~~8.f~tn"': 4ff')'/tJ<\, A. /998. Cro?h.-c.D~S;81) ~tlS;C:.5. 3'dJ. J'.fdctPlX-+t ~ra:(~. llj;

\2cuAOJlA /:lIS c..- l ~

"GOOD"GfSTAlT

~

Giuseppe Arcimboldo, a painter fromthe sixteenth century, demonstrates theprinciple clearly in this portrait. A closeexamination reveals the separate partsthat make up this head (Figure 5-2). Asimilar example is this contemporary al-phabet made up of objects (Figure 5-3).

The early Gestalt psychologists andmany other researchers into visual per-ception have discovered that the eyeseeks a unified whole or gestalt. Knowinghow the eye seeks a gestalt can help youanalyze and create successful designs.By knowing what connections the eyewill draw for itself, you eliminate clutterand produce a clearly articulated design.

GESTALTPRINCIPLES

A designer works not simply with lineson paper, but with perceptual structure.Learn these gestalt perceptual principlesand you can take advantage of the wayobject, eye, and graphic creation inter-weave. A powerful and beautiful exam-ple can be found in Plate 1.

SIMilARITYWhen we see things that are similar, wenaturally group them. Grouping by sim-

75

ilarity occurs when we see similar shape,size, color, spatial location (proximity),angle, or value. All things are similar insome respects and different in others. Ina group of similar shapes and angles, wewill notice a dissimilar shape or angle(Figure 5-4).

Similarity is necessary before we cancompare differences. In the photograph byGordon Baer (Figure 5-5), we are attracted

5-5 Gordon Baer.

Freelance photographer,

Cincinnati, OR. TwoOld Men.

GESTALTPRINCIPLES

. . .

sImIlarItyDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDODODDDDD

5-2 (right) Guiseppe

Arcimboldo.

Sixteenth century.

5-3 Julius Friedman and

. Walter McCord,

co-designers. Logo for

Images design firm.

THEWHOLEANDTHEPARTS

The Gestalt school of psychology, whichbegan in Germany around 1912, inves-tigated how we see and organize visualinformation into a meaningful whole.The conviction developed that the wholeis more than the sum of its parts. Thiswhole cannot be perceived by a simpleaddition of isolated parts. Each part isint1uenced by those around it.

WHOLE

As you read the word above, you are per-ceiving the whole word, not the individ-ualletterforms that make it up. Each let-

5-2

ter can still be examined individually,but however you add it up, the word ismore than the sum of those separate let-terforms (Figure 5-1).

When you sew a shirt, you beginwith pieces of fabric that are cut intoparts. When the parts have been assem-bled, a new thing has been created. Thecollar, the facing, and the sleeve still ex-ist, but they have a new "whole" iden-tity called a shirt.

74 "GOOO"GESTALT

h 0 I e w0 I e w hlewhoewhol

5-1 (left) Iwho I e

GESTALTPRINCIPLES

eye is carried smoothly into the line orcurve of an adjoining object (Fig-ure 5-9).

The eye is pleased by shapes that arenot interrupted, but form a harmoniousrelationship with adjoining shapes. Thesymbol of the u.s. Energy ExtensionService (Figure 5-10) uses continuationto emphasize the moving, dynamic na-ture of energy. Continuation can also beachieved through implied directionallines.

CLOSURE

Familiar shapes are more readily seen ascomplete than incomplete. When theeye completes a line or curve in order toform a familiar shape, closure has oc-curred (Figure 5-11). This step is some-times accompanied by a reaction, "Oh,now I see!" Figure 5-12 is a symbol cre-ated by the 1 + 1 Design Firm. Do yousee the plus sign created by the fig-ure/ground relationship? Part of the clo-sure in this example includes a suddenconnection with the name of the firm.

This sort of connection is especially use-ful in trademark design.

- 0'0_'

CLOSURE

LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL

. .

5-10 George Jadowski,designer, Danny C.Jones, art director.

Symbol for the U.S.

Energy ExtensionService.

