Gordon Harold, PhDGordon Harold, PhD

School of PsychologySchool of Psychology

Cardiff UniversityCardiff University

How Witnessing Inter-Parental How Witnessing Inter-Parental Conflict and Violence affects ChildrenConflict and Violence affects Children

OverviewOverview The impact of domestic violence on The impact of domestic violence on

childrenchildren Capturing the extent of the problemCapturing the extent of the problem

What research says about the effects of What research says about the effects of Inter-parental conflict childrenInter-parental conflict children A brief review of researchA brief review of research Evidence from a British StudyEvidence from a British Study

Practice and policy applications of researchPractice and policy applications of research Home Office, Welsh Assembly Government, Home Office, Welsh Assembly Government,

CAFCASS CYMRU CAFCASS CYMRU Summary and conclusionsSummary and conclusions

Bottom-line Bottom-line

Children and Domestic ViolenceChildren and Domestic Violence Defining the problem (exposure to DV)Defining the problem (exposure to DV)

Worldwide: 275 million childrenWorldwide: 275 million children UK: 240, 000 to 963, 000 (Behind Closed Doors Report) UK: 240, 000 to 963, 000 (Behind Closed Doors Report)

Implications for children exposed to DVImplications for children exposed to DV 40% of children show clinically significant emotional and 40% of children show clinically significant emotional and

behavioural problems, compared to 10% of children who live in behavioural problems, compared to 10% of children who live in homes not characterised as DVhomes not characterised as DV

Shifting the focus from ‘victim’ to ‘witness’Shifting the focus from ‘victim’ to ‘witness’ Adoption and Children Act (2002; 2006)Adoption and Children Act (2002; 2006) Witnessing DV as child protection concernWitnessing DV as child protection concern

How does witnessing inter-parental conflict affect children?How does witnessing inter-parental conflict affect children? A review of the evidenceA review of the evidence

How Children are Affected by Families InternaliInternalissinging

Depression, anxiety, Depression, anxiety, withdrawalwithdrawal

ExternaliExternalissinging Aggression, hostility, Aggression, hostility,

delinquencydelinquency

Academic AchievementAcademic Achievement Classroom behaviour; Classroom behaviour;

academic performanceacademic performance

Social CompetenceSocial Competence Relations with peers, other Relations with peers, other

adults (teachers)adults (teachers)

Physical HealthPhysical Health Smoking, drinking, eating Smoking, drinking, eating

problemsproblems

What Family Factors Affect Children Family type and transitionFamily type and transition

Single vs., two-parent familySingle vs., two-parent family• Separation, divorce, remarriageSeparation, divorce, remarriage

Parent psychological healthParent psychological health Depression, anti-social behaviourDepression, anti-social behaviour

Family economic stressFamily economic stress Economic pressure, SES, work Economic pressure, SES, work

pressure/stress, income losspressure/stress, income loss

Parent-child relationsParent-child relations Parenting style, communication, Parenting style, communication,

parent-child conflictparent-child conflict

Inter-parental conflictInter-parental conflict Dissatisfaction, conflict/discord, Dissatisfaction, conflict/discord,

hostility, violencehostility, violence

Inter-Parental Conflict and Children’s Inter-Parental Conflict and Children’s Psychological DevelopmentPsychological Development

Children of all ages are affected by exposure to conflict Children of all ages are affected by exposure to conflict between parentsbetween parents

6 months to 16 years6 months to 16 years• Physiological arousal, anxiety, depression, aggression, hostility, IQ Physiological arousal, anxiety, depression, aggression, hostility, IQ

deficits, low academic attainment, poor peer relations, AB problemsdeficits, low academic attainment, poor peer relations, AB problems Conflict across the continuumConflict across the continuum

• Low warmth – High hostilityLow warmth – High hostility

Direct versus Indirect effects of conflict between adults Direct versus Indirect effects of conflict between adults on childrenon children

Adult ConflictAdult Conflict Child Problems Child Problems Adult ConflictAdult Conflict ParentingParenting Child Problems Child Problems

Passive victim or direct witness?Passive victim or direct witness? What are the effects of witnessing inter-parental conflict on What are the effects of witnessing inter-parental conflict on

children?children?

