Gods and CultGods and Cult

1. Divinities1. Divinities

Nature of the divineNature of the divinein Greaco-Roman Culturein Greaco-Roman Culture

Variety of divinities – major (Mars, Jupiter, Variety of divinities – major (Mars, Jupiter, June etc) and minorJune etc) and minor

some had many responsibilities other one some had many responsibilities other one narrowly defined: narrowly defined:

Some more popular than others, i.e. god Some more popular than others, i.e. god Silvanus, a rural god appears in over 1100 Silvanus, a rural god appears in over 1100 inscriptions from Western Roman Empireinscriptions from Western Roman Empire

Often many versions: Often many versions: Juno LacinaJuno Lacina, goddess of , goddess of childbirth - very different from the childbirth - very different from the martial martial JunoJuno worshipped in Rome. Wearing goatskin worshipped in Rome. Wearing goatskin cloak, spear and shieldcloak, spear and shield

Some deities are aspects of the physical world; Some deities are aspects of the physical world; not anthropomorphised not anthropomorphised

Categories: perceptible by intellect or perceptible Categories: perceptible by intellect or perceptible by senses: Neptune/Poseidon – represented as by senses: Neptune/Poseidon – represented as both: The actual sea itself - it can be touched,both: The actual sea itself - it can be touched,

And the god Neptune/Poseidon – the god of the And the god Neptune/Poseidon – the god of the seasea

Some gods – shade into abstractions, i.e. Some gods – shade into abstractions, i.e. Aphrodite/Venus; Fortuna (Fortune), Aphrodite/Venus; Fortuna (Fortune),

Some just abstract concepts: Some just abstract concepts: SpesSpes (Hope), (Hope), PietasPietas (Piety), etc.(Piety), etc.

terms for divinitiesterms for divinities Greek Theos/thea - theoiGreek Theos/thea - theoi Latin deus/dea - diLatin deus/dea - di Often ancient writers do not distinguish between the Often ancient writers do not distinguish between the

gods and god in the same passagegods and god in the same passage Other terms: Greek - Other terms: Greek - daimondaimon, , heros heros Heros (Heros (hero, heroes) intermediary between divine and hero, heroes) intermediary between divine and

human - Romans very little evidence of this category human - Romans very little evidence of this category (perhaps to some extent the (perhaps to some extent the manesmanes or or divi parentesdivi parentes (gods Manes/spirits of the underworld or deified (gods Manes/spirits of the underworld or deified ancestors)ancestors)

some characters from Roman myths associated with some characters from Roman myths associated with already existing Italian Gods: Aeneas = Indiges; already existing Italian Gods: Aeneas = Indiges; Romulus = QuirinusRomulus = Quirinus

Latin: Latin: numennumen, , geniusgenius

daimonesdaimones

Many uses of term - includes gods, guardian Many uses of term - includes gods, guardian

Spirits, spirits of the dead, sometimes even Spirits, spirits of the dead, sometimes even souls of living; Socrates: gods – souls of living; Socrates: gods – daimonesdaimones

Christians reserved – Christians reserved – theos theos or or deus deus for what for what they regarded the one and true godthey regarded the one and true god

Christian used of Christian used of daimondaimon ( (daemondaemon) for the ) for the Graeco-Roman deities – whom they Graeco-Roman deities – whom they considered malevolent spiritsconsidered malevolent spirits

Hence the English ‘demon’ - acquired a Hence the English ‘demon’ - acquired a negative connotationnegative connotation

Heros (Heros (hero) hero)

Poetry - the great heroes of myth (i.e. Achilles, Poetry - the great heroes of myth (i.e. Achilles, Odysseus), legends – hence English hero, heroesOdysseus), legends – hence English hero, heroes

A hero (A hero (heros)heros) – of worship = denotes a human – of worship = denotes a human being who continues to exert power after death being who continues to exert power after death and has to be propitiated through prayers and and has to be propitiated through prayers and offerings.offerings.

A hero commonly has a divine and a human parent A hero commonly has a divine and a human parent and is mortal – he diesand is mortal – he dies

Traditionally: founders of cities, and some figures Traditionally: founders of cities, and some figures from mythfrom myth

Hero more important in Greek mythology and Hero more important in Greek mythology and religion than in Romanreligion than in Roman

numennumen

Divine powerDivine powerDivine willDivine willSome writers used it as almost a Some writers used it as almost a

synonym for synonym for deus deus especially when especially when referring to deity of somewhat referring to deity of somewhat uncertain identityuncertain identity

geniusgenius

Originally the divine alter-ego or Originally the divine alter-ego or guardian spirit of an individual (usually guardian spirit of an individual (usually male)male)

Guardian spirit of female often – Guardian spirit of female often – iunoiunoOver time Over time genius genius used more widely and used more widely and

was applied to any locality or institutionwas applied to any locality or institution i.e. particular buildings, mountains, i.e. particular buildings, mountains,

springs, woods, etc., - became guardian springs, woods, etc., - became guardian spirits of placesspirits of places

