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Good signs for sustainable development:Nuclear energy's contributions

In many countries around the world, the goal of sustainable develop-ment is focusing attention on the benefits of nuclear-based technologies

by Arshad Khan,Lucille Langlois,and Marc Giroux

When radioactivity was discovered just over ahundred years ago, no one could foresee its far-reaching consequences. The discovery openedthe door to a new and exciting branch of scienceand technology that has had a tremendousimpact on the world, both terrifying and benefi-cial. Since its formation 40 years ago in 1957,the IAEA has been closely involved with bothsides of nuclear energy and its peaceful interna-tional development. Its day-to-day work chieflyinvolves assisting countries in their collectiveefforts to prevent the terrifying uses of nuclearenergy and to foster its safe application for theworld's benefit.

Over the past four decades, importantachievements have been registered in fields ofenergy and the environment, medicine, agri-culture, and industry, among others, wherenuclear and radiation technologies are widelyapplied. Their use allows us, for example, todetect, trace, image and measure what our owneyes cannot see, to destroy cancer cells andgerms, to pinpoint water resources, and to gen-erate large amounts of electricity in an envi-ronmentally clean and economically competi-tive way.

This article looks at the peaceful atom'scontributions, especially within the context ofthe IAEA's activities for promoting sustainabledevelopment, and nuclear energy's versatile andvaried applications. The beneficial applicationsof nuclear and radiation technologies havebecome valuable, and sometimes indispensable,tools for addressing a range of needs and prob-lems in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and otherregions of the world.

Mr. Khan, Ms. Langlois, and Mr. Giroux are staff membersin the IAEA Department of Nuclear Energy's Planning andEconomic Studies Section.

Medical and health care needs

Perhaps the most familiar and widely accept-ed use of nuclear techniques is in the medicalfields of diagnosis, imaging, and cancer treat-ment. Modern medicine, in fact, would beunthinkable without diagnostic radiology andradiotherapy. These techniques have become socommon, so reliable and so accurate that, in theWestern industrialised world, about one patientin three undergoes some form of diagnostic ortherapeutic radiological procedure.

The IAEA's nuclear medicine programmehelps countries around the world to maintain ahigh degree of professional competence for allthose who operate these installations, and tomaintain the precision and the quality of theequipment they use in both diagnosis and radia-tion therapy. The Agency also provides assis-tance for advanced training of medical physi-cists who are currently working in radiology,radiotherapy, and nuclear medicine. Such assis-tance helps to assure the development of a highquality radiation diagnosis and treatment in var-ious countries. With the World HealthOrganization (WHO), the IAEA further worksto ensure conformity of radiation measurementin diagnosis and therapy through a global net-work of laboratories.

Human nutrition studies. Another specif-ic application that is now drawing greaterattention is the use of isotope techniques forevaluating human nutritional status and mea-suring the effects of nutrition programmes. Ithas many advantages over alternative proce-dures. It permits non-intrusive early and exactdetection of nutritional deficiencies, and thusfacilitates devising the proper remedies. TheAgency is involved in some pioneering workusing these techniques to evaluate vitamin-A

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In many ways and forms, people are seeing good signs from uses of nuclear energy. Clockwise from top left: Gasemissions into the atmosphere from fossil fuels can be reduced by radiation techniques and avoided by nuclear plantsthat generate electricity without emitting carbon dioxide.tCamemarkWorld Bank) Marine scientists use nuclear tech-niques to analyze samples for contamination from pesticides and other chemicals. (IAEA-MEL) In Africa, Latin America,and elsewhere, the nutritional health of children is being evaluated and improved using nuclear-based analytical meth-ods. /Carnemark/World Bank) Greener fields are a practical goal of IAEA-supported projects that help farmers study andsolve problems affecting food and agricultural production. (IAEA) In places where water is in short supply, the tools ofisotope hydrology are helping countries to better understand and manage existing supplies, and to assess futuresources of water. (Marshall/IAEA)

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and iron deficiencies, bone disease, malnutri-tion, and the nutritional requirements of moth-ers and children. Right now, more than 800 mil-lion people around the world are chronicallymalnourished, and more than a billion are sickor disabled because of nutrient deficiencies.

