy is converted into mechanical work. Out of the remaining heat (about

70%) about 40% is carried away be exhaust gases into the atmosphere. The remaining part of

heat energy(about 30%) is absorbed by engine cylinder, cylinder head, piston and engine valves.

It causes thermal stress in the engine parts, reduces strength of the piston, decomposition of

lubrication oil, burning of valves and it also reduces the volumetric efficiency of the engine.

In order to avoid the harmful effects of overheating, it is essential to provide some cooling

system for IC Engines. Generally, there are two main types of cooling system. Water cooling and

air-cooling. In two stroke petrol engine, air-cooling system is employed.

Air cooling:

For this cylinder is cast with a number of fins around the cylinder. This type of cylinder is

used by motorcycles and scooters and also in go karts .The air from the atmosphere dashes

against these fins and remove the heat from the cylinder.


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Technical specifications of kinetic honda dx/zx 100 cc

Table No: 2

Engine : Two-stroke/petrol

Transmission : Automatic

Engine Displacement : 98cc

Tachometer : No

Max Power : 7.7bhp@5600rpm

Max Torque : 1.0kgm@5000rpm

Wheel base : 1,215mm

Ground Clearance : N/A

Ignition : Electronic

Dry Weight : 99kg

Battery : 12V

Transmission Constant mesh, 5 speed gear .Gear shift Pattern 1-down,4-

upStarting system Kick/self.


mailto:1.0kgm@5000rpm

mailto:7.7bhp@5600rpm

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Working of two strokepetrol engine

The engine we used in this kart is a 2-stroke petrol engine. The 2- stroke engine has no valves.

Ports serve the purpose of admitting and exhausting the charge. These parts open into the

cylinder; they are covered and opened by the sliding piston.

Figure 12: Two-Stroke Engine Components

1st Stroke: Suction and Compression: The piston compresses the fuel-air mixture in the

combustion chamber as it travels towards the TPC position.


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Figure 13: 1 st Stroke

In this process, the piston uncovers the inlet port. Fresh charge of fuel-air mixture enters the

crankcase owing to vacuum produced in it. This is due to the upward movement of the piston.

Thus, in one stroke of the piston, two operations, via suction and compression are carried out.

The crankshaft on the follow-through moves through one half of a revolution.


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Figure14:2 nd Stroke

2nd Stroke: Expansion and Exhaust:

As the piston reaches the TDC position, a spark ignites the fuel air mixture. There is

enormous pressure due to the combustion of fuel. This pressure pushes the piston downwards

executing the expansion or power stroke .In doing so, the piston uncovers the exhaust port and

allows the spent gases to go out of the cylinder to the atmosphere. The pre-compressed fuel-air

mixture travels from the crankcase to the combustion chamber through the transfer port. The

fresh fuel air mixture is fed into the combustion chamber with the help of a deflector on the

piston head. It guides the mixture through the transfer port into the combustion chamber towards

its top. The deflector also allows expulsion of exhaust gases by the fresh fuel-air mixture. This

process is known as scavenging.

We conclude that during the second stroke, two operations, viz .expansion and exhaust

are completed. The crankshaft moves through the other half of a revolution. Thus the four cycles


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of operation, viz., admission, compression, expansion and exhaust are completed in one

revolution of the crankshaft. The four-stroke engine completes this cycle of operations in two

revolutions of crankshaft. It is expected from this argument that a two-stroke engine must

produce nearly double the power of a four-stroke engine of the same dimensions. The difficulties

encountered by the two stroke engines, i.e. mixing of fresh charge with exhaust gases, loss of

some fresh charge to the atmosphere and incomplete scavenging, reduces to a great extent, the

brake horse power of the engine.


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Types of braking systems

Records show that in 1901, a British inventor named Frederick William Lanchester

patented the first type of brake, known as the disc brake.

Since this time, there have been many braking system types created for our safety. The

brake was created to make our vehicle stop in time to avoid accidents by inhibiting the motion of

the vehicle. In most automobiles there are three basic types of brakes including; service brakes,

emergency brakes, and parking brakes. These brakes are all intended to keep everyone inside the

vehicle and traveling on our roadways safe.

If you or a member of your family has been injured in a car accident, the victim may be

entitled to receive compensation for their losses and damages including; loss of wages, medical

expenses, pain and suffering, and property damage.

Common Braking System Type

The most common types of brakes found in automobiles today are typically described as

hydraulic, frictional, pumping, electromagnetic, and servo. Of course, there are several additional

components that are involved with make braking smooth and more effective depending on road

conditions and different circumstances.

Some common types of braking systems include:

Electromagnetic Brakes

Electromagnetic brakes use an electric motor that is included in the automobile which

help the vehicle come to a stop. These types of brakes are in most hybrid vehicles and use an

electric motor to charge the batteries and regenerative brakes. On occasion, some busses will use

a secondary retarder brake which uses an internal short circuit and a generator.

Frictional Brakes

Frictional brakes are a type of service brake found in many automobiles. They are

typically found in two forms; pads and shoes. As the name implies, these brakes use friction to

stop the automobile from moving. They typically include a rotating device with a stationary pad


http://www.thejusticelawyer.com/auto-accidents.html

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and a rotating weather surface. On most band brakes the shoe will constrict and rub against the

outside of the rotating drum, alternatively on a drum brake, a rotating drum with shoes will

expand and rub against the inside of the drum.

Pumping Brakes

Pumping brakes are used when a pump is included in part of the vehicle. These types of

brakes use an internal combustion piston motor to shut off the fuel supply, in turn causing

internal pumping losses to the engine, which causes braking.

Hydraulic Brakes

Hydraulic brakes are composed of a master cylinder that is fed by a reservoir of hydraulic

braking fluid. This is connected by an assortment of metal pipes and rubber fittings which are

attached to the cylinders of the wheels. The wheels contain two opposite pistons which are

located on the band or drum brakes which pressure to push the pistons apart forcing the brake

pads into the cylinders, thus causing the wheel to stop moving.

Servo Brakes

Servo brakes are found on most cars and are intended to augment the amount of pressure

the driver applies to the brake pedal. These brakes use a vacuum in the inlet manifold to

generate extra pressure needed to create braking. Additionally, these braking systems are only

effective while the engine is still running.

In some vehicles we may find that there are more than one of these braking systems

included. These systems can be used in unison to create a more reliable and stronger braking

system. Unfortunately, on occasion, these braking systems may fail resulting in automobile

accidents and injuries.

Parking and Emergency Braking Systems

Parking and emergency braking systems use levers and cables where a person must use

mechanical force or a button in newer vehicles, to stop the vehicle in the case of emergency or

parking on a hill. These braking systems both bypass normal braking systems in the event that

the regular braking system malfunctions.


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These systems begin when the brake is applied, which pulls a cable that passes to the

intermediate lever which causes that force to increase and pass to the equalizer. This equalizer

splits into two cables, dividing the force and sending it to both rear wheels to slow and stop the

automobile.

In many automobiles, these braking systems will bypass other braking systems by

running directly to the brake shoes. This is beneficial in the case that your typical braking system

fails.


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Transmission

Karts do not have a differential lack of a differential means that one rear tire must slide

while cornering; this is achieved by designing the chassis so that the inside rear tire lifts up

slightly when the kart turns the corner. This allows the tire to lose some of its grip and slide or

lift off the ground completely.

Power is transmitted from the engine to the rear axle by way of a chain. Both engine and

axle sprockets are removable, their ratio has to be adapted according to track configuration in

order to get the most of the engine.

In the early days, karts were direct drive only, but the inconvenience of that setup soon

led to the centrifugal clutch for the club level classes. Dry centrifugal clutches are now used in

many categories (Rotax Max is one example) and have become the norm as the top international

classes have switched to 125 cc clutched engines as of January 2007.

Transmission system The mechanical power produced by prime mover is used to drive various machines in the

workshop and factories. A transmission system is the mechanism, which deals with transmission

of the power. And motion from prime mover to shaft or from one shaft to the other. The machine

tool drive is an aggregate of mechanism that transmits motion from an external source. To the

operative elements of the machine tool. Provide an appropriate working or auxiliary motion.

When The required motion is rotary ; the transmission takes place through mechanisms that

transfer Rotary motion from one shaft to another. Transmission of the motion from the external

source to the operative element can take place through Mechanical elements such as belts, gears,

chains etc.

Mechanical Transmission and its elements:-

1) Belt Transmission

2) Gear transmission

3) Chain Transmission


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Belt Transmission

Belt drive is one of the most common effective devices of transmitting motion and power

from one shaft to the other by means of a thin inextensible belt running over two pulleys. This

largely used for general purpose in mills and factories especially when the distance between the

Shafts is not very great. When the center distance between the two shafts is large than the tight

side of the belt should be the Lower one the pulley called drive is mounted on the driving shaft

while the other, which is mounted. On the shaft to which power is to be transmitted is called the

driven pulley or follower. When the Belt moves over the Pulleys there is always the possibility

of slipping between the belt and pulley. And hens the character of the motion transmitted is not

positive when positive action is required. Gears and chains must be used.

Gear Transmission:

Efficiency of power transmission in belt and rope drives is less. The power may be

transmitted from one shaft another by means of mating gears with high transmission Efficiency

and a gear drive is also provided when the between driver and follower is very small.

Chain Transmission:

Chains are used for high transmission number. They are mostly used when Distance

between center is short but the center distance is as much as 8 m. They are now generally used.

Used for transmission of power in cycle, motor vehicle, and agriculture machinery gearing in

two workshops. It is general requirement for any machines that they should provision for

regulating the speed of travel .The regulation may be available in discrete steps or it may be

steeples i.e. continuous the format are known as stepped drives Ex. Lathe machine, milling

machine, printing machine etc.


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CHAPTER 4

WORKING OF

AUTOMATIC

TRANSMISSION


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This go-kart has no gears and clutches. The transmission we use is not manual, its

automatic. For this purpose, we use continuously variable transmission. We use pulley and belt

system type CVT. This type of CVT uses pulleys, typically connected by a metal levered rubber

belt. A chain may also be used. A large pulley connected to a smaller pulley with a belt on chain

will operate in the same manner as a large gear meshing with a small gear. Typical CVTs have

pulleys formed as pairs of opposing cones. Moving the cones in and out has the effect of

changing the pulley diameter, since the belt or chain must take a large diameter path when the

conical pulleys halves are close together. This motion of the cones can be computer controlled

and driven for example, by a servomotor. However in the light weight VDP transmissions used

in automatic motor scooters and light motor cycles, the change in pulley diameter is

accomplished by a variation, an all mechanical system that uses weights and springs to change

the pulley diameters as a function of belt speed.