Cult (Cult (cultuscultus) – religious action) – religious action Any religious action – form of communication with the Any religious action – form of communication with the

divinedivine Cultus Cultus central to Roman religion central to Roman religion English term cult - negative overtonesEnglish term cult - negative overtones Latin Latin cultus –cultus – worship (the various practices and rituals worship (the various practices and rituals

employed in worship)employed in worship) Enormous range of practices in RomeEnormous range of practices in Rome Emphasis on correct repetitions of Emphasis on correct repetitions of formulaeformulae Main forms:Main forms: 1. request for benefits from gods, i.e. in 1. request for benefits from gods, i.e. in

prayers, sacrifices and other offeringsprayers, sacrifices and other offerings 2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the gods 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in 3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in

various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect various ways transformed a person’s situation with respect to the divineto the divine

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PrayersPrayers

Oral, often improvised to fit occasion,Oral, often improvised to fit occasion,Best sources – literary, poems written Best sources – literary, poems written

in form of prayers, or descriptive in form of prayers, or descriptive narrativesnarratives

Most traditional prayers for public cults Most traditional prayers for public cults lostlost

Evidence suggests the following format: Evidence suggests the following format: began with invocation that detailed began with invocation that detailed god’s name, functions, qualities.god’s name, functions, qualities.

Ritual continuedRitual continued

Followed by central section: reasons why deity should Followed by central section: reasons why deity should grant request: i.e. evidence of person’s devotion, grant request: i.e. evidence of person’s devotion, piety, appeals to god’s beneficence, or reminder of his piety, appeals to god’s beneficence, or reminder of his past blessings, etc., past blessings, etc.,

This Section also contained the vow: the promise of This Section also contained the vow: the promise of offeringoffering

Final part – the petition, ranging from specific request Final part – the petition, ranging from specific request such as – please help my child recover from illness – to such as – please help my child recover from illness – to general appeal - look at us favourably, general appeal - look at us favourably,

Often focus on first part - expressed in lengthy hymns Often focus on first part - expressed in lengthy hymns (Greek hymnos(Greek hymnos) focus of hymns to praise more than ) focus of hymns to praise more than on the petition i.e. Homeric hymns to Dionysios, on the petition i.e. Homeric hymns to Dionysios, Demeter,Demeter,

reciprocity

Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in exchange.”

Quid pro quo - idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in return

Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (Graeco-Roman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits

See this already in Homer’s epics – gift-giving and gift-receiving central to relationships

Rome: when benefit given, the person who receives the benefit owes - gratia - and can be called upon to return the benefit

Forms of offerings

wide range – flowers, cakes, incense, Libations = liquids – wine most common, Milk, oil, honey, even water Blood sacrifice – very common: the ritual slaughter

of an animal - domestic (sheep, pig, cow) = symbol of piety

Emperors often shown making sacrifices, displaying their pietas (duty and affection for the gods)

Neither the emperor or any other magistrate/priest carried out the actual slaughter of a victim which was considered a pollution – that was done by the victiarius , normally a slave – an individual who stood outside society.

Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)performing a sacrifice

The Sacrifice Elaborate ritual Procession – victim led to the altar Altar normally outdoors in front of a temple Symbolic purification of space around altar Call for ritual silence Musicians played pipes to drown out unwanted noises Preliminary offer of grain (Greeks), incense (Roman).

In the previous image – emperor throws grains of incense onto small brazier next to big altar

Followed by the actual killing of animal – performed by a professional victiarius who also carved up carcass

A portion offered to the deity, rest cooked on spot and all had a feast

Communicating with the gods

Basic elements of sacrifice same in Greece and Rome

Romans covered heads when sacrificing to express piety

Prayers and sacrifice – the two ways people communicated with the gods

Divination Believed gods communicated with humans Divination – interpretation of divine communication Wide variety of forms: Oracles were consulted – Romans went to Delphi

just like the Greeks interpretation of dreams; observation of the flight of birds; interpretation of prodigies (unusual events seen as

significant) and as messages from the gods that needed to be interpreted – i.e. by haruspices or Sybilline books

Christians and Muslims consider practice of divination as mere fortune telling

Divination

not an attempt to see into the futureRomans believed divination would

give people insight into the will and mood of gods

Whether gods opposed an action or supported it

The Function of Ordinary Roman Sacrifice

pietas – a combination of duty and affection to the gods ( also to family members, friends, patrons, etc.)

Sacrifice demonstrates pietas Sacrifice cleanses both vitium (intended transgression)

and impietas (unintended transgression) Pietas legitimized the right of individuals to govern;

Role of magistrates: to maintain the pax deorum (peace of the gods)

pietas as expressed in (expressed in public acts of sacrificial devotion) of Rome’s magistrates guaranteed the favor of the gods and therefore the welfare of the state

Roman Blood Sacrifice

Roman religious ritual turned on offering the blood of sacrificial victims in exchange for goodwill of the gods

Under exceptional circumstances this could include human victims - devotio

devotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a commander before a campaign in return for a victory.

Three times in the late Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium

Executions in the arena including those of Christian martyrs considered sacrifices

conclusions

These three cult practices: prayer, sacrifice, divination – common to almost all religious traditions in Roman empire

2 other common practices:Purification - rituals to remove

pollution (i.e. Blood crimes)Initiation – ritual which put individual

into privileged relationship with deity

conclusions

Cult activities not restricted to specific times or places

People incorporated prayers and sacrifices into wide variety of daily activities

Basic beliefs implied by practices: belief in the existence of superhuman forces that were concerned with human behaviour and responded to human intervention and communicated with human world