To help improve this picture, the IAEA isdeveloping and transferring nuclear-basedevaluation tools that enable early detection andtreatment. Such highly specialized techniquescan become "sustainable solutions" in effortsto achieve a better nourished population andAgency-supported projects are helping to putprogrammes into place in countries of LatinAmerica and elsewhere.

Food, water, and agricultural needs

Water resources. The world has enoughwater, but not always where it is most needed.Water deficits have become increasingly acuteand isotopic techniques are often of great helpto trace and measure the extent of undergroundwater resources. Isotopic techniques provideimportant analytical tools in the managementand husbanding of existing supplies of waterand in the identification of new, replenishableand exploitable sources of water. The resultspermit informed recommendations for the plan-ning and management of the sustainable use ofthese water resources.

The IAEA has a dedicated isotope hydrolo-gy laboratory that supports development activi-ties. Projects provide assistance to countrieswith chronic water shortages such as Morocco,Senegal, and Ethiopia. Over the last decade, theAgency has supported almost 160 projectsworth US $20 million to help countries developnational capabilities in hydrology isotope appli-cations. Some 550 scientists in these countrieshave been trained in the relevant skills.

Agricultural applications. The use ofnuclear techniques in the field of agriculture isof prime importance for the developing world.Radioisotopes and radiation techniques appliedin this field can:• induce mutations in plants to obtain desiredagricultural crop varieties;• determine conditions for optimizing fertilizerand water use, and biological nitrogen fixation;• eradicate or control insect pests;• increase genetic variability of plant species;• reduce post-harvest losses by suppressingsprouting and contamination and extendingshelf life of foodstuffs; and

• help identify the pathway of pesticides andagrochemicals in the environment and the foodchain.

Measurement of nitrogen uptake in crops.In co-operation with the Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO) of the United Nations, theAgency has perfected the nitrogen-15 techniqueto measure how nitrogen is taken up by plantsfrom the atmosphere, from the soil, and appliedfertilizers. The technique provides an estimate ofthe total nitrogen fixed during the entire growingseason. By this means, more efficient nitrogenfixing legumes with higher yield and protein con-tent can be identified and selected for breeding.The FAO and IAEA jointly support some 30 pro-jects worldwide on the production and use ofbiofertilizers for increasing biological nitrogenfixation and yield of grain legumes. Use of thesebio-fertilizers has increased production by 25%in countries like Bangladesh, China, India,Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka,Thailand, and Viet Nam.

Eradication of insect pests. Sleeping sick-ness is a well known disease transmitted by thetsetse fly. The presence of this insect has pre-vented settlement and development of largeareas of Africa. While some insect pests havebeen temporarily controlled in West Africa,eradication of tsetse has proved an elusive goal.Along with the FAO, the Agency is now effec-tively targeting one species that has caused size-able losses of cattle on the island of Zanzibar,Tanzania, and authorities there are confidentthat eradication can be achieved.

A key component of efforts in Zanzibar isthe Sterile Insect Technique (SIT), a radia-tion-based technology. It involves the steril-ization of factory-reared male insects by irra-diation before hatching and thereafter releas-ing millions of the sterile insects into infestedareas. When they mate with flies in the wild,no offspring are produced, thereby graduallyreducing and finally eradicating the insectpopulation. The technique is particularlyeffective in a confined area such as the islandof Zanzibar, where the risk of re-infestationfrom the outside is minimal.