Figure 15: Automatic transmission

The variable-diameter pulleys are the heart of a CVT. Each pulley is made of two 20-

degree cones facing each other. A belt rides in the groove between the two cones. V-belts are

preferred if the belt is made of rubber. V-belts get their name from the fact that the belts bear the

V shaped cross-section, which increases the frictional grip of the belt. When the two cones of the

pulley are far apart (when the diameter increases) the belt rides lower in the groove, and the

radius of the belt rides lower in the groove, and the radius of the belt loop going around the

pulley get smaller. When the cones are close together (when the diameter decreases) the belt

rides tighter in the groove, and the radius of the belt loop going around the pulley gets larger.


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CVTs may use hydraulic pressure, centrifuged force or spring tension to create the force

necessary to adjust the pulley halves. Variable-diameter pulleys must always come in pairs.

Figure 16: Automatic transmission with high gear

One of the pulleys, known as the drive pulley (or driving pulley), is connected to the

crankshaft of the engine. The driving pulley is also called the input pulley because it is where the

energy from the engine enters the transmission. The second pulley is called the driven pulley

because the first pulley is turning it. As an output pulley, the driven pulley transfers energy to

drive shaft. The distance between the centers of the pulleys to where the belt makes contact in

the groove is known as the pitch radius. When the pulleys are far apart, the belt rides lower and

the pitch radius decreases. When the pulleys are close together, the belt rides higher and the pitch

radius increases.

The ratio of the pitch radius on the driving pulley to the pitch radius on the driven pulley

determines the year. When one pulley increases its radius, the other decreases its radius to keep

the belt light as the two pulleys change their radii relative to one another, they create an infinite

number of gear ratios-from low to high and everything in between. For example, when the pitch

radius is small on the driving pulley and large on the driven pulley, then the rotational speed of

the driven pulley decreases resulting in a lower ‘gear’. When the pitch radius is large on the


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driving pulley and small on the driven pulley, then the rotational speed of the driven pulley

increases resulting in a higher ‘gear’. Thus in theory, a CVT has an infinite number of ‘gears’

that it can run through at any time, at any engine or vehicle speed.

Figure 17: Automatic transmission with low gear


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Karting as a learning tool

Kart racing is usually used as a low-cost and relatively safe way to introduce drivers to

motor racing. Many people associate it with young drivers but adults are also very active in

karting. Karting is considered the first step in any serious racer's career. It can prepare the driver

for high-speed wheel-to-wheel racing by helping develop quick reflexes, precision car control,

and decision-making skills. In addition, it brings an awareness of the various parameters that can

be altered to try to improve the competitiveness of the kart (examples being tire pressure,

gearing, seat position, chassis stiffness) that also exist in other forms of motor racing. All current

as well as many former Formula One racers grew up racing karts, most(8) prominent among

them Michael Schumacher, Ayton Sienna, Alain Prost, Fernando Alonso, KimiRäikkönen and

Lewis Hamilton. Many NASCAR drivers also got their start in racing from karts, such as Darrell

Walt rip, Lake Speed, Ricky Rudd, Juan Pablo Montoya, Tony Stewart, and Jeff Gordon

Kart racing or karting

It is a variant of wheel motor with simple, small four-wheeled vehicles called karts, go-

karts, or gearbox/shifter karts depending on the design. They are usually raced on scaled-down

circuits. Karting is commonly perceived as the stepping stone to the higher and more expensive

ranks of motorsports.

Karts vary widely in speed and some (known as Super karts) can reach speeds exceeding

160 mph (250 km/h), while go-karts intended for the general public in amusement parks may be

limited to speeds of no more than 15 mph (25 km/h). A KF1 kart, with a 125 cc 2-stroke engine

and an overall weight including the driver of 150 kilograms has a top speed of 85 mph (140

km/h). It takes a little more than 3 seconds to go from 0 to 60 mph with a 125 cc shifter kart (6

gears), with a top speed of 115 mph (185 km/h) on long circuits.


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CHAPTER 5

STEERING MECHANISM

Introduction


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Primary function of the steering system is to achieve angular motion of the front wheels

to negotiate a turn. This is done through linkage and steering gear which convert the rotary

motion of the steering wheel into angular motion of the front road wheels. Secondary functions

of steering system are:

1. To provide directional stability of the vehicle when going straight ahead.

2. To provide perfect steering condition, i.e.; perfect rolling motion of the road

wheels at all times.

3. To facilitate straight ahead recovery after completing a turn.

4. To minimize tyre wear.

Requirement of a good steering system are:

1. The steering mechanism should be very accurate and easy to handle.

2. The effort required to steer should be minimal and must not be tiresome to

the drive.

3. The steering mechanism should also provide directional stability. This

implies that the vehicle should have a tendency to return to its straight ahead

position after turning

Wheel alignment:

a. Positioning of the steered wheels to achieve the following is termed wheel

alignment:

1. Directional stability during straight ahead position.

2. Perfect rolling condition on steering.

3. Recovery after completing the turn.

b. There different types of alignment can be:

1. The front-end alignment.

2. Thrust angle alignment.

3. Four-wheel alignment.

Procedure to Wheel alignment


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1. First straight the front wheels by adjusting steering wheel.

2. Then lock the steering wheel.

3. Loosen the tie rod nuts of the both side by using wrench.

4. Adjust the tie rods until the wheels vertically straight.

5. Then tighten the nuts.


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Basic steering components

99% of the world's car steering systems are made up of the same three or four

components. The steering wheel, which connects to the steering system, which connects to the

track rod, which connects to the tie rods, which connect to the steering arms. The steering system

can be one of several designs, which we'll go into further down the page, but all the designs

essentially move the track rod left-to-right across the car. The tie rods connect to the ends of the

track rod with ball and socket joints, and then to the ends of the steering arms, also with ball and

socket joints. The purpose of the tie rods is to allow suspension movement as well as an element

of adjustability in the steering geometry. The tie rod lengths can normally be changed to achieve

these different geometries.

Figure 18: Steering mechanism


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The Ackermann Angle: your wheels don't point the same direction.

In the simplest form of steering, both the front wheels always point in the same direction.

You turn the wheel, they both point the same way and around the corner you go. Except that by

doing this, you end up with tyres scrubbing, loss of grip and a vehicle that 'crabs' around the

corner. So why is this? Well, it's the same thing you need to take into consideration when

looking at transmissions. When a car goes around a corner, the outside wheels travel further than

the inside wheels. In the case of a transmission, it's why you need a differential (see the

Transmission Bible), but in the case of steering, it's why you need the front wheels to actually

point in different directions. This is the diagram from the Transmission Bible. You can see the

inside wheels travel around a circle with a smaller radius (r2) than the outside wheels (r1):

Figure 19: Angle of tyre

In order for that to happen without causing undue stress to the front wheels and tyres,

they must point at slightly different angles to the centerline of the car. The following diagram

shows the same thing only zoomed in to show the relative angles of the tyres to the car. It's all to

do with the geometry of circles:

This difference of angle is achieved with a relatively simple arrangement of steering

components to create a trapezoid geometry (a parallelogram with one of the parallel sides shorter

than the other). Once this is achieved, the wheels point at different angles as the steering


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geometry is moved. Most vehicles now don't use 'pure' Ackermann steering geometry because it

doesn't take some of the dynamic and compliant effects of steering and suspension into account,

but some derivative of this is used in almost all steering systems:

Figure 20: Steering geometry

Why 'Ackermann'?

This particular technology was first introduced in 1758 by Erasmus Darwin, father of

Charles Darwin, in a paper entitled "Erasmus Darwin's improved design for steering carriages--

and cars". It was never patented though until 1817 when Rudolph Ackermann patented it in

London, and that's the name that stuck.


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Steering ratio

Every vehicle has a steering ratio inherent in the design. If it didn't you'd never be able to

turn the wheels. Steering ratio gives mechanical advantage to the steering, allowing you to turn

the tyres with the weight of the whole car sitting on them, but more importantly, it means you

don't have to turn the steering wheel a ridiculous number of times to get the wheels to move.

Steering ratio is the ratio of the number of degrees turned at the steering wheel vs. the number of

degrees the front wheels are deflected. So for example, if you turn the steering wheel 20° and the

front wheels only turn 1° that gives a steering ratio of 20:1. For most modern cars, the steering

ratio is between 12:1 and 20:1. This coupled with the maximum angle of deflection of the wheels

gives the lock-to-lock turns for the steering wheel. For example, if a car has a steering ratio of

18:1 and the front wheels have a maximum deflection of 25°, then at 25°, the steering wheel has

turned 25°x18, which is 450°. That's only to one side, so the entire steering goes from -25° to

plus 25° giving a lock-to-lock angle at the steering wheel of 900°, or 2.5 turns (900° / 360).

This works the other way around too of course. If you know the lock-to-lock turns and the

steering ratio, you can figure out the wheel deflection. For example if a car is advertised as

having a 16:1 steering ratio and 3 turns lock-to-lock, then the steering wheel can turn 1.5x360°

(540°) each way. At a ratio of 16:1 that means the front wheels deflect by 33.75° each way.

For racing cars, the steering ratio is normally much smaller than for passenger cars - i.e. closer to

1:1 - as the racing steering need to get fuller deflection into the steering as quickly as possible.


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Turning circles

The turning circle of a car is the diameter of the circle described by the outside wheels

when turning on full lock. There is no hard and fast formula to calculate the turning circle :

turning circle radius = (track/2) + (wheelbase/sin (average steer angle))

The numbers required to calculate the turning circle explain why a classic black London taxi has

a tiny 8m turning circle to allow it to do U-turns in the narrow London streets. In this case, the

wheelbase and track aren't radically different to any other car, but the average steering angle is

huge. For comparison, a typical passenger car turning circle is normally between 11m and 13m

with SUV turning circles going out as much as 15m to 17m.

Steering system by pitman arm system:

There really are only two basic categories of steering system today; those that have

pitman arms with a steering 'box' and those that don't. Older cars and some current trucks use

pitman arms, so for the sake of completeness, I've documented some common types. Newer cars

and unit body light-duty trucks typically all use some derivative of rack and pinion steering.

Pitman arm mechanisms have a steering 'box' where the shaft from the steering wheel

comes in and a lever arm comes out - the pitman arm. This pitman arm is linked to the track rod

or centre link, which is supported by idler arms. The tie rods connect to the track rod. There are a

large number of variations of the actual mechanical linkage from direct-link where the pitman

arm is connected directly to the track rod, to compound linkages where it is connected to one end

of the steering system or the track rod via other rods. The example below shows a compound

link.


