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Acids and Bases

Acid- any compound that forms H+ ions in solution.

Acidic solutions have a pH value below 7.

Base- A base produces hydroxide ions in solution.

Basic solutions have a pH value above 7

Buffers- weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH.

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Oven cleaner

Bleach

Ammonia solution

Soap

Sea water

Human bloodPure waterMilkNormalrainfall

Acid rainTomatojuice

Lemon juice

Stomach acid

NeutralIn

crea

sing

ly B

asic

Incr

easi

ngly

Aci

dic

Section 2-2

pH Scale

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Life’s Backbone

Most of the compounds that make up living things contain carbon. In fact, carbon makes up the basic structure, or “backbone,” of these compounds. Each atom of carbon has four electrons in its outer energy level, which makes it possible for each carbon atom to form four bonds with other atoms.

As a result, carbon atoms can form long chains. A huge number of different carbon compounds exist. Each compound has a different structure. For example, carbon chains can be straight or branching. Also, other kinds of atoms can be attached to the carbon chain.

Section 2-3

Interest Grabber

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1. On a sheet of paper, make a list of at least ten things that contain carbon.

2. Working with a partner, review your list. If you think some things on your list contain only carbon, write “only carbon” next to them.

3. If you know other elements that are in any items on your list, write those elements next to them.

Section 2-3

Interest Grabber continued

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Macromolecules

Macromolecule- means giant molecule

Monomers-small unit of a macromolecule that joins with other monomers to form polymers.

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Four Groups of Organic Macromolecules or Compounds

1. Carbohydrates

2. Lipids

3. Proteins

4. Nucleic Acids

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Carbohydrates

Compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms , usually in a ratio of 1:2:1

Monosaccharides are single (mono=one) sugars. Important monosaccharides include glucose (C6H12O6), and fructose (same formula but different structure than glucose).

Polysaccharides are large molecules composed of individual monosaccharide units. A common plant polysaccharide is starch (shown in Figure 12), which is made up of many glucose

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Starch

Glucose

Section 2-3

Figure 2-13 A Starch

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Lipids

involved mainly with long-term energy storage. Common categories are fats, oils, and waxes.

Lipids are composed of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule.

Fatty acids can be saturated (meaning they have as many hydrogens bonded to their carbons as possible)

unsaturated (with one or more double bonds connecting their carbons, hence fewer hydrogens)

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Lipids Cont.

A fat is solid at room temperature, while an oil is a liquid under the same conditions. The fatty acids in oils are mostly unsaturated, while those in fats are mostly saturated.

Cooking oils, such as corn oil, sesame oil, canola oil, and peanut oil. Contain polyunsaturated lipids.

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Proteins

Macromolecules that contain nitrogen as well as carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

The building block of any protein is the amino acid, which has an amino end (NH2) and a carboxyl end (COOH).

More than 20 different amino acids are found in nature.

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General structure Alanine Serine

Section 2-3

Figure 2-16 Amino Acids

Amino group Carboxyl group

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General structure Alanine Serine

Section 2-3

Figure 2-16 Amino Acids

Amino group Carboxyl group

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General structure Alanine Serine

Section 2-3

Figure 2-16 Amino Acids

Amino group Carboxyl group

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Aminoacids

Section 2-3

Figure 2-17 A Protein

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Nucleic Acids

Are polymers composed of monomer units known as nucleotides

Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate.

Nucleic Acids store and transmit hereditary or genetic information. Two kinds Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

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Nucleic Acids contl

there are five nitrogenous bases. Purines (Adenine and Guanine) are double-ring structures, while pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil) are single-ringed.

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Chemical Reactions

Chemical reaction is a process that changes one set of chemicals into another set of chemicals.

Two parts Reactants and Products.

Reactants Products

2H2O 2H2 + O2

Activation energy- the energy needed to get a reaction started.

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Enzymes

Catalyst- substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction. They lower the reactions activation energy.

Enzymes-proteins that act as biological catalysts.

Enzymes are not used up during the reaction and can

be used over and over again. Enzymes can usually be identified by the "ase" ending in the name.

 

Substrate is a molecule upon which an enzyme acts.

Enzymes attach to the substrate at an active site, like a "lock and key" fit.

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Enzymes Cont.

Coenzymes help enzymes bond to a substrate. Ex: vitamins

Inhibitors block active sites to regulate enzyme activity.

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Reaction pathwaywithout enzyme Activation energy

without enzyme

Activationenergywith enzymeReaction pathway

with enzyme

Reactants

Products

Section 2-4

Effect of Enzymes

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Energy-Absorbing Reaction Energy-Releasing Reaction

Products

Products

Activation energy

Activation energy

Reactants

Reactants

Section 2-4

Figure 2-19 Chemical Reactions

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Energy-Absorbing Reaction Energy-Releasing Reaction

Products

Products

Activation energy

Activation energy

Reactants

Reactants

Section 2-4

Figure 2-19 Chemical Reactions

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Glucose

Substrates

ATP

Substratesbind toenzyme

Substratesare convertedinto products

Enzyme-substratecomplex

Enzyme(hexokinase)

ADPProducts

Glucose-6-phosphate

Productsare released

Section 2-4

Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action

Active site

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Glucose

Substrates

ATP

Substratesbind toenzyme

Substratesare convertedinto products

Enzyme-substratecomplex

Enzyme(hexokinase)

ADPProducts

Glucose-6-phosphate

Productsare released

Section 2-4

Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action

Active site

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Glucose

Substrates

ATP

Substratesbind toenzyme

Substratesare convertedinto products

Enzyme-substratecomplex

Enzyme(hexokinase)

ADPProducts

Glucose-6-phosphate

Productsare released

Section 2-4

Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action

Active site

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Glucose

Substrates

ATP

Substratesbind toenzyme

Substratesare convertedinto products

Enzyme-substratecomplex

Enzyme(hexokinase)

ADPProducts

Glucose-6-phosphate

Productsare released

Section 2-4

Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action

Active site

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Vitamins and Minerals

Vitamins- organic molecules that help regulate body processes often working with enzymes.

Two types- Fat-soluble and water soluble.

Minerals- inorganic nutrients the body needs in small amounts.

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