The SIT has also been applied successful-ly against numerous other insect pests inrecent years, including the costlyMediterranean fruitfly that alone attacks 260varieties of fruits and vegetables in 82 coun-tries and the New World Screwworm thatendangers millions of livestock. In Mexico,sterile Medflies are reared in Tapachula at thelargest such facility in the world. Mexico also

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has a large screwworm rearing facility at Tuxtla,which proved instrumental in its successfulfight to eradicate the New World Screwworm in1991. Over a 30-year period in Mexico, the cost-benefit ratio of the screwworm eradication isconservatively estimated at about 1 to 10. Inmonetary terms, this means that the benefits tothe Mexican economy have been at least US $3billion over that period of time. Drawing uponthe base of SIT experience worldwide, the IAEA,FAO, and Libyan authorities several years agosucceeded in eradicating the screwworm inLibya where a large infestation had occurred.Huge quantities of sterile flies were flown fromMexico to Tripoli and released over the infestedarea in Libya. Mexico is presently providing ster-ile screwworm flies for an eradication campaignin Central America and will provide flies for sim-ilar campaigns in the Caribbean.

Eradication of such devastating pests by SIT isa major contribution to the ability of any countryto feed itself and others in an environmentally sus-tainable way. The technique protects the qualityand quantity of agricultural output without theadditional extensive use of chemicals that other-wise would be released into the environment.

Enlarging the genetic variability of crops.Ionizing radiation in the field of plant breedinghas been used for several decades as part ofefforts to improve agricultural economic condi-tions in individual regions. Some of this researchis done at the Agency's own research laboratoriesin Seibersdorf, Austria; region-specific or coun-try-specific research is carried out throughIAEA-supported agricultural research pro-grammes around the world. By combining muta-tion with in vitro plant propagation strategies,this research has made possible the successfulproduction of new genotypes/mutant lines ofsorghum, garlic, wheat, bananas, beans, avocadoand peppers, all of which more resistant to pestsand more adaptable to harsh climatic conditions.

Preserving foodstuffs. The use of irradiationtechnology to preserve food is increasing aroundthe world. In 37 countries, health and safetyauthorities have approved irradiation of over 40kinds of food items, ranging from spices andgrains, to deboned chicken, fruit, and vegetables.Today, consumers can safely enjoy irradiatedstrawberries as they can in France, or irradiatedsausage, as is locally done in Thailand.

Here, too, rules and standards are neededto control the safe application of the tech-nique. A worldwide standard for irradiatedfood was adopted as long ago as 1983 by theCodex Alimentarius Commission, which is a

joint body of the FAO and WHO representingmore than 130 countries. An expert commit-tee further has reported to the Commissionthat the irradiation of any food commodity upto an overall average dose of 10,000 grayspresented no toxicological hazard, requiredno further testing, and introduced no specialnutritional or microbiological problems.*

Governmental interest in the processstems from a variety of reasons:• high losses of food after harvesting (typical-ly 25% of all food production) due to infesta-tion, contamination, and spoilage;• concern about foodborne diseases;• growing international trade in foodstuffs thatmust meet stringent import standards of qualityand quarantine.

While the Codex Alimentarius Commissionexercises oversight regarding the foodstuffsthemselves, international radiation protectionregulations govern safe operation of installa-tions where irradiation takes place. The IAEAhelps in formulating such regulations, and it hasfrequently provided assistance to countrieswishing to test or use this technology.

Livestock health, productivity, and diseasecontrol. Livestock are vital to sustainable agri-culture in most developing countries but theirproductivity is often much lower than in theindustrialized world. Livestock production canbe improved if attention is given to animal nutri-tion, reproductive performance, and health, par-ticularly the control and prevention of diseases.This can be done using nuclear and related tech-niques. Along with the FAO, the EuropeanUnion, and other partners, the IAEA is helpingcountries in Africa and other regions to control,monitor, and ultimately eradicate rinderpest fromtheir territories, hi Africa, the campaign has beeneffective so far and the 34 countries engaged inthe campaign now agree that eradication can beachieved over the next five years.

Energy and electricity needs

In the energy field, nuclear applications carrysignificant environmental benefits, and they gobeyond the clean production of electricity.

Investigation of geothermal resources.Thanks to the analytical capabilities of theIAEA isotope hydrology laboratory in Viennaand its global partners, investigation of geot-

* 1 gray = 1 Joule per kilogram, the unit of measurement forthe energy absorbed by the irradiated material.