5-11

5-12 Pat Hughes andSteve Quinn.

Symbol for 1 + 1 DesignFirm.

77

76

5-6 (left) Saul Bass.Trademark for ALCOA.

Courtesy, Aluminum

Company of America.

5-1 (right) Margo Chase.

Logo for Esprit woman,a romantic line, made

up of figures and hearts.

"GOOD" GESTALT

ALCOAby a similarity of sleeping forms. It isuseful for the designer to know that theeye will notice and group similaritieswhile separating differences. The symboland logotype created for Alcoa by SaulBass, a renowned American designer, re-lies on similarity of shape. Count the tri-angles in Figure 5-6. In Figure 5-7, de-signer Margo Chase uses a similarity ofline quality to create a dynamic, unifiedlogo for Esprit.

PROXIMITY

likely it is that we will see them as agroup (Figure 5-8). The proximity oflines or edges makes it easier for th'e eyeto group them to form a figure.

?rouping by si~il~rity in spatial location CON TIN U A T IONIS called proxImIty, or nearness. Thecloser two visual elements are, the more The viewer's eye will follow a line or

. curve.ContinuationOCCurSwhenthe

mitYC~ : .~...:~...~.. ... .~~ ..~..

pto~i

DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD0

DDD0DDDDDDDD0DDDDDDDD0DDD~ ~

.. - J....

78

5-14 Whitney Shennan,illustrator; Martin

Bennett and Mary Pat

Andrea, designers.North Charles Street

Design Organization.

This poster announces

an upcoming move to anew location.

"GOOD" GESTALT

~

5-13

When closure happens too soon,without participation from the eye andmind of the viewer, the design can beboring.

fiGURE/GROUNDThe fundamental law of perception thatmakes it possible to discern objects isthe figure/ground relationship. The eyeand mind separate ~n object (figure)from its surroundings (ground). As youread this page, your eye is separating out

words (figure) from ground (paper).Many times the relationship between fig-ure and ground is dynamic and ambigu-ous, offering more than one solution tothe searching eye (Figure 5-13).

Sometimes referred to as positiveand negative space relationship, thisprinciple is crucial to shaping a strongdesign. The designer must be aware ofcreating shapes in the "leftover" groundevery time a figure is created. Figure 5-14 uses this fact in an entertaining way,similar to the work of M. C. Escher.Figure 5-15 is an illustration that alsouses the figure/ground relationship as aninherent part of its structure.

In Figure 5-16, the logo for CaseEquipment Company, the figure/groundrelationship is remarkably strong.

TRADEMARKS

The interplay of gestalt principles occursin all areas of design but is clearest in

,,-- ,.-)

...

~.~:/.~Itt~..~

the creation of logo and symbol trade-marks. Here, form and function areclosely related. We have examined form.Now we will consider function. The pro-ject in this chapter will require you torelate these two considerations.

fUNCTIONSSymbols and trademarks have servedmany functions in history. The earlyChristians relied on the symbol of thefish to identify themselves to one an-other secretly. In the Dark Ages family

""....

TRADEMARKS

trademarks were used. No nobleman inthe same region could wear the samecoat of arms. These "arms" came tomark the owner's possessions, whilepeasants used simpler "housemarks,"which were especially useful because fewpeople could read (Figures 5-17 and 5-18). Also, each medieval craftsman in-scribed a personal mark on his productsand hung out a sign showing his calling.During the Renaissance, the threegolden balls of the Medici family sym-bolized moneylending. The Medici markcan still be seen today, pirated bymodern pawnbrokers. More recently, inthe western United States, each cattlerancher had a brand or mark. Manystill do.

Today, trademarks are widely usedby corporations. The trademark is anyunique name or symbol used to identifya product and to distinguish it fromothers. These unique marks can beregistered and protected by law. Their pri-mary use is to increase brand recognition

@

5-15 (l~ft) David

McLimons.

"Helping Children

Learn," an illustration

for The Progressive

magazine.