Effects of Witnessing Conflict on ChildrenEffects of Witnessing Conflict on Children Brain development (0-4 years)Brain development (0-4 years)

Biological abnormalities (HPA axis); Biological abnormalities (HPA axis); Antisocial Behaviour ProblemsAntisocial Behaviour Problems

Emotional development (0-4 years)Emotional development (0-4 years)Anger, fear, shame, guilt, worryAnger, fear, shame, guilt, worry

Cognitive development (5-10 years)Cognitive development (5-10 years) Attributions of self and others, Attributions of self and others,

expectations of conflictexpectations of conflict

Social and Behavioural (5-16 years) Social and Behavioural (5-16 years) developmentdevelopment Aggressiveness, interpretation of intent, Aggressiveness, interpretation of intent,

expectations of others, peer/romantic expectations of others, peer/romantic relationsrelations

How Inter-Parental Conflict Affects How Inter-Parental Conflict Affects ChildrenChildren

A cognitive-contextual perspective (Grych & Fincham, A cognitive-contextual perspective (Grych & Fincham, 1990)1990)

The attributions children assign to parents’ marital arguments The attributions children assign to parents’ marital arguments explains differences in their responsesexplains differences in their responses

Emotional Security (Davies & Cummings, 1994)Emotional Security (Davies & Cummings, 1994) Children’s attachment processes are disrupted by high levels of Children’s attachment processes are disrupted by high levels of

acrimonious inter-parental conflictacrimonious inter-parental conflict

Family Representations (Harold & Conger, 1997)Family Representations (Harold & Conger, 1997) Inter-parental conflict serves as a primer for children’s Inter-parental conflict serves as a primer for children’s

perceptions of family relationships (e.g. parent-child perceptions of family relationships (e.g. parent-child relationships) as well as their attributions of ‘self’ and othersrelationships) as well as their attributions of ‘self’ and others

Research SynopsisResearch Synopsis Primary findingsPrimary findings

Frequent, intense, poorly resolved and child related inter-Frequent, intense, poorly resolved and child related inter-parental conflict linked to heightened internalising symptoms, parental conflict linked to heightened internalising symptoms, externalising problems and low academic attainmentexternalising problems and low academic attainment

Different mechanisms for boys, girls, mothers and fathersDifferent mechanisms for boys, girls, mothers and fathers• Child genderChild gender

ThreatThreat Externalising > boysExternalising > boys Self-blameSelf-blame Internalising > girlsInternalising > girls

• Parent genderParent gender Mothers > hostility to boys (agentic orientation)Mothers > hostility to boys (agentic orientation) Fathers > withdrawal from daughters (relationship orientation)Fathers > withdrawal from daughters (relationship orientation)

Historical focus on emotional and behavioural outcomes Historical focus on emotional and behavioural outcomes for childrenfor children

Internalising symptoms; Externalising problemsInternalising symptoms; Externalising problems Role of child behaviour as factor in disrupted family Role of child behaviour as factor in disrupted family

system?system? Direction of effects?Direction of effects? Longitudinal evidenceLongitudinal evidence

• Disrupted family relationships > effect on disrupted child behaviour Disrupted family relationships > effect on disrupted child behaviour than the conversethan the converse

Family – School InterfaceFamily – School Interface

Time to move beyond global assessment of psychological Time to move beyond global assessment of psychological impacts to impacts in other social domainsimpacts to impacts in other social domains

Implications for long-term development and well beingImplications for long-term development and well being

What children learn at home affects what children can What children learn at home affects what children can learn outside the home (Welsh Schoolteacher)learn outside the home (Welsh Schoolteacher)

Outcome becomes influence?Outcome becomes influence?• Depression/anxietyDepression/anxiety aggression/hostilityaggression/hostility• Aggression/Hostility Aggression/Hostility Low Academic AttainmentLow Academic Attainment