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Green sides of nuclear power

Using nuclear fuels, rather than burning fossil fuels, to power electricity plants may be part of the answerto the threat of global warming. Nuclear's role is already sizeable in helping countries to cut back or holdin check their emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), a gas linked to global climate changes. If the nuclearpower plants in operation worldwide today were replaced by fossil-fired power plants, the CO2 emissionsfrom the energy sector would increase by more than 8%. This level almost equals the avoidance of CO2

emissions by hydropower. Avoided CO2 emissions are demonstrably greater in countries that have sub-stantial nuclear shares in their electricity production — those like France, Sweden, Belgium, Spain,Switzerland, and the United States. In France, COT emissions have been reduced by a factor of eight andsulphur dioxide emissions by a factor of ten between 1980 and 1993. During that time, France's totalelectricity generation roughly doubled, owing mainly to the increase of nuclear's share in electricity gen-eration from some 25% to more than 75%. Similarly, in Sweden, a drastic reduction of atmospheric emis-sions was obtained mainly by substituting nuclear power for oil and other fossil fuels for electricity gen-eration. Overall for industrialized countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment, it's been reported that nuclear power accounted for the greater part of the lowering of car-bon intensity of the energy economies over the past 25 years.

Such achievements show that an objective comparison of different options for generating electricity isneeded, and that the environmental advantages of nuclear power can be well documented. Given the interestof its Member States in such comprehensive comparisons for energy planning purposes, the IAEA has devel-oped and distributed a package of computer tools and databases that comprise an analytical framework for ana-lyzing the economic, health, environmental, and social aspects of all energy chains for electricity generation.

hermal systems can be improved and the use oftheir resources optimized. In some countries,like Costa Rica and Nicaragua, isotope tech-niques provided by the Agency have been usedto map geothermal resources and to decide onthe best location of installations.

Abatement of gaseous emissions. With theuse of accelerator-generated electron beams inthe chimney stacks of conventional coal-burn-ing power plants, sulphur and nitrogen emis-sions to the environment can be virtually elimi-nated. Indeed, with the addition of ammonium,these potentially polluting flue gases are trans-formed into fertilizers — ammonium sulphateand ammonium nitrate — and water. This inge-nious and original method is currently beingdemonstrated in a project which the IAEA issupporting near Warsaw in Poland. Where oncethe alchemists rosily dreamed of transforminglead into gold, today's energy planners are real-istically seeing the transformation of pollutinggases into useful food for crops.

Nuclear power. There is no doubt that globalenergy use will increase sharply, in part becausethe world population is increasing so much, in partbecause energy — and especially electricity use— is a vital part of the higher living standard thatpeople seek. Bangladesh and Tanzania annuallyuse less than 100 kWh electricity per capita.Sweden uses 15,000 kWh and Mexico uses about

1250. Given the inevitable growth in world popu-lation, a global striving for economic develop-ment, and growing trends towards urbanization, itis not surprising that the World Energy Councilpredicts that the world use of electricity willincrease by 50% to 75% by the year 2020.

At present 63% of the world's electricitycomes from thermal power (coal, oil and gas),19% from hydro, 17% from nuclear, 0.5%from geothermal, and less than 0.1% fromsolar, wind power and biomass. This mix willclearly change as resources are developed andnew technologies appear over time, and asenvironmental concerns become more effec-tive. Rational energy production and use willnecessarily be a major aspect of sustainabledevelopment. Based on experience so far,nuclear power should play an important part ofany future energy mix.

Nuclear prospects. In the 1970s there wasgreat enthusiasm for nuclear power and expec-tations for rapid growth, not least to reducedependence on oil. With high inflation andslower economic growth in the followingdecade, energy demand grew more slowly thanexpected and became more price sensitive. Thelarge construction programmes contemplatedin some countries, such as Mexico and Brazil,for instance, were not realized. With the manysafety related changes required after Three

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Mile Island, nuclear power also lost some ofits economic competitive edge.