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Figure 21: Pitman arm Steering mechanism

Most of the steering box mechanisms that steering the pitman arm have a 'dead spot' in

the centre of the steering where you can turn the steering wheel a slight amount before the front

wheels start to turn. This slack can normally be adjusted with a screw mechanism but it can't ever

be eliminated. The traditional advantage of these systems is that they give bigger mechanical

advantage and thus work well on heavier vehicles. With the advent of power steering, that has

become a moot point and the steering system design is now more to do with mechanical design,

price and weight. The following are the four basic types of steering box used in pitman arm

systems.

Worm and sector

In this type of steering box, the end of the shaft from the steering wheel has a worm gear

attached to it. It meshes directly with a sector gear (so called because it's a section of a full gear

wheel). When the steering wheel is turned, the shaft turns the worm gear, and the sector gear

pivots around its axis as its teeth are moved along the worm gear. The sector gear is mounted on

the cross shaft which passes through the steering box and out the bottom where it is splined, and


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the pitman arm is attached to the splines. When the sector gear turns, it turns the cross shaft,

which turns the pitman arm, giving the output motion that is fed into the mechanical linkage on

the track rod. The following diagram shows the active components that are present inside the

worm and sector steering box. The box itself is sealed and filled with grease.

Figure 22: Worm and sector

Worm and roller

The worm and roller steering box is similar in design to the worm and sector box. The

difference here is that instead of having a sector gear that meshes with the worm gear, there is a

roller instead. The roller is mounted on a roller bearing shaft and is held captive on the end of the

cross shaft. As the worm gear turns, the roller is forced to move along it but because it is held

captive on the cross shaft, it twists the cross shaft. Typically in these designs, the worm gear is

actually an hourglass shape so that it is wider at the ends. Without the hourglass shape, the roller

might disengage from it at the extents of its travel.


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Figure 23: Worm and roller

Worm and nut or recirculating ball

This is by far the most common type of steering box for pitman arm systems. In a

recirculating ball steering box, the worm steering has many more turns on it with a finer pitch. A

box or nut is clamped over the worm steering that contains dozens of ball bearings. These loop

around the worm steering and then out into a recirculating channel within the nut where they are

fed back into the worm steering again. Hence recirculating. As the steering wheel is turned, the

worm steering turns and forces the ball bearings to press against the channel inside the nut. This

forces the nut to move along the worm steering. The nut itself has a couple of gear teeth cast into

the outside of it and these mesh with the teeth on a sector gear which is attached to the cross

shaft just like in the worm and sector mechanism. This system has much less free play or slack in

it than the other designs, hence why it's used the most. The example below shows a recirculating

ball mechanism with the nut shown in cutaway so you can see the ball bearings and the

recirculation channel.


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Figure 24: Worm and recirculating ball

Cam and lever

Cam and lever steering boxes are very similar to worm and sector steering boxes. The

worm steering is known as a cam and has a much shallower pitch and the sector gear is replaced

with two studs that sit in the cam channels. As the worm gear is turned, the studs slide along the

cam channels which forces the cross shaft to rotate, turning the pitman arm. One of the design

features of this style is that it turns the cross shaft 90° to the normal so it exits through the side of

the steering box instead of the bottom. This can result in a very compact design when necessary.


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Figure 25: Cam and lever

Steering system by rack &pinion:

This is by far the most common type of steering you'll find in any car today due to it's

relative simplicity and low cost. Rack and pinion systems give a much better feel for the steering,

and there isn't the slop or slack associated with steering box pitman arm type systems. The

downside is that unlike those systems, rack and pinion designs have no adjustability in them, so

once they wear beyond a certain mechanical tolerance, they need replacing completely. This is

rare though.

In a rack and pinion system, the track rod is replaced with the steering rack which is a long,

toothed bar with the tie rods attached to each end. On the end of the steering shaft there is a

simple pinion gear that meshes with the rack. When you turn the steering wheel, the pinion gear

turns, and moves the rack from left to right. Changing the size of the pinion gear alters the

steering ratio. It really is that simple. The diagram below shows an example rack and pinion

system as well as a close-up cutaway of the steering rack itself.


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Figure 26: Rack and Pinion


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Variable-ratio rack and pinion steering

This is a simple variation on the above design. All the components are the same, and it all

works the same except that the spacing of the teeth on the rack varies depending on how close to

the centre of the rack they are. In the middle, the teeth are spaced close together to give slight

steering for the first part of the turn - good for not over steering at speed. As the teeth get further

away from the centre, they increase in spacing slightly so that the wheels turn more for the same

turn of the steering wheel towards full lock.

Generally speaking, when you turn the steering wheel in your car, you typically expect it to go

where you're pointing it. At slow speed, this will almost always be the case but once you get

some momentum behind you, you are at the mercy of the chassis and suspension designers. In

racing, the aerodynamic wings, air splitters and under trays help to maintain an even balance of

the vehicle in corners along with the position of the weight in the vehicle and the suspension

setup. The two most common problems you'll run into are under steer and over steer.

Under steer

Under steer is so called because the car steers less than you want it to. Under steer can be

brought on by all manner of chassis, suspension and speed issues but essentially it means that the

car is losing grip on the front wheels. Typically it happens as you brake and the weight is

transferred to the front of the car. At this point the mechanical grip of the front tyres can simply

be overpowered and they start to lose grip (for example on a wet or greasy road surface). The

end result is that the car will start to take the corner very wide. In racing, that normally involves

going off the outside of the corner into a catch area or on to the grass. In normal you-and-me

driving, it means crashing at the outside of the corner. Getting out of under steer can involve

letting off the throttle in front-wheel-steering vehicles (to try to give the tyres chance to grip) or

getting on the throttle in rear-wheel-steering vehicles (to try to bring the back end around). It's a

complex topic more suited to racing driving forums but suffice to say that if you're trying to get

out of under steer and you cock it up, you get.....


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Figure 27: Under steer

Over steer

The bright ones amongst you will probably already have guessed that over steer is the

opposite of under steer. With over steer, the car goes where it's pointed far too efficiently and

you end up diving into the corner much more quickly than you had expected. Over steer is

brought on by the car losing grip on the rear wheels as the weight is transferred off them under

braking, resulting in the rear kicking out in the corner. Without counter-steering (see below) the

end result in racing is that the car will spin and end up going off the inside of the corner

backwards. In normal you-and-me driving, it means spinning the car and ending up pointing

back the way you came.


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Figure 28: Over steer

Counter-steering

Counter-steering is what you need to do when you start to experience over steer. If you

get into a situation where the back end of the car loses grip and starts to swing out, steering

opposite to the direction of the corner can often 'catch' the over steer by directing the nose of the

car out of the corner. In drift racing and demonstration driving, it's how the stirrings are able to

smoke the rear tyres and power-slide around a corner. They will use a combination of throttle,

weight transfer and handbrake to induce over steer into a corner, then flick the steering the

opposite direction, honk on the accelerator and try to hold a slide all the way around the corner.

It's also a widely-used technique in rally racing. Tiff Need ell - a racing steering who also works

on some UK motoring programs - is an absolute master at counter-steer power sliding.


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Figure 29: Counter steer


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Mechanical steerings

the different types of mechanical steerings used in modern cars are :

rack and pinion steering

recirculating ball bearing

manual worm and sector steering

worm and tapered peg steering

manual worm and roller steering

worm and wheel steering

worm and nut steering

Rack and pinion steering

Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on cars,

small trucks and SUVs. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gear set is

enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod, called a tie

rod, connects to each end of the rack.The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you

turn the steering wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack. The tie rod at each end of the rack

connects to the steering arm on the spindle.

Figure 30: Working of Rack and pinion


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The rack-and-pinion gear set does two things:

It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion needed to turn the

wheels. It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels. On most cars, it takes

three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to make the wheels turn from lock to

lock (from far left to far right). Some cars have variable-ratio steering, which uses a rack-and-

pinion gear set that has a different tooth pitch (number of teeth per inch) in the center than it has

on the outside. This makes the car respond quickly when starting a turn (the rack is near the

center), and also reduces effort near the wheels turning limits.

Recirculating ball steering

Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs (sport utility vehicle) today.

The linkage that turns the wheels is slightly different than on a rack and pinion system. The

recirculating ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can imagine the gear in two parts. The

first part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it.

Figure 31: Recirculating ball steering

This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman

arm. The steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt that sticks into the hole in

the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the


http://auto.howstuffworks.com/gear5.htm

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block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held fixed so that when it spins, it moves the

block, which moves the gear that turns the wheels.

Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads are filled

with ball bearings that recirculate through the gear as it turns. The balls actually serve two

purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear; second, they reduce slop in the gear.

Slop would be felt when you change the direction of the steering wheel -- without the balls in the

steering gear, the teeth would come out of contact with each other for a moment, making the

steering wheel feel loose.

Manual worm and sector steering

The manual worm and sector steering gear assembly uses a steering shaft with a three-

turn worm gear supported and straddled by ball bearing assemblies. The worm meshes with a 14-

tooth sector attached to the top end of the pitman arm shaft. In operation, a turn of the steering

wheel causes the worm gear to rotate the sector and the pitman arm shaft. This movement is

transmitted to the pitman arm and throughout the steering train to the wheel spindles.

worm and tapered peg steering

The manual worm and tapered peg steering gear has a three-turn worm gear at the lower

end of the steering shaft supported by ball bearing assemblies. The pitman shaft has a lever end

with a tapered peg that rides in the worm grooves. When the movement of the steering wheel

revolves the worm gear, it causes the tapered peg to follow the worm gear grooves. Movement of

the peg moves the lever on the pitman shaft, which in turn moves the pitman arm and the

steering linkage.

manual worm and roller steering

Various manufacturers use the manual worm and roller steering gear. This steering gear

has a three-turn worm gear at the lower end of the steering shaft. Instead of a sector or tapered

peg on the pitman arm shaft, the gearbox has a roller assembly (usually with two roller teeth) that

engages the worm gear. The assembly is mounted on anti-frictional bearings. When the roller

teeth follow the worm, the rotary motion is transmitted to the pitman arm shaft, pitman arm and

into the steering linkage.