Importance of academic attainmentImportance of academic attainment Academic success = Adult well beingAcademic success = Adult well being Little is known about family factors that influence variation in Little is known about family factors that influence variation in

children’s academic attainmentchildren’s academic attainment

Some Evidence - SWFS (1999-2004)SampleSample 542 children, parents and teachers (78% = two-parent; 542 children, parents and teachers (78% = two-parent;

9% = stepparent; 11% + 2% = single-parent9% = stepparent; 11% + 2% = single-parent)) Three year panel study 1999, 2000, 2001 (+ 2004 GCSE)Three year panel study 1999, 2000, 2001 (+ 2004 GCSE)

Sample retention: Parent = 71% (N = 387); Child and Teacher = 90% Sample retention: Parent = 71% (N = 387); Child and Teacher = 90% (N = 488)(N = 488)

Representative of families living in England and Wales - family composition, ethnic representation, economic diversity (Social Trends, 2000).

MethodMethod InterviewInterview

Family communication, problem solving, family relations etc.,Family communication, problem solving, family relations etc., Questionnaire Questionnaire

ParentsParents: Couple relationship, parent-child relationship, symptoms of : Couple relationship, parent-child relationship, symptoms of depression and anxiety, family economic conditions, styles of family depression and anxiety, family economic conditions, styles of family interaction, parenting style, children’s emotional and behavioural well-interaction, parenting style, children’s emotional and behavioural well-being being

ChildrenChildren: Parent relationship, parent-child relationship, family : Parent relationship, parent-child relationship, family economic conditions, styles of family interaction, emotional and economic conditions, styles of family interaction, emotional and behavioural well-being, family and school support, substance use, behavioural well-being, family and school support, substance use,

TeachersTeachers: Child emotional and behavioural well being, academic : Child emotional and behavioural well being, academic performanceperformance

Inter-Parental Conflict and Children’sInter-Parental Conflict and Children’s

Academic Attainment: A LongitudinalAcademic Attainment: A Longitudinal

AnalysisAnalysis

Harold, G.T., Aitken, J., Shelton, K.H. (2007). Inter-parental conflict and children’s academic attainment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry.

Age 11 years

Harsh / Rejecting Parenting

Perceptions of Self-Blame and Responsibility

Age 12 years Age 13 years

Interparental Conflict

Aggressive Problems

Parent

Child

Low Academic Attainment

English

Science

Math

R2=.48

R2=.17R2=.29

R2=.20

.20*

.28*

.01

.08.36*

.03

.48**

.70.77

.92.97

.54

.36**

.02

Aggressive Problems

.18* .67**

.22* .04N=230

Χ217=33.18

AGFI=.92

Age 11 years

Interparental Conflict

Harsh / Rejecting Parenting

Appraisals of Self-Blame and Responsibility

Low Academic Achievement (Key Stage 3)

Child Behaviour Problems

Age 12 years Age 13 years

ImplicationsImplications Inter-parental conflict and child developmentInter-parental conflict and child development

Internalising symptoms, externalising problems, Internalising symptoms, externalising problems, academic attainmentacademic attainment

Highlighting mechanismsHighlighting mechanisms Negative parenting versus child perceptions of inter-Negative parenting versus child perceptions of inter-

parental relationshipparental relationship External versus internal processesExternal versus internal processes Importance of the child’s perspectiveImportance of the child’s perspective

Implications for interventionImplications for intervention Focus on parenting in the context of inter-parental Focus on parenting in the context of inter-parental

conflict??conflict?? Attributions engendered in children who witness high Attributions engendered in children who witness high

levels of inter-parental conflict and violencelevels of inter-parental conflict and violence Context specific assessment of ‘risk’ and ‘risk Context specific assessment of ‘risk’ and ‘risk

mechanism’ in development of intervention mechanism’ in development of intervention programmesprogrammes

Context of Policy ApplicationsContext of Policy Applications Legislative DevelopmentsLegislative Developments

Adoption and Children Act (2002); Children and Adoption and Children Act (2002); Children and Adoption Act (2006)Adoption Act (2006)

Definition of significant harm emanating from Definition of significant harm emanating from exposure to domestic violence has been extended to exposure to domestic violence has been extended to include ‘include ‘impairment suffered from seeing or hearing impairment suffered from seeing or hearing the ill treatment of anotherthe ill treatment of another’’