These economic factors, along with growingpolitical opposition to nuclear power, slowed theexpansion of the industry. Concerns over safetyand waste disposal, part of a larger environmentalmovement, have stymied further nuclear invest-ments in a number of countries. There is at presenta stagnation in the construction of further nuclearplants in Western Europe and in the Americas,where slow economic growth and over-capacity inthe generating industry have resulted in very littlemajor baseload construction of any kind in recentyears. Construction of nuclear plants is continuingvigorously only in East Asia, specifically in Japan,Republic of Korea, and China.

Nonetheless, nuclear power remains a viablepart of our energy future for several reasons:

Economic competitiveness. The economiccompetitiveness of energy options remains impor-tant to countries, utilities and the consumers. Fromthe economic point of view nuclear power is atpresent roughly on par with coal, and in somecases, gas. However, nuclear plants require largerup front investments, which is a drawback in cap-ital starved developing countries. As nuclear tech-nology is relatively young there should be scopefor rationalisation, standardisation, modular con-struction, higher bumup, simplification — allresulting in greater efficiency and lower cost.Moreover, relative fuel prices are likely to changeover time. Nuclear generation should remain anattractive option especially for countries lackingdomestic fuel resources.

Safety. The objections advanced to nuclearpower on the grounds of safety may graduallybe answered by positive experience. No acci-dents in the world have had more publicity thanthose at Three Mile Island and at Chernobyl.This has tended to overshadow the fact that bynow the world has the experience of some 7700reactor years of operation without any othermajor accidents. Through national regulatoryorganizations, through the World Association ofNuclear Operators and through the Agencythese many years of experience are made avail-able for all to learn from. The Three Mile Islandaccident in 1979, even though it released littleradioactivity into the environment, triggeredextensive safety reviews, strengthening nuclearsafety in the non-communist world. And theChernobyl accident, which occurred 10 yearsago, similarly led to reviews and new safetymeasures in Russia and Eastern Europe. Thusthese two major nuclear accidents, which pro-voked so much opposition to nuclear power,

also set in motion determined and extensiveaction in the field of safety. Nuclear power safe-ty became even more of an important interna-tional concern and the Agency became a centralinstrument through which governments co-operate to establish important elements of whatis now termed an "international nuclear safetyculture". The impact of this effort can be seen inthe improved production figures for nuclearpower plants around the world, lower doses totheir personnel and fewer unplanned stoppages.New types of advanced reactors, some of themavailable in the market today, have new safetyfeatures and can be expected to have even betterrecords on reliability and safety than the currentdominant reactor types.

Energy security. Energy independence is animportant factor. Not all countries have abun-dant energy resources — hydrocarbons orwaterfalls. To France, Japan, the Republic ofKorea, Sweden and Finland, all without oil andgas, the measure of self-reliance and the mea-sure of immunity against international criseswhich nuclear power offers, has been andremains important.

Environmental protection. Another impor-tant factor for a nuclear revival will be the envi-ronment. Nuclear power may be viewed as theleast damaging, most emissions-free of the realis-tic energy options. Indeed, it is not nuclear powerplants — but an excessive burning of fossil fuels— that have caused acid rains, dead forests and athreat of global climate change. Nuclear powerdoes not generate airborne emissions, and helpsfight global air pollution. Indeed, if the world's437 nuclear power reactors were to be replacedby coal plants of equivalent capacity, some 2600million tons of CO2, and millions of tons of asso-ciated sulfur and nitrous oxides, would be addedto the world's atmosphere each year.

Minimizing the impact of possible global cli-mate change has become one of the principalgoals of the sustainable development movement.There is much talk about the need to reduce CO2

emissions, though scientists are not yet certain oragreed that there will indeed be an irreversibleglobal warming as early as 50 years from now asa result of CO2 emissions from fossil fuels suchas oil, gas, and coal. Questions remain aboutglobal warming trends, and the uncertainty leadsmany observers to advocate that the worldshould pursue so-called "no regret" policies. Bythis they mean energy policies which we wouldnot regret even if the fear of global warmingwere to prove unfounded. The nuclear poweroption fits the requirement of a no regret policy,

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Comparing energy sources: The Decades programme

The IAEA and other international, regional, and national organizations areworking together through a co-operative programme to assist energy plannersin assessing electricity options.