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worm and wheel steering gear

The movement of the steering wheel turns the worm, which in turn steering the worm

wheel. Attached to the wheel spindle rigidly is drop arm, so that a rotation of steering wheel

corresponds to a linear motion of the drop arm end, which is connected to the link rod as has

already been discussed. In place of worm wheel, only a sector is also sometimes used, but the

complete wheel has an advantage over the later in that in this case backlash due wearing of the

tooth of the worm and worm wheel can be easily adjusted. For this purpose the worm wheel is

mounted over an eccentric bush. When the teeth worn out problem is how to bring the worm and

the wheel together to take up the wear. This is done by rotating the bush through a certain angle.

Worm and nut steering gear

Here the steering wheel rotation rotates the worm, which in turn moves the nut along its

length. This cause the drop arm ends to move linearly, further moving the link rod and thus

steering the wheel.


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Power steering

power rack and pinion steering

power recirculating ball bearing steering

hydraulic power steering

electro hydraulic power steering

electric power steering

active steering

steer by wire

Power rack and pinion

When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly different

design.

Figure 32: Power rack and pinion steering

Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is connected to the

rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston.

Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the piston to move, which in turn

moves the rack, providing the power assist.


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Power recirculating ball bearing system

Power steering in a recirculating-ball system works similarly to a rack-and-pinion system.

Supplying higher-pressure fluid (fluid is always a oil) to one side of the block provides assist.

Hydraulic power steering system

The hydraulic power steering system today is the most used steering system. It is based

on the components of the mechanical steering system, in addition there is a hydraulic system,

usually consisting of hydro pump with V-belt steering, hydraulic lines, oil reservoir and steering

valve. The essential new function of this power steering is the hydraulic support of the steering

movement, so that the steeringr’s steering-wheel effort is reduced.

Figure 33: Hydraulic power steering

Therefore in the event of failure, the loss of steering boost arises as a new safety aspect in

comparison to purely manual steering. This can be caused by a leakage of the hydraulic system

or by a hydro pump failure. Since by design the manual steering system is further available, in

case of a failure the steering function is further available and the steering can adapt himself by

the usually slowly rising steering-wheel effort in good time to the missing steering boost.


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Electro-hydraulic power steering system

The electro-hydraulic power steering system is based on the rack-and-pinion hydraulic

power steering and its essential new feature is an electrically steering hydraulic pump, which

substitutes the steering pump steering so far by the vehicle engine. Additional new components

compared to the hydraulic power steering are: Electric motor, electronic control unit and an

optional sensor for steering velocity. The pressure supply unit integrates electric motor and

electronic as well as hydraulic pump and oil reservoir. The decoupling of the pump steering from

the vehicle.

Engine allows a free selection of the installation location in the vehicle and in the

consequence the delivery of a fully functional and checked axle steering module by the steering

system manufacturer. The electronically controlled electric steering results in an

Energy saving up to 75% depending on load distribution and control strategy.

Additionally a variable steering boost is possible functionally depending on steering- and

vehicle-velocity and other parameters.

As to safety the electro-hydraulic and the hydraulic power steering have the same failure

effect: Failures of new additional components only affect steering boost, and the mechanical

rack-and-pinion steering is still available. Omission of the V-belt steering, by which the steering

pump has been operated so far, improves the steering boost reliability even further.

Electric power steering system

The electric power steering system combines a mechanical steering system with an

electronically controlled electric motor to a dry power steering. The hydraulic system, which so

far delivered the steering boost, is substituted by an electrical system. For this, a torque sensor

measures the steering wheel torque and an electronic control unit calculates the necessary servo

torque. This is delivered by an electric motor in such a way that the desired torque curve at the

steering wheel is created.

Depending on the necessary steering forces the electric motor engages by a worm gear at the

steering column or at the pinion and for high forces directly at the rack by a ball-and-nut gear.the


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pinion-solution is represented, which is intended for middle class vehicles. The components

involved in the electrical power steering are besides the mechanical steering components

Electric motor,

Electronic control unit,

Power electronics,

Steering wheel torque sensor and

CAN data bus to other systems

The electrical power steering system offers large benefits compared to the hydraulic

power steering. Apart from about 80% lower energy consumption the omission of the hydraulic

fluid increases the environmental compatibility. The electrical power steering is delivered to the

car manufacturer as a complete system module ready-to install. The adaptations of the servo

power assistance to certain vehicle types as well as the modification of the control strategy

dependent on different parameters and vehicle sizes are easily and rapidly feasible.

From the safety point of view as with the other power steering systems due to failures in

electrical components, again the steering boost can be impaired, here by faults of components of

the electrical servo system. The steering system’s unintentional self activity as well as too strong

steering boosts is to be concerned as new potential safety critical effects, which must be avoided

by appropriate countermeasures.


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Functional description of electrical steering systems

Figure 34: Electrical steering system

In an electrical power steering system the steering torque initiated by the steering is

measured by a steering wheel torque sensor and is fed into an electronic control unit. The later

then calculates along with the driving speed a reference torque for the steering motor, which,

however, can optionally also depend on the steering angle and steering angle velocity. By means

of the calculated reference torque the currents of the steering motor are actuated. Figure 8 shows

the pinion-type realization; where at the pinion the electrical torque is superimposed to the torque

initiated by the steering. In further versions both torques can be superimposed either on the

steering column or on the rack. In case of a failing electrical component of this steering system

the non-boosted mechanical intervention by the steering is maintained.


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Safety features

Detecting and evaluating all electrical failures accomplish the system’s fail-safe behavior

concerning electrical faults. In case of major electrical faults the electrical power steering system

is switched off.

Sensor failures or failures in the electronic control unit might be considered as an

example, resulting in an unintentional self-activity of the steering or in a too strong steering

boost. Risks of that kind are avoided by an effective monitoring strategy where failures are

detected on time and the power steering system is switched-off. One detection method for this

constitutes checking sensor signals and motor currents for plausible system conditions on a

second path.

BMW Active Steering

BMW's Active Steering, a true breakthrough in steering technology, supports the steering

at all speeds, particularly in the lower and medium speed range where dynamic steering offers a

genuine increase in driving pleasure.

In a situation like where one quality is of particular significance: the correct steering

response this car must meet a wide range of different requirements. At medium speeds, for

example, the front wheels must respond as directly as possible to the steeringr's commands. With

increasing road speeds on the other hand, the steering transmission should become less direct.

The demands made on the steering system therefore vary most significantly from case to case,

with the overriding requirement that the steering always receives authentic feedback from the

steering system itself.


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Figure 35: Active steering system

On a conventional steering system the steeringr's steering commands are always

conveyed the same way due to the strictly defined transmission ratio between the steering wheel

and the front wheels of the car (even if the transmission becomes more progressive with

increasing wheel lock). Direct steering that would be ideal at low speeds remains direct, although

a much more indirect steering transmission ratio would be appropriate at high speeds in order to

compensate for the physically induced increase in steering sensitivity as a function of higher

speeds on the road. Conversely, the same also applies to indirect steering: The ideal steering

transmission ratio at high speeds makes the process of steering hard work at lower speeds,

requiring the steering to turn the steering wheel much more and with much higher forces than

necessary related to the position of the wheels on the road.

BMW's innovative Active Steering now revolutionizes the entire steering process by

overriding this seemingly insoluble conflict of interests, varying the steering angle of the front

wheels specifically according to the steering’s requirements. In this process, Active Steering

combines the advantages of all electronic steer-by-wires steering without any mechanical link


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between the steering wheel and the front wheels (purely electronic transmission of signals) with

the authentic steering feedback that only a mechanical steering system is currently able to

provide. Accordingly, Active Steering sets a new standard in agility, comfort and safety on the

road.

In technical terms the various functions and benefits offered by Active Steering are based

on the principle of overlapping steering angles: An electromechanical adjuster between the

steering wheel and the steering gearbox adds an additional steering angle to the angle

predetermined by the steering. The core element of BMW's revolutionary Active Steering is

therefore the override steering effect provided by the planetary gearing with two incoming and

one outgoing shaft integrated in the split steering column. One incoming shaft is connected with

the steering wheel; the second is steering by an electric motor via a self-inhibiting gear wheel

transmission and thus serving to reduce the transmission ratio. The overall steering angle finally

coming out on the outgoing shaft is made up of the angle determined by the steering on the

steering wheel and the angle determined by the electric motor. Steering forces when turning the

wheels, however, are not determined by the electric motor, but rather by conventional power

steering assistance. Additional components of Active Steering are the separate control unit and

various sensors for determining both current driving conditions and the steeringr's commands.

And last but not least, Active Steering communicates directly with the DSC control unit through

the car's on-board communication network.

Depending on driving conditions, Active Steering either increases or reduces the steering

angle on the front wheels. At low speeds the actuator follows the steeringr's steering commands,

increasing wheel lock at the front and reducing the effort required in steering. On the road this

means a far more direct steering transmission ratio than with conventional cars up to a medium

speed level, steering forces remaining comfortably low as with BMW's well-known Servotronic.

At high speeds the actuator operates by reducing the steering angle. This reduces the

steering lock on the front wheels and makes the steering transmission ratio more indirect, thus

providing the high standard of a conventional BMW steering on fast stretches of the Autobahn.

Steering forces are increased in the process in order to prevent any undesired movement of the

steering-wheel.In critical situations on the road Active Steering modifies the position of the


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steering wheels determined by the steering, thus stabilizing the car much faster and more

efficiently than the steering would be able to do himself.

Active Steering enhances the typical virtues of BMW steering, making the car even more

agile and nimble at low and medium speeds while retaining that authentic steering feedback and

even offering a genuine "kart" feeling at low speed-levels. Active Steering also serves to enhance

steering comfort. While the steering has to turn the steering wheel approximately three times in a

current BMW from lock to lock, active steering reduces this control process to just two turns of

the steering wheel by cutting back the steering wheel angle at low and medium road speeds.

The steering will immediately enjoy the reduced steering force, for example when

maneuvering in confined parking spaces or when taking a sharp turn in town. Crossing over your

hands on the steering wheel, for example on a winding mountain pass, is hardly necessary any

more with Active Steering. So while the steering often has no choice in a car with conventional

steering but to cross over his arms, in a BMW equipped with Active Steering his hands will

always remain where they should be: in exactly the right position on the steering wheel. This

guarantees unrestricted, smooth and easy operation of the multifunction buttons and SMG

paddles shifting the Sequential Manual Gearbox directly on the steering wheel, ensuring for

safety.The greater agility and enhanced dynamic performance provided by Active Steering

comes out particularly clearly in the slalom test, simulating sudden steering maneuvers at low

and medium speeds: Active Steering gives the steering much better control of the car than

conventional steering, combined with significantly enhanced steering precision and an equally

significant reduction of steering forces. And ultimately, the greater comfort and control provided

by Active Steering helps to keep the steering fit and avoid any fatigue at the wheels.