Practice and policy applications of research Practice and policy applications of research relating to the effects of inter-parental conflict on relating to the effects of inter-parental conflict on childrenchildren Domestic violenceDomestic violence Parental separation and divorceParental separation and divorce Intervention and psycho-educational programme Intervention and psycho-educational programme

developmentdevelopment

Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence

Home Office DomesticHome Office DomesticViolence Policy UnitViolence Policy Unit National Domestic Violence National Domestic Violence

Delivery Plan (2007)Delivery Plan (2007)

Similar psychological effects Similar psychological effects on children as being a direct on children as being a direct victim of violence (Harold, victim of violence (Harold, ESRC 2006-07)ESRC 2006-07)

Developing interventions that Developing interventions that address mechanisms through address mechanisms through which witnessing inter-parental which witnessing inter-parental conflict and violence affects conflict and violence affects childrenchildren

Assessing ‘Psychological’ RiskAssessing ‘Psychological’ RiskWelsh AssemblyWelsh AssemblyGovernmentGovernment(CAFCASS, CYMRU)(CAFCASS, CYMRU) Risk-assessment ‘Toolkit’ Risk-assessment ‘Toolkit’

for children who witness for children who witness inter-parental conflict and inter-parental conflict and violenceviolence Comprehensive research Comprehensive research

reviewreview Practitioner friendly Practitioner friendly

summarysummary Evidence-based risk Evidence-based risk

assessment ‘Toolkit’assessment ‘Toolkit’

Parenting and Family SupportParenting and Family Support

Review of intervention Review of intervention programmes based on programmes based on researchresearch

Assessing the efficacy of Assessing the efficacy of parenting programmes parenting programmes

• School transitionSchool transition• Inter-parental conflict and Inter-parental conflict and

violenceviolence• Foster care provisionFoster care provision

Implications for working Implications for working with children who witness with children who witness high levels of inter-parental high levels of inter-parental conflict and violenceconflict and violence

Expansion of parent Expansion of parent psycho-educational psycho-educational programme (South Wales programme (South Wales Family Study)Family Study)

Summary of ResearchSummary of Research Children are affected by conflict across the spectrumChildren are affected by conflict across the spectrum

Depression, aggression, anxiety, hostility, low self-esteem, low Depression, aggression, anxiety, hostility, low self-esteem, low social competence (peers, teachers), delinquency, low academic social competence (peers, teachers), delinquency, low academic attainmentattainment

Low warmthLow warmth High hostilityHigh hostility Not ‘if’ conflict occurs, but ‘how’ conflict is expressed and Not ‘if’ conflict occurs, but ‘how’ conflict is expressed and

managed by adultsmanaged by adults Importance of the child’s active interpretation of parents’ Importance of the child’s active interpretation of parents’

management of conflictmanagement of conflict Constructive vs., destructive ‘conflict’ Constructive vs., destructive ‘conflict’

Importance of the child’s perspectiveImportance of the child’s perspective Active agents rather than ‘invisible’ victimsActive agents rather than ‘invisible’ victims Children’s mental representation of conflict between adults Children’s mental representation of conflict between adults

(causes, implications, consequences) explain variation in their (causes, implications, consequences) explain variation in their adaptation/adjustment (why some do well, while others don’t) adaptation/adjustment (why some do well, while others don’t)

The importance of translationThe importance of translation Putting research into practicePutting research into practice

• A challenge of language and timeA challenge of language and time• CAFCASS CYMRU – Fitting science to practiceCAFCASS CYMRU – Fitting science to practice

Contact Details:

Gordon Harold, Ph.D. School of PsychologyCardiff UniversityTower BuildingPark Place Cardiff CF10 3AT.

Phone: 029 2087 6093, E-mail: Harold@cf.ac.uk

NoteNote: Research reviewed as part of this presentation was supported by : Research reviewed as part of this presentation was supported by grants awarded by the grants awarded by the Economic and Social Research CouncilEconomic and Social Research Council and and The The British AcademyBritish Academy..