Known as "Decades", the programme features a set of tools for compara-tive assessment of electricity generating sources throughout the entire energychain. It includes databases with health, economic, and environmental aspectsto support comparative assessments; integrated software packages for electric-ity system planning and analysis; and training and support services. The pro-gramme is carried out jointly by the IAEA and eight international organiza-tions: the European Union, the Economic and Social Council for Asia and thePacific, the Nuclear Energy Agency of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, the International Institute of Applied SystemsAnalysis, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, the UnitedNations Industrial Development Organization, the World Health Organization,and the World Bank. The programme is under the supervision of a JointSteering Committee composed of representatives of all nine participating orga-nizations and co-ordinated by the IAEA's Planning and Economic StudiesSection at the Agency's headquarters in Vienna.

as it does not contribute to global warming andis roughly competitive with the fossil fuels.

By contrast, renewable energy from solar, windand biomass sources will not become commercial-ly competitive on a wide scale in the foreseeablefuture. They are forecast to play only a minor rolein the decades to come, though their developmentis certainly and appropriately being encouraged.Great strides in energy efficiency, meaning both amore efficient generation and use of energy, havebeen made and they remain very important torestrain demand. However, even as we becomemore efficient in our electricity generation and use,the world's total energy demand is increasing. Thisis not to suggest that nuclear power, alone, is asolution to the threat of global warming. Many dif-ferent approaches may be used as needed, includ-ing renewable and conservation. But nuclear powercan certainly be a viable and promising componentof sustainable development in the response policieswhich need to be worked out.

Waste management. When it comes tonuclear power, concern is usually focused onthe highly toxic and radioactive spent fuel andnuclear waste. What is characteristic of these,however, in addition to their toxicity andradioactivity, is that they are so limited in vol-ume, which facilitates waste disposal. This con-trasts sharply with the waste disposal problemfor fossil fuelled plants, whose emissions arevolumnous and directly enter the environment.When the problems of safely disposing of long-lived nuclear wastes are put into context, the com-

parative picture becomes clearer. Due to its limit-ed volume, nuclear waste can technically and eco-nomically be safely taken care of and be put intothe crust of the earth from where the uraniumoriginally came. Not everyone, however, sharesthis confidence in "high tech" solutions. The"not-in-my-backyard" attitude has affectednuclear waste management programmes in everymajor nuclear country, just as it has the siting ofalmost every industrial and energy-related facili-ty. The siting of such facilities is a major part ofsustainable development. Blocking the disposalof waste does not make it go away or stop its gen-eration: it just prolongs direct environmentalexposure unnecessarily.

Comparative assessments of nuclear powerand other forms of electricity generation high-light some of these interesting waste generationand disposal issues. Consider, for example, thecase of a country that decides not to operate anuclear plant and builds instead two coal-firedunits of about the same capacity. The nuclearplant would consume about 30 tons of low-enriched uranium per year, while the coal plantwould consume about five train loads of coal perday. The limited volume of nuclear waste fromthe uranium can be isolated in its entirety. Thecoal plant will produce huge quantities of CO2and ashes containing heavy metals which remaintoxic forever. The disposal site for all this wastefrom burned coal — as from other fossil fuels —is our atmosphere and the surface of the earth.

Achieving sustainable solutions

The international goal of sustainable devel-opment requires the co-ordinated actions ofpeople around the world, and all the scientificand technological tools at their disposal. In var-ious fields, nuclear energy and its diverse appli-cations have proved to be important compo-nents of steps to achieve sustainable solutions topractical problems affecting our social, eco-nomic, and environmental development.

To make the right choices in the monthsand years ahead, governments will need anobjective record of experience and facts withwhich to evaluate their options, set priorities,and marshal the needed resources. Through itsrange of services and projects, the IAEA willbe assisting countries in their efforts to con-structively and safely apply nuclear and radia-tion technologies where they can be most ben-eficial, and to plan their energy and electricitydevelopment. D

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