With increasing road speeds, Active Steering reduces the steering wheel lock and makes the

steering transmission ratio more indirect. To put it in simple terms, the steering would now have

to move the steering wheel further than at low speeds in order to obtain the same lock on the

front wheels. This efficiently avoids common mistakes at the wheel, for example with the

steering abruptly wrenching round the steering wheel when panicking at high speeds. A further

advantage of an indirect steering transmission ratio at high speeds, finally, is the perfect straight

line tracking stability.


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Steer by wire systems

The main feature of future steering systems is the missing direct mechanical link between

steering wheel and steered wheels. With such a steer-by-wire steering system (Fig.11) the

missing steering column’s function must be reproduced in both directions of action. In forward

direction the angle set by the steering at the steering wheel is measured by a steering angle

sensor and transferred with the suitable steering ratio to the wheels. In reverse direction the

steering torque occurring at the wheels is picked up via a torque sensor and attenuated

respectively, modified fed back to the steering as a counter torque on the steering wheel.

Figure 36: Steer by wire system

First, steering wheel module and steering module are implemented with familiar

components of mechanical and electrical steering systems, like: Steering wheel, gearbox,

electrical motors, rack. The operational principle is, however, in principle open for more

futuristic designs like side stick operation on the steering’s side and single wheel steering on the

wheel side. While in systems with mechanical connection in the case of electrical errors only the


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steering boost is concerned, corresponding measures must be taken with steer-by-wire systems,

that in case of any electrical failure steering control is always guaranteed.

Advantages of steer-by-wire systems

Steer by-wire is a universal actuator for automatic steering intervention. For vehicle

dynamic steering intervention a steering angle actuator is needed which does not affect the

steering wheel while rapidly correcting the vehicle wheels. On the other hand, a torque actuator

will be needed for automatic lateral guidance interference and future steering systems of

autonomous driving, thus imparting a superimposed torque onto the steering wheel and letting

the steering with that know the intended direction, evaluated by the lateral guidance control

system. Steer-by-wire meets both requirements ideally. Along with "steering by wire” and "brake

by wire “it provides the condition to materialize vehicle dynamics and comfort oriented

automatic controls in one system. Design advantages for the automaker –the rigid steering

column curbs the design freedom for the engine compartment. On either side space has to be

provided (left-hand or right-hand driving). Steer-by-wire implies that no steering column impairs

the good usage of engine compartment.


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Fabrication

Chassis

First of all, the chassis is constructed. The MS pipe is taken as per dimensions and bends in

required places using bending machine. Then the pipes are welded.

Axle

The required shaft is taken as per the dimensions and turned on the lathe.

Sprocket

The sprocket is welded on the axle at required place.

Brake

The brake is also placed in the axle near to the tyre. The boredom is connected to it and is

connected to left pedal in front of kart.

Accelerator

The accelerator pedal is placed is the right side of the front of the kart and is connected to the

engine.

Engine

The engine is mounted in the chassis and the chain is connected to the sprocket and engine.

Fuel tank

The fuel tank is placed in the upper position of the engine level using welding technology.

Rear wheels and tyres

The 2 wheels are connected to the both ends of the axle and welded together. Then the assembly

is connected to the chassis using 2bushed bearing.

Steering

The steering spindle and steering are made as per the dimensions and bolted together. This is

connected to the rack and pinion mechanism. This mechanism is connected to the 2 front wheels.


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Seat

First the seat is cushioned and then mounted on chassis using bolts.

Electric start

The battery is placed under the seat and connected to the starting motor using wires. And the

switch is placed in the steering spindle stand.

Painting

The painting is done to increase the appearance to the kart. The chassis, steering and steering

spindle, wheels, seat, muffler, engine cover etc are painted using different colors. The pedals are

also painted.


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CHAPTER 6

PERFORMANCE STUDY


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Performance study

First of all, we say that this is not a performance machine. We are taking a two – wheeled

engine and connected to four wheels. So the performance also deferrers. We tested this vehicle at

standard conditions. Engines are tested to find out the variations of Brake Horse Power,

Torque, Fuel Consumption, Frictional Horse Power and Specific Fuel Consumption at different

engine speeds.

Performance curves

Figure 37: Performance study

1. Torque Vs RPM

From the graph, we see that during medium speeds, torque increases with speed. The

volumetric efficiency being higher during this period (cylinders get enough fuel – air mixture to

burn), higher combustion pressures produce more power. At high speed, engine cylinders induce

less amount of fuel – air mixture reducing combustion pressures and hence the torque, the curve

drops down.


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2. BHP Vs RPM

From the graph, we see that the brake horsepower of an engine steadily increases with the

increase of engine rpm. At a certain engine speed, the bhp drops down instead of increasing. This

is due to two reasons.

1. At high speeds, the volumetric efficiency of the engine decreases considerably, i.e. it takes in

decreased quantities of fuel – air mixture producing lower combustion pressures and hence

lowers engine power.

2. We also know that frictional losses in an engine increase five times as the engine speeds up

from 1000 to 3000 rpm, decreasing the brake horsepower.

3. FHP Vs RPM

Frictional Horse Power increase in speed. Frictional loses are lower at low engine speeds.

These losses increase considerably with the increase in rpm. The horsepower lost due to friction

increases five times as the engine speed increases from 1000 to 3000 rpm. The frictional losses

in an engine may be due to friction between rings and cylinders, valves and valve guides, timing

gears, bearings, hydraulic resistance of inlet and exhaust valves etc. The major source of friction

loss in an engine is between piston rings and cylinder, which contributes to 70% of the total

engine friction.

4. Specific Fuel Consumption Vs RPM

The specific fuel consumption decreases with the increase of engine rpm. The fuel

consumption per hp/ hr in the case of diesel engines is less at all engine speeds. As shown in the

graph, at engine speeds above 2,500 rpm, the specific fuel consumption increases in both petrol

and diesel engines. When engine load decreases, the specific fuel consumption increases slightly.

Therefore, we conclude that brake fuel rate is higher for slow speed engines, increases a little for

medium speed engines and increases more for high-speed engines. This is because at low and

maximum speeds, a rich mixture is required.


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CHAPTER 7

SERVICE

AND

MAINTANANCE


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Service and maintanance

Servicing

a) Only qualified service personnel should carry out servicing activities on this machine.

b) Always use standard engine components as specified.

c) Servicing must be done at regular intervals.

Maintenance Schedule

a) Daily

i) Check the lubrication oil in the sump. Tap up necessary.

ii) Keep the fuel tank full. The tank should be fitted in completely with clean petrol at the end of

the day’s work.

iii) Check the tyre pressure. The pressure must be at least 18 psi.

iv) Clean the engine at the end of day’s work, if there are any leakages, dust will collect at the

leaky spots during next day work. Such leakages should be attended properly.

b) Every 50 kms

i) Inspect fuel lines, throttle operation, brake shoe, wheels and tyres, etc.

ii) Adjust throttle operation, carburetor, valve clearance, etc.

iii) Clean the carburetor, air cleaner, spark plug, etc.

c) Every 250 kms

i) Lubricate the braking system.

ii) Check all bolts and nuts.

d) Every 500 kms

i) Replace fuel filter


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e) Every 750 kms

i) Thoroughly clean out the fuel tank and refill fresh fuel.

ii) Knock out soot from the exhaust silencer.

iii) Remove the cylinder head and de-carbonize.

f) Every 1000 kms

i) Adjust carburetor

ii) Replace spark plug.


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Trouble – shooting

a) Engine does not start

Lack of petrol - Check that chock is operated when starting engine from cold.

Too much petrol- a strong smell of petrol will be present near the carburetor and the outside of

the carburetor maybe quire wet. The trouble is that the mixture drawn is not been fired by the

plug. Check as for next.

Lack of spark- Take out plug and see if wet (condition previous above) or excessively dirty.

Clean plug and readjust points, if necessary. If engine is already flooded, kick over smartly half a

dozen times before replacing plug. If plug is still not sparking, remove again and hold against

side of engine and kick engine over. Spark jumps the plug: check that the spark jumps the plug

about ¼ in. to engine casing. If lead sparks but plug does not, fit a new plug. If load does not

give proper spark, check under ignition fault.

Ignition trouble- Remove flywheel domed cover and check points for (a) incorrect gap (b)

points dirty or worn. Adjust or correct, as necessary. Check for broken, bread or disconnected

leads to coil (green wires) or earth lead (black) broken off from crankcase.

b) Engine starts but soon after turn off

Lack of petrol- If the petrol tap is not turned on, the engine may start on the petrol in the

carburetor but will run of fuel very soon after.

Ignition fault -Check wires for loose connection

c) Engine runs badly (Idling and moderate speeds)

Incorrect mixture- Adjust idling screws on carburetor. Check that throttle slide in carburetor is

not sticking.

Mixture too lean- Check for air leaks, e.g. carburetor top loose, gaskets faulty, etc.

Mixture too rich- Check that chock has not been left out.Check the atomizer jet is not enlarged.

(Other than plug) Check that carburetor flat has not stuck or become ‘holed’ and sunk.

Ignition fault- Check plug first then contact breaker. Observe plug to see if type is matched to

engine


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d) Engine runs badly (Engine speeds)

Poor Carburetor-Check as above. Check also that carburetor is vertical, not displaced, causing

float to stick.

Ignition fault- Check as above. Check that contact breaker arm is not seized or stiff on its pin.

Check that contact-breaker spring is intact and not too weak. Condenser may be faulty. Check it

in garage and change sparking plug which may be defective. In such a case not fault will be felt

at low speed but as the road speed increases, erratic running of the engine will be felt and

unpleasant sound from the exhaust will be heard. Change spark plug. To check that the fault is

because of the spark plug, replace it with a new or used spark plug and run the vehicle. If no fault

is observed then original spark plug needs changing. The test for condenser may also be done in

the same fashion.

e) Engine lacks pulling power

Poor Carburetor- Check as above.

Ignition fault-Check as above

Engine Blocked with carbon- Engine and silencer needs decarburizing 500 kms on a new

machine or 1000 kms, if the machine is driven hard.

Mixture too rich- Check if choke is on.


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CHAPTER 8

PROCESS SHEET


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Process sheet

1. Part name: shaft

Part weight – 1kg

Part material – C30

Part quantity – 1

Part size – Φ30×900 mm.

Table No: 3

Operation Machine Tool Time Inspection

1 .Cutting the

material as per

our required size.