5-16 (right) Lippincott

and Margulies, Inc.Trademark for Case

Corporation. The com-

pany adopted a new logo

design in 1994.

5-17 (left)

5-18 (right)

79

80

5-19 Michael Vanderbyl.Symbol proposed but

not adopted for theCalifornia Conservation

Corps.

"GOOD" GESTALT

and advertise products and services. Theuse of trademarks, or logos, is growingas individuals identify themselves on let-terheads, resumes, and homepages.Consumers come to rely on the qualityassociated with a trademark and are will-ing to try new products that are identi-fied with that recognized trademark.

MAKING"MARKS"Unlike other forms of advertising, themodern trademark is a long-term design.It may appear on letterhead, companytrucks, packaging, employee uniforms,newsletters, and so on. Designers oftenspend months developing and testingone trademark. Only a strong designwith a simple, unified gestalt will standthe test of repeated exposure.

Keep several other points in mindwhen developing a "mark":

1. You are not just "making your markon the world"; you are making a markto symbolize your client and yourclient's product. It must reflect the

nature and quality of that product toan audience. Research the company,product, and audience. As designerPaul Rand said, "A trademark is cre-ated by a designer, but made by a cor-poration. A trademark is a picture, animage. . . of a corporation."

2. The mark is often reproduced inmany different sizes, from the com-pany vehicle to a business card. Yourdesign must remain legible and strongin all circumstances.

3. Because this mark may be repro-duced in newspaper advertising orwith severely limited in-house dupli-cating facilities, it must reproducewell in one color.

4. Many trademarks are seen in adverseviewing conditions, such as shortexposure, poor lighting, competitivesurroundings, and lack of viewer in-terest. Under such conditions, sim-plicity is a virtue. A simple, interest-ing shape with a good gestalt is easierto remember than a more complexdesign.

TRADEMARKS

Some designers refer to all trade-marks as "logos," whereas others have acomplex system of subtle categories. Thetwo most common categories of trade-marks, however, are symbol and logo.

SYMBOlS

"

Websters Ninth New Collegiate Diction-ary says a symbol is "something thatstands for or suggests something else byreason of relationship, association, con-vention, or accidental resemblance, es-pecially: a visual sign of something in-visible. A printed or written sign used torepresent an operation, element, quan-tity, quality, or relation." Historically im-portant symbols include national tlags,the cross, and the swastika.

The symbol is a type of trademarkused to represent a company or product.It can be abstract or pictorial, but it doesnot usually include letterforms. It repre-sents invisible qualities of a product,such as reliability, dur\lbility, strength,or warmth.

A symbol has several advantages, in-cluding:

~~..

1. Original construction2. Simple gestalt resulting in quick

recognition3. A wealth of associations

Figure 5-19, a symbol proposed for theCalifornia Conservation Corps, demon-strates all three qualities.

A pictogram is a symbol that is usedto cross language barriers for interna-tional signage. It is found in bilingualcities, such as Montreal, for traffic signs.It is also found in airports and on safetyinstructions inside airplanes. It is picto-rial rather than abstract (Figure 5-20).

lOGOS

The second category of trademark iscalled logo or logotype. The logo is aunique type or lettering that spells outthe name of the company or product. Itmay be handlettered, but is usually con-structed out of variations on an existingtypeface. Historically, it developed afterthe symbol, because it requires a liter-ate audience.

When you create a logo, it is ex-tremely important to choose type that

81

5-20

Roger Cook and Don

Shanosky

(Cook and Shanosky

Associates). Department

of Transportation pic-

tograms prepared by theAmerican Institute of

Graphic Arts (AlGA).

82

5-21(left) Herb Lubalin.Trademark created for

Reader's Digest.

Assigned to Military

Family Communication,

publisher of Families

magazine.

5-22 (right) Logotype for

Ditto Corporation. TheDitto trademark is a fed-

erally registered trade-mark of Starkey

Chemical Process Co. of

LaGrange, IL.

5-23 Tom Yasitis.

Grid and circle

variations.

"GOOD" GESTALT

..1.