Power Hacksaw Hacksaw Blade 10 min Steel Rule

2.Facing both

side

Lathe machine facing tool 10 min Vernier Calliper

3. Inserting the

Bering

Vice hammer 10 min

2. Part name: bearing mounter-1

Part weight – 0.5 kg

Part material – S.S

Part quantity –6

Part size – 60 x 10 x 60 mm.

Vernier Caliper


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Table No: 4


Cutting

the material as per

our required size.


Drilling

10mm hole

Lathe machine Drilling

Bit 10mm

10 min Vernier Calliper

Make Φ35mm Lathe machine Boring tool 15 min Vernier Calliper

3. Part name: bearing mounter-2

Part weight – 1 kg

Part material – M.S

Part quantity – 2

Part size – 60 x 10 x 60mm.

Table No: 5


Cutting

the material as per

our required size.

Power

Hacksaw

Hacksaw Blade 10 min Steel Rule

Drilling 10mm Lathe machine Drilling

Bit 10mm

10 min Vernier Calliper

Make Φ35mm Lathe machine Boring tool 15 min Vernier Calliper


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6. Part name: lower frame

Part material – M.S

Part quantity – 1

Part size - Lower Part –900x1550 x40 mm,

Table No: 6

.Operation Machine Tool Time Inspection

Cutting

the material as

per our required

size.


Grinding sharp

edges

Grinding wheel Wheel 30min Vernier Calliper

Welding

of a frame

Arc welding Welding holder 40 min


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Used materials and their properties

The materials used in this project are detailed as follows

Ferrous materials

A) Mild steel – EN – 4 to EN – 6

Carbon – 0.15% to 0.35%

Tensile strength –1200/1420MPA

Yield strength – 750/1170 MPA

B) C30 Carbon – 0.25% to 0.35%

Tensile strength – 620 MPA

Yield strength – 400 MPA

Izod Impact Value – 55 Nm

% Minimum Elongation – 21

Typical composition –– Carbon – 0.25% to 0.35%

Manganese – 0.60% to 0.90%

BHN – 207

C30 material is generally used for cold formed levers, hardened and tempered tie

rods, Cables, Sprockets, Hubs and Bushes –Steel Tubes.

C) 40C8 Carbon – 0.25% to 0.35%

Tensile strength – 620 MPA

Yield strength – 400 MPA

Izod Impact Value – 55 Nm


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Non metallic materials

The non-metallic materials are used in engineering practice due to their low

density, low cost, flexibility, resistance to heat and electricity. Though there are many non-

metallic materials, important materials used in our project are listed below:

A) plastic (nylon): Tensile strength – 82 N/mm2

Compressive strength – 35 N/mm2

Yield strength – 8500 psi

Rockwell Hardness Number – R112-120

The plastics are synthetic materials which are molded into shape under pressure

with or without the application of heat. These can also be cast, rolled, extruded, laminated, and

machined. Following are the two types of plastics;

(a) Thermosetting plastics

(b) Thermoplastics.

The thermosetting plastics are those which are formed into shape under heat and

pressure is applied, it becomes hard by a chemical change known as phenol formaldehyde

(Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), urea-formaldehyde (Plasmon), etc.

The thermoplastic materials do not become hard with the application of heat and

pressure and no chemical change occurs. They remain soft at elevated temperatures until they are

hardened by cooling. These can be remolded repeatedly by successive application of heat. Some

of the common thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate (Celluloid), polythene, NYLON, polyvinyl

acetate, polyvinyl chloride (P.V.C.), etc.

The plastics are extremely resistant to corrosion and have high dimensional

stability. They are mostly used in manufacture of aero plane and automobile parts. They are also

used for making safety glasses, laminated gears, pulleys, self lubricating bearings, etc. due to

their resilience and strength.


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2. Rubber

It is one of the most important natural plastics. It resists abrasion, heat, strong alkalis, and

fairly strong acids. Soft rubber is used for electrical insulations. It is also used for power

transmission belting, being applied to woven cotton as a base. The hard rubber is used for piping

and as lining for pickling tanks.


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Equipments required in go-kart

Introduction: Breakdown of the vehicle can occur due to many reasons such as accidents,

broken parts, loss of strength of component material etc. Such vehicles are brought to auto

garage for repairing. For repairing work, same tools, machines and equipments are required. A

list of which is given here.

1. Hammers.

2. Spanners.

3. Pliers.

4. Screw drivers.

5. Wrench.

6. Feeler gauge.

7. Pullers.


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Figure 38: Tool Box

Tools used in GO-KART

Table No: 7

No. Tool used Type Specific

no.

Where to be used

1. Wrench Open ended 10 To remove the cylinder head

2. Special

tool

Spark plug remover - To remove spark plug from

cylinder head

3. Wrench Open ended 18,20,15 To remove steering assembly

4. Wrench Open ended 16,15,19 To adjustment steering assembly

5. Wrench Box wrench 22 To remove front wheel from

6. Wrench Box wrench 15 To remove wheel

7. Wrench Ring 8 To dismantle carburetor

8. Wrench Open ended 22 To remove stub axle from chassis

9. Wrench Open ended 10 To remove side panels

10. Wrench Open ended 13,10 To remove fuel tank

11. Wrench Open ended 10 To remove front panel

12. Wrench Open ended 10 To remove spoiler

13. Wrench Open ended 10 To remove seat from chassis

14. Wrench Allen key 12 To remove pedals

15. Wrench Open ended 17 To remove pedals

16. Wrench Box wrench 24 To remove rear axle from chassis

17. Wrench Open ended 13 To remove wheel from rear axle.

18. Wrench Box wrench 22 To remove wheel

19. Wrench Ring 17,12 To remove engine from chassis

20. Wrench Ring 8 To remove exhaust from engine

21. Wrench Box 22 To dismantle drum brake

22. Wrench Ring 13 To remove sprocket

23. Wrench Ring 13 To remove rear axle sprocket


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Miscellaneous Topics

Driving hints:

1) Before you take out vehicle, it must be ensure that it is in a good condition. Check up brakes,

steering, tyres, tyre pressure. Also check up the fuel level, level of battery electrolyte

.2) The basic rule is to keep to keep to the left. Do not drive along the middle of the road.

3) Be familiar with road markings.

Parts to be lubricated:

Table No: 8

Sr. no. Parts to be lubricated Lubricant /grease,

grade

1. Engine Petro-oil(1l: 60ml)(2T)

2. Stub axle Grease

3. Foot pedals Oil

4. Tie rod ball joints Grease

5. Steering bearings Oil + grease

6. Rear shaft bearing hub Grease

7. Sprockets (2) Oil + grease

8. Steering wheel joint Grease

9. Chain Oil


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CHAPTER 9

MAKE OR BUY DECISION


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Make or buy decision

The make or buy decision refers to the problem encountered by an organization when

deciding whether a product or service should be purchased from outside sources or manufactured

internally. Theoretically every item which is currently purchased from an outside supplier is

always a candidate for internal manufactured and every item currently manufactured in house is

a potential candidate purchase. The majority of the make or buy decision are made on the basis

of price. But this is only one of the criteria which is to be evaluated in this strategic decision

many non-cost factor encourage long term contracts with the suppliers to aid in the achievement

of production and quality levels and encourage investments in appropriate resources and new

ideas. This result in excellent mutually beneficial customer supplier relationships developed over

long period base on trust and achievement of common objectives most of the make or buy

decisions are complex time consuming and affect many parts of the organization senior

management involvement is required in a number of the stages of this strategic decision.

Make or buy decision when:

The following situation demands for the evaluation of make or buy decision

1. When the organization introduce new products

2. The fluctuating demand for the company’s products

3. When the organization carries out value analysis or cost reduction programs

4. Deteriorating quality & delivery commitment of the supplier if presently the item

is bought

5. The scarcity of funds for investment in additional plant & equipment

Factor influencing make or buy decision

1 . Volume of production- the quality or volume of production affect the make or buy decision

to the greater extent if the volume the production is very high it fevers the make decision & low

volume fevers the buy decision

2 . Cost analysis- the cost analysis refers to the determination of cost to make item as well as

the cost by it the cost may include the material cost, direct labor cost, set up & tooling cost,

depreciation & administrative overhead, interest, insurances, taxes, and the tooling up cost of


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raw materials and work in process. The cost to make also include the appropriate allowances

spoilage of work and scrap. And the risk associated with doing business. The cost to buy an item

should include – purchase price of the item or component. Transportation cost sales tax and

procurement cost, receiving and incoming inspection cost. The analysis of these two costs helps

take decision whether to make or buy.

3. Utilization of production capacity: the organization which has created large production

capacity favors the decision making.

4. Availability of manpower: Availability of skilled & competent manpower favors make

decision whereas scarce manpower prefers buy decision .

5. Fixed cost: A lower fixed cost favors the decision to make & higher fixed cost the buy

decision.

Make or buy decision

Table No: 9

Sr. No Description Decision

1 Chassis Make

2 Engine Modified

3 Steering System Modified

4 Wheels and tyres Buy

5 Brake (Drum) Make

6 Rear Axle Make

7 Transmission System Modified

8 Fuel Tank Make

9 Seat Make

10 Muffler Buy

11 Nut & Bolts Buy

12 Air Cleaner Buy


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CHAPTER 10

ESTIMATION AND

COSTING


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Estimation and costing

Costing may be defined as systematic procedure for recording accurately every item of

expenditure, incurred on the manufacture of a product by different departments of any

manufacturing concern.

Objectives of Cost Estimation:

Main objectives of costing are as follows:

a) To help the producer in deciding the manufacturing and selling policies.

b) To help in filling up tender enquiries.

c) To decide the amount of overheads, this helps in comparing and checking the actual overheads

of the factory.

d) To decide the wage rates of the workers after carrying out a time study.

e) It helps to decide whether a particular material should be purchased from the market or to be

manufactured.

f) It helps in improving the designs, which may reduce the cost of production


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Estimation and costing

Table No: 10

Sl. No Description Quantity Cost in Rs.

1 Chassis 1 3800

2 Engine (Kinetic

Honda)*

1 4500

3 Steering System 1 1500

4 Wheels and tyres 4 3200

5 Brake (Drum) 2 500

6 Rear Axle 1 1000

7 Transmission System 1 1500

8 Fuel Tank 1 300

9 Seat 1 500

10 Electro Plating 50

11 Muffler 1 300

12 Extra Fittings 1400

13 Painting 300

14 Labor Cost** 2000

15 Indirect Material

Cost***

500

TOTAL 21350

* Kinetic Honda Engine with whole fuel system

** Labor cost includes cost for welding, boring, drilling, lathe work etc.

*** Indirect material cost includes cotton waste, emery paper, oil,kerosene, grease etc.

The whole cost producing one kart is Rs. 21,350/-

After taking 25% profit, the cost will be Rs. 27,000/-


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After giving discounts and commissions, we can sell a go – kart at Rs. 27,000/-

CHAPTER 11

PROJECT PLANNING


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Project planning

Introduction

The kind of small-scale industry that we are intending to start is an assembling industry.

We are sure to manufacture the product according to the customer’s requirements. We are not

making only go- karts in this industry. Only secondary production is kart. Primary production is

motorcycle with the same engine. The manufacturing of karts will be according to orders. Our

manufacturing shop will be well equipped with all machines such as lathe, drilling machine,

grinding machines, milling machine, power hacksaw, welding machine, etc. So that we can do

any production work in connection with replacement of worn out parts of the job. We can also

provide job opportunities for 6 technical and 3 managerial staff. Using present equipment either

it may be loss of our valuable energy and time or otherwise it may be loss of money. Our venture

is a solution for that. In near future we plan to develop our industry and increase the production

according to customer requirements.


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Market survey

Before establishing our plant we conducted a market survey to know the trend of the

market. Since our project is one which gives much important to time saving and energy loss

main customers are attracted. Hence our survey was made to collect the opinions and suggestions

from those who in racing field. The points we have covered during our survey were:

a) Methods of present system

b) Advantages of present system

c) Disadvantages of present system

d) Expense of present system

e) Suggestion of new systems from them

f) Presentation of our project before them

g) Their opinion about the proposal

h) Feasibility of the project in their work

i) Convincing them of our reliability


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Summary of market survey report

Survey reveals the attitude of customers towards the projects. 70% of them were against

the present system because the present system may either be energy and time consuming or it

may be costly. So wastage of money and valuable time is a problem. 10% of them were satisfied

with the present system, because they have the ability to bear the cost. The next 10% of them

were satisfied by the cheap equipment because of their poor living condition. The remaining

10% were indifferent to this question because they don’t have enough knowledge in this field.

Anyhow 100% of the customers welcomed the new proposal. They guaranteed their extreme co-

operation.


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Plant layout

Plant layout means the disposition of the various facilities (equipment, material,

manpower, etc.) and service of the plant within the area of the site selected previously. Plant

layout begins with the design of the factory building and goes up to the location and movement

of a worktable. All the facilities like equipment, raw materials, machinery, tools, fixtures,

workers, etc. are given a proper place. In deciding the place of equipment, the supervisors and

workers who have to operate them should be consulted.

Objectives of good plant layout

In a good plant layout:

1) Material handling and transportation is minimized and efficiently controlled.

2) Bottlenecks and points of congestions are eliminated (by line balancing) so that the raw

material and semi-finished goods move fast from one workstation to another.

3) Workstations re-designed suitably and properly.

4) Suitable spaces are allocated to production centers and service centers.

5) The movements made by the workers are minimized.

6) Waiting time of the semi-finished products is minimized.

7) Working conditions are safer, better (well ventilated rooms, etc.) and improved.

8) There is increased flexibility for changes in product design and for future expansion.

9) There is the utilization of cubic space (i.e. length, width and height).

10) There are improved work methods and reduced production cycle types.

11) Plant maintenance is simpler.

12) There is increased productivity and better product quality with reduced capital cost.

13) A good layout permits materials to move through the plant atthe desired speed with the

lowest cost.


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Plant location

Hardly any location can be ideal or perfect. One has to strike a balance between various

factors affecting plant location, which is discussed below.

Concept and Factors Governing Plant Location

A plant is a place, where men, materials, money, equipment, machinery, etc. are brought together

for manufacturing products. The problem of plant location arises when starting a new concern or

during the expansion of the existing plant. Plant location means deciding a suitable location,

area, place, etc. where the plant or factory will start functioning. Plant location involved two

major activities. First, to select a proper geography region and second, selecting a specific site

within the region. Plant location plays a major role in the design of a production system the cost

of

a) Getting suitable raw material

b) Processing raw material to finished goods; and

c) Finished products distribution to customers.

Hardly any location can be ideal or perfect. One has to strike a balance between various factors

affecting plant location, which are discussed below:

1. Nearness to Raw Material

It will reduce the cost of transporting raw material from the vendor’s end to the plant.

Which consume raw material in bulk, or raw material is heavy, is cheap but loses a good amount

of its weight during processing (trees and saw mills), must be located close to the source of raw

material.

2. Transport Facilities

A lot of money is spent both in transporting the raw material and the finished goods.

Depending upon the size of raw material and finished goods, a suitable method of transportation

like roads, rails, water or air is selected and accordingly the plant location is decided. One point


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must be kept in mind that cost of transportation should remain fairly small in proportion to the

cost.

3. Nearness to Markets

It reduces the cost of transportation as well as the chances of the finished products getting

damaged and spoiled in the way (especially perishable products). Moreover plant being near to

the market can catch a big share of the market and can render quick service to the customers.

4. Availability of Labor

Stable labor force, of right kind, of adequate size (number), and at reasonable rates with

its proper attitude towards work are a few factors which govern plant location to a major extent.

The purpose of the management is to face less boycotts, strikes or lockouts and to achieve lower

labor cost per unit of production.

5. Availability of Fuel and Power

Because of the wide spread use of electric power, in most cases fuel (coal, oil, etc.) has

not remained a deciding factor for plant location. Even then steel industries are located near

source of fuel (coal) to out down the fuel transportation costs. It is of course essential that

electric power should remain available continuously, in proper quantity and at reasonable rates.

6. Availability of Water

Water is used for processing, as in paper and chemical industries, and is also required for

drinking and sanitary purposes. Depending upon the nature of plant, water should be available

inadequate quantity and should be of proper quality (clean and pure). A chemical industry should

not be set up at a location, which is famous for water shortage.

7. Climatic conditions

With the developments in the field of heating, ventilating and air-conditioning, climate of

the region does not present much problem. Of course, control of climate needs money.

8. Financial and Other Aids

Certain states give aids as loans, feed money, machinery, built up sheds, etc. to attract

industrialists.


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9. Land

Topography, area, the shape of the site, cost, drainage and other facilities, the probability

of floods, earthquakes (from the past history),etc. influence the selection of plant location.

10. Community Attitude

Success of an industry depends very much on the attitude of the local people and whether

they want work or not.

11. Presence of Related industries

12. Existence of hospitals, marketing centers, schools, banks,

post offices, clubs, etc.

13. Local bye-laws, taxes, building ordnances, etc.

14. Housing facilities

15. Security

16. Facilities for expansion


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Locational economics analysis

1. Locations considered

a. Location - 1

It is, Satara MIDC situated 2 Km from Satara. It is sub-urban area.

b. Location - 2

It is PUNE, situated 90 Km from Satara. It is an urban area.

Table No: 11

Factors Cost of Location – 1 Location – 2

Land 20 (cents) 10,000 (Rent) 25,000 (Rent)

Water Less More

Power Less More

Labor Less More

Transportation More Less

Taxes Less More

Community facilities Good Good

Community attitude Encouraging Indifferent

Housing facility Medium Very Good

Cost of Living Medium Large

Community Size Medium Large

Studying the data obtained by location analysis we can see that transportation charges for

location-2 is less than that of location 1. But all other situation favors location-1. Hence location-

1 seems to be a better choice.

Pune is 90 Km away from Satara. We will be obtaining a shed from here at a rent of Rs. 600/-

month. The shed is well suited for the proposed maintenance concern. Electric supply is already

there and water is already available. Transportation will be available here. The area of building is


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4,500sq.feet, which is very much to accommodate. Climatic and atmospheric conditions are very

good.

CHAPTER 12

ENTERPRENERSHIP


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EnterprenershipAn entrepreneur is defined as an agent of charge. He is the most critical factor. In the

economic development of any region, he plays a very important and catalytic role in activating

the factors of production leading to the overall economic development. This is the view of

economists on entrepreneurship. Entrepreneur should posses judgment perseverance, knowledge

of the world and business and also the ability to superintend and administrator. He is often

described as engineer of industrial progress and chief agent of production. To summarize

entrepreneurship can be described as a creative and innovative response to the environment such

response can take place in any field of social endeavor business, industry, agriculture, education,

social work and life.

An analysis of the above viewpoints on entrepreneur behavior highlights the following features.

a) Entrepreneurial behavior is a result of an interaction of individual factors and situational

factors and situational factors of psychological factors and experimental factors.

b) Individual differ in their potentiality for entrepreneurship.

c) Even a high differ in their potential need not invariable result in entrepreneurial success.

d) Factors such as training and institutional support and other factors assume importance in

entrepreneurship development.


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Entrepreneurial Characteristicsa. Need for Achievement

The need to sell known as achievement is the single psychological factor that has been

extensively researched of in relation to entrepreneurship. Mr. Cleland had demonstrated that

achievement notice is a critical factor for entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship are people with

high drive and high activity level, constantly struggling to achieve something which they could

call their own accomplishment. They are moderate risk takes at the same time they avoid high

risks. They work long hours, most of them assess their own strengths and weakness and

opportunities and threat from the environment.

b. Sense of Efficiency

A sense of effectiveness is yet another important psychological dimensions that

contributes to successful entrepreneurship. They solve problems instead of avoiding it. They will

show initiative rather than conformism confidence and action, orientation is their essential

characteristics. They should have clear goals for the future and tend to live in the present with

involvement. Entrepreneurs are basically inclined to test out their capabilities whenever an

opportunity arises and are open to feedbacks from such tests.

Time Orientation

The entrepreneur is neither completely future oriented nor completely past oriented. He is

programmie, he looks into the future, uses his past experience but lives intensively the present.

c. Competition

Entrepreneurs are certainly competitive in their orientation. They collaborate well with

other parties when they see such collaboration is to their advantage. Their competition is against

the goals set by themselves rather than with the goals set by others.

e. Saving for Future

Successful entrepreneur shows high sense of dignity of manual labor and have tendency

to save for future and to invest for further development. They have along term involvement with

their goals.

f. Development of Entrepreneurs


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Entrepreneurship Development Programmers (EDPs) have been widely recognized as an

effective measure in promoting small-scale industry in our country. Entrepreneurship is a

function of several factors. At least four sets of factors which mainly influence it could be

identified they are:

i. The individual

ii. The socio-cultural factors

iii. The Support system

iv. The Environment.

i. The Individual

The individual constitutes the mode important element in entrepreneurship. He takes; the

decision to start an enterprise and it is the he who strives to make it a success. It is necessary,

therefore to understand the various factors which influence an individual. Three main

Factors influence behaviors are:

· His / her motivational factors

· The skill that entrepreneur posses

· His / her knowledge of several relevant

Motivational factors may be considered as most crucial to entrepreneurship. It has three major

elements.