II'R'AOfR'S !>GESC

~.IR,,(A""N

suits the nature of your client and audi-ence. A successful, unique logo is oftenmore difficult to design than a symbol,because it entails both visual and verbalcommunication. Figure 5-21 was createdfor Reader's Digest by one of the mostrespected and influential logo designers,Herb Lubalin. The clean, bold type stylemakes it easy to see the play on similarshapes that creates the "family connec-tion" hidden in the word. Figure 5-22was created for Ditto Company, a dupli-cation products manufacturer. Comparethis type style with the one before. Eachis distinctively suited to its use.

The advantages of a logotype include

1. Original construction2. Easy identification with company or

product

A combination mark is a symbol andlogo used together. These marks are dif-ficult to construct with a good gestaltbecause of their complexity. They are of-ten used, however, because they com-bine the advantages of symbol and logo.

~

@ DittoIn all these marks, gestalt principles

help to create a unified and striking de-sign. With "good" gestalt, form and func-tion interweave in a powerful whole.

fXfRCISfSFigure 5-23 is a student design based onsome of the following exercises. This as-signment is best done with graph paper,or you may want to use a computer pro-gram to generate it quickly and cleanly.

1. Select a circle lW' (4 cm) in diame-ter (or slightly more) and practiceoverlapping two of them to createnew and varied shapes. Then trythree circles. Do not use line, onlyshape and black and white values.Reverse one out of another for moreinteresting effects.

2. Place a circle in various positionswithin a square. Do not use line. Useblack and white shapes. Experimentwith size and border violations.

3. Set up a series of vertical lines so thatthe white lines gradually grow small

III :!!II'

- .. ... ....-I--. ...J ..J .J .J- I--.. .....J..J ..J -.J- I--.. J..J _LJ.J_ -... .J..J _LLJ- I.-....J..J-1--1.-J-I I I I I I

while the black lines expand. Start bymaking a series of vertical lines W'(5 mm) apart. Each line can then bethickened.

4. Create a break or anomaly in a seriesof vertical lines.

5. Examine the illustrations in thischapter and identify the unifyinggestalt features in each mark.

6. Use one or more of these exercises todevelop an appropriate symbol for acompany of your choice.

PROJfCT

Combination Mark

Design a combination mark for a com-pany described below. You may combinelogo and symbol into one image, or pre-sent them as two images, carefullyplaced together. Experiment with manyalternatives in your thumbnail sketches.Incorporate each of the gestalt principlesdiscussed in this chapter into yourthumbnail investigation.

Begin with an existing type style andmake careful alterations. Spend timelooking through typebooks. Experimentwith fonts, finding which are appropri-ate for the company you have selected.List the name of the font next to yourpencil sketch.

After consultation with the instruc-

tor, select two thumbnails to enlarge tofull-size roughs for final review. Executethe strongest within an 8" X 10" (19X 25 em) format. Use only one color.Execute in either paint, ink, cut paper,or computer program. Again, Freehandor Illustrator is a good choice, althoughmany programs will work well.

Keep your design visually strong anduncluttered. Be prepared to discuss thegestalt principles involved during the cri-tique. Use at least two of them in yourfinal trademark. Also consider the audi-

ence your trademark will be reaching.

TRADEMARKS

What will appeal to them? Consider thecompany. What will be an accurate andpositive image? Be prepared to discussthe function of your trademark and whythe design suits it.

Figures 5-24 and 5-25 are studentdesigns created for a similar project.

Companies

ManardA national heavy-equipment manufac-turer that specializes in tractors, endloaders, and so on.

Antique OakA trendy eatery located on Chicago'sNorth Side that caters to young profes-sionals.

Aurora

Manufacturer for retail sales of hikingclothing, tents, and camping equipment.

RIVEGAUCHE

83

5-24 Lynette Schwartz.Combination mark for a

"yuppie" men's clothing

store. How many forms

of similarity can youfind?

84

5-25 Sophia Asimomitis.Combination mark for a

Greek vacation spot.

Count the triangles.

"GOOD" GESTALT