The entrepreneur’s motivation

Personal efficiency

Copying capability


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The following skills are also found most crucial contributing to entrepreneurship.

· Project development

· Enterprise management

· Enterprise building

· Knowledge and environment

· Choice of industry

· Knowledge of technology

ii. Socio-Cultural Factors

Socio-cultural factors like family background and the names and values of the immediate

social circle contribute substantially to entrepreneurial developments the individual worker under

some pressure of the values inherited from this behavior which reflect inclination towards

initiative and risk taking dependence or independence. Working with one’s own hands on tasks

requiring man, manual handling, etc.

The following aspects of normative behavior are relevant to

Entrepreneurship.

· Family expectations and pressure

· Risk taking

· Independence

· Work


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Personality Characteristics of Entrepreneurs

Creative

Calculated risk taking

Not too discouraged by failure

Future oriented

Hard working

Persistent

Take personal responsibilities

Sets realistic goals

Drive for power

Drive for independence

Desire for feedback and learns from experience

Goal oriented

Ability to exploit situation

Willing to learn

Self confidence


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Constantly under stress

Person for integrity

Likes to excel in work

Pleasant personality

Success oriented

Makes decisions

Non-structured

Opportunity seeker

Family and friends second to business

Courageous

Self starter

Take failure a step to success

Individualist

Multifaceted interests

Innovative


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Takes challenges

Initiative and dynamic

Impatient

Sensitive and perceptive

Thinks to improves always

Ability to grasp quickly

Aggressive

Leader

Enjoys work play and living

Dissatisfied with general life

Average intelligence


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CHAPTER 13

SMALL SCALE INDUSTRY


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Procedure to start a Small Scale IndustryStarting of a small-scale industry is not a very task. At the same time it is not very

difficult too, if different factors are considered before taking a decision to start it. For starting the

first and most important work is to select a suitable site and then to make the proper scheme and

give it

approved.

Procedure to start small-scale industry consists of the following important steps.

a. Selection of industry

b. Preparation of schemes

c. Approval of scheme

d. Registration of small industry

Selection of industry

Selection of industry or product that is going to manufacture on the basis of

· Market survey

· Finance

· Technical know-how available

· Economic viability

· Stability

· Experience in the time

Market Survey

Before starting a business, market survey is very essential to know about what must be

produced, how much to be produced, what will be the margin of profit, etc. It provides necessary

statistic helpful or forecasting and planning a project. Mainly the object of market survey is to

inform the management as to what the future hold for its products and proposed products.

Finance

Government Assistance of Finance


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Small-scale industries require financial assistance not only to purchase machinery and

equipment but also for purchasing raw materials and working capital. Today various

organizations are came forward for sufficient financial help for reasonable rate of interest.

i. National Small-Scale Industries Corporation

ii. State Directorate of Industries

iii. State Industry Development Corporation

iv. Finance Corporation

v. Public Sector and Other Bank

National Small-Scale Industries Corporation (NSIC)

It provides the following assistances

· Supply of machines on hire purchase

· Marketing assistance to small scale industries

· Encouragement of export of small-scale industries products.

State Directorate of Industries (SDI)

It provides the following assistances

· Granting of essentially certificate for import of raw material, components etc.

· Distribution of source and indigenous raw materials to the industry units.

· Allotment of industrial plots/sheds to entrepreneurs.

· Arrangement of water and power.

· Provision of technical guidance.

Subsidy

15% subsidy on fixed capital investment is admissible to new units set up in the

backward area of certain districts such as Malabar, Idukky.The maximum subdivision admissible

in the areas declared backward by the Govt. of India is Rs. 1 lakh. Weygand is declared as non-

industrial

district and central investment subsidy in the district is 25% for all the other districts it is 10%.

Engineer entrepreneurships who set up their own small industrial units are eligible for interest

subsidy. The difference between interest rate of 7% per annum and the normal rate of interest

charged on the loans.

Loans and Concessional Rate of Interest


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Loans are advanced to the small-scale industries under the state aid industries act and

rules framed there under got construction of factory building purchase of machinery and

equipment and working capital.

Procedure to Get Loan

a) An application for loan is submitted to the district industries officer/ assistant director if

industries in a prescribed form. In case of industrial co-operative societies the application should

be submitted to the Assist and register co-operative societies who will forward the same with the

recommendations to authorities concerned.

b) SBI has introduced a scheme of financial assistance to small scale units under which working

capital is advanced against pledge of goods under lock and key on factory type. Advances are

also made against hypothecation on goods and bills under sanction, as well as against personnel

guarantees. Degree or Diploma holders in engineering who pass three months entrepreneurship

course from institution prescribed by Government of India are eligible for interest subsidy.

Technical know-how availableOwner should make him really converse with all acts, rules and literature which may help

him in setting up and rolling a small scale industry literatures published by the state and central

government are available for the help of interested persona large number of model schemes also

available with the Manager of publications. Civil line direct of industries and civil supplies also

helps in selection the products which have scope and which do not scope. Their lists are revised

from time to time considering different factors changing with development of small-scale

industry and demand.

Economic viabilityThe manufacture of the proposed product should be economically viable. The brake even

of the level of product should be below 40 – 50%of the installed capacity to withstand the

possible price cutting on other dislocation by the competitions. The proposed should have come

out from the laboratory and pilot project level to commercial exploitation.

StabilityThe proposed product should have stable sales all the year round otherwise the cost

product may go up than making the product unstable.


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Set up and manage a small scale industry

Material

A manufacturing organization required of material which may consist not only raw

material but also semi processed, semi assembled parts and components. It is advisable to have

always make than one supplied for every material to ensure prompt and regular supply of quality

Material. There should be minimum stock of various materials to avoid any stock out. In other

words on the basis of the consumption rate and lead time determine.

a) The maximum and minimum quantity of any material to be stored.

b) The re-order level and re-order quantity, that is when to place the order and for what quantity.

Marketing

It is normal responsibility to make goods available to people at price they can afford to

pay at a time they need it. There should be sufficient sales to meet the entrepreneur’s experience

and to leave behind surplus. It is therefore essential to plan his marketing. It may also be difficult

to plan any product and procurement programme. In such cases it may be necessary to find out

alternative uses for men, machinery and equipment during the slack reason preparation of

schemes.

After deciding the product to be manufactured and that place of industry detailed is

prepared. This scheme should contain the type of machines their approximate cost, quantity or

raw materials and cost, details of land, building, number of workers, location proposed,

Infrastructure facilities available, factory layout, etc.

Management

The entrepreneurs should have initiative drive clarity of ideas and action and should be in

a position to enlist the willing co-operation of the workers to achieve the common goal. That is

successful management of his unit. The success of unit depends upon the attention the

entrepreneur pays to the various problems like arrangements for regular supply of raw material

scheduled production. proper management labor, timely arrangement of finance adhering to the

delivery schedules and ascertaining the cost of product strategy. Decide the size of market and

the type of product we want of to offer. Also study the customers for who want to cater, the price

and quality requirements of the customers. A study of the size of the mark should also include

the future growth prospect for the unit. Every product has a definite life cycle introduction

(infancy), growth (childhood) and adolescence maturity and decline. In order to retain a


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reasonable return on our investment consistent with the growth of our units it is essential to plan

in advance improvements strategy or our product. Satisfied consumers are the base for the

survival of any organization.

Steps to Set Up a Small Scale Industry

1. Identification of a suitable product

2. Choice of location

3. Registration of the firm

4. Provisional registration

5. License from local administration

6. No objection certificate or license

7. Consent for electricity connection

8. Formulation of project report

9. Approval / license from other agencies

10. Approval of building plant

11. Apply for term loan

12. Land development and construction building


GO-KARTING

13. Ordering machinery

14. Application of margin money loan

15. Erection of machinery

16. Obtain service connection

17. Recruitment and training of personnel

18. Procurement of raw material

19. Trial run

20. Sales tax registration

21. Sales

22. Application for permanent registration


GO-KARTING

Facilities to Small Scale Industries

Governments have also offered a number of facilities, incentives and concessions to the

small industries to encourage the industrial development. Some of these are:

.Hire purchase of machinery

· Tax concessions

· Procurement of raw materials

· Power supply

· Water supply

· Market assistance

· Technical assistance

· Testing facilities

· Export promotion

· Import licenses

· Industries reserved for small scale sector

· Purchase programme


GO-KARTING

Advantages of Small Scale Industry

It provides better and quick employment

It is labor intensive and capital saving With small investment production can easily and quickly

started

No much sophisticate machines and modern technology is Needed

It attracts small savings and diverts them to productive channels

It provides economic development by rapid industrialization

It provides check in monopoly

It reduces in balance of income property


GO-KARTING

CHAPTER 14

PROJECT ALBUM


GO-KARTING


GO-KARTING

CHAPTER 15

CONCLUSION

The 98cc, 2 stroke, 4 wheeled racing car, Go-Kart, we finally made one under 25000 Rs

which is a big truth. But we made just a prototype of that performance machine. The materials

we used are not up to the mark of automotive standard. Big companies will design one go-kart at

a minimum of 2 years. But we made this from two months. We do not recommend driving this


GO-KARTING

go-kart at a speed of 80 km/hour but it is best suited in 30-40 km/hour speed. The project report

is prepared in such a manner that every layman can understand the details pertaining to the

project. The report is prepared in simple language and described well. The report give adequate

idea and design guide line for making suitable report is expected to prove valuable to the

successor students of production engineering to know the essentials of a project and project

report. The matter discussed in the early pages just gives a broad outline of small-scale

industries. We have, tried to cover all the aspects concerned with our project.


GO-KARTING

CHAPTER 16

REFERENCE

Reference Books

Automobile Engineering R. B. Gupta


GO-KARTING

Automobile Engineering Kripal Singh

Industrial Engineering and Management O. P. Khanna

Automotive Technology H. M. Sethi

Thermal Engineering M. ZakriaBaig

Machinery handbook

Industrial engineering O.P.khanna

Internet Websites www.howstuffworks.com

www.answers.com

www.wikipedia.org


http://www.wikipedia.org/