Government Government PoliciesPolicies

Early Constitutional ReferencesEarly Constitutional References* Representation* Representation

Supreme Court RulingsSupreme Court Rulings

* Dred Scott* Dred Scott

State PoliciesState Policies* Slave Codes* Slave Codes

AmendmentsAmendments* 13* 13thth and 14 and 14thth

Slavery’s Slavery’s AftermathAftermath

• The period of reconstruction 1867-The period of reconstruction 1867-18771877– Military GovernorsMilitary Governors– Black participation in the political Black participation in the political

processprocess– Fifteenth Amendment ratified Fifteenth Amendment ratified

18701870

Slavery’s Slavery’s AftermathAftermath

• The emergence of segregation laws The emergence of segregation laws (Jim Crow)(Jim Crow)

• Supreme court decisions and Supreme court decisions and segregationsegregation– Plessy v. FergusonPlessy v. Ferguson– Williams v. MississippiWilliams v. Mississippi

• White primary electionsWhite primary elections

Reparations For Reparations For SlaverySlavery

• Slavery reparations- act of making Slavery reparations- act of making amends for the injustices of slaveryamends for the injustices of slavery– An official apologyAn official apology– Financial compensationFinancial compensation– Corporations that benefit from Corporations that benefit from

slavery and financial compensationslavery and financial compensation• Commission to study appropriate Commission to study appropriate

remediesremedies

Political Political LeadershipLeadership

Booker T. Washington Booker T. Washington • Born a slave on a Virginia plantationBorn a slave on a Virginia plantation• Tuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, AlabamaTuskegee Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama• Politics of accommodationPolitics of accommodation• Self help and economic self determinationSelf help and economic self determination

W.E.B. DuBoisW.E.B. DuBois• Born to a free family in MassachusettsBorn to a free family in Massachusetts• First African-American to receive a First African-American to receive a

Doctorate from HarvardDoctorate from Harvard• Niagara MovementNiagara Movement• Racism as the problem of WhitesRacism as the problem of Whites• Advocated the policy of the talented Advocated the policy of the talented

tenthtenth

Political Political LeadershipLeadership

• DuBois - and the NAACPDuBois - and the NAACP• Black consciousness “ Soul of Black Black consciousness “ Soul of Black

Folks”Folks”• Du Bois and Atlanta UniversityDu Bois and Atlanta University

– Study of African Americans in the SouthStudy of African Americans in the South

Political Political LeadershipLeadership

The Exodus The Exodus NorthwardNorthward

• Demographic shift of Blacks from the Demographic shift of Blacks from the South to the West and North during South to the West and North during the early part of the Twentieth Centurythe early part of the Twentieth Century

1. The search for a better economic 1. The search for a better economic opportunitiesopportunities• Life in the North was economically Life in the North was economically better than in the agrarian Southbetter than in the agrarian South

2. Escape racial apartheid and 2. Escape racial apartheid and violence in the Southviolence in the South

The Civil Rights The Civil Rights MovementMovement

• Desegregation of public schools.Desegregation of public schools.• De jure segregationDe jure segregation

– NAACP - Brown v. Board of NAACP - Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka KansasEducation of Topeka Kansas, and U. , and U. S. Supreme Court decisionS. Supreme Court decision

– James Meredith (1962) University James Meredith (1962) University of Mississippiof Mississippi

Major Events of the Major Events of the Civil Rights MovementCivil Rights Movement

Civil DisobedienceCivil Disobedience• Rosa Parks - December 1, 1955 and the Rosa Parks - December 1, 1955 and the

Montgomery Alabama bus boycottMontgomery Alabama bus boycott• Martin Luther King, Jr. - Montgomery Martin Luther King, Jr. - Montgomery

Improvement AssociationImprovement Association• King and civil disobedience as means to King and civil disobedience as means to

bring about political and real changebring about political and real change– People have the right (moral duty) to People have the right (moral duty) to

disobey unjust lawsdisobey unjust laws

Black PowerBlack Power• Black consciousness and power movement Black consciousness and power movement

emerged out of continued deprivationemerged out of continued deprivation– Black Power movement of the 1960’s - Black Power movement of the 1960’s -

(Charmichael) primary focus was on (Charmichael) primary focus was on political and economic self determinationpolitical and economic self determination

– Black PrideBlack Pride– Black Panther Party - founded by Huey Black Panther Party - founded by Huey

Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, CaliforniaCalifornia

The Religious The Religious ForceForce

• Religion has always been a source of Religion has always been a source of political change and spiritual political change and spiritual strength from slavery to the presentstrength from slavery to the present

• Most African Americans are over-Most African Americans are over-whelmingly Protestantwhelmingly Protestant

• The Nation of Islam, or Black The Nation of Islam, or Black Muslims, has attracted a large Muslims, has attracted a large number of followers and received number of followers and received the most attentionthe most attention

Black Population, 2000Black Population, 2000

Cities with Populations of 100,000 or More That are at Least 50% African

American, 2000

Cities with Populations of 100,000 or More That are at Least 50% African

American, 2000City Population Percent African

AmericanAtlanta, Ga. 416,474 61.4%Baltimore, Md. 651,154 64.3Birmingham, Ala. 242,820 73.5Detroit, Mich. 951,270 81.6Gary, Ind. 102,746 84.0Jackson, Miss. 184,256 70.6Memphis, Tenn. 650,100 61.4Newark, N.J. 273,546 53.5New Orleans, La. 484,674 67.3Richmond, Va. 197,790 57.2Savannah, Ga. 131,510 57.1Washington, D.C. 572,059 60.0

City Population Percent African American

Atlanta, Ga. 416,474 61.4%Baltimore, Md. 651,154 64.3Birmingham, Ala. 242,820 73.5Detroit, Mich. 951,270 81.6Gary, Ind. 102,746 84.0Jackson, Miss. 184,256 70.6Memphis, Tenn. 650,100 61.4Newark, N.J. 273,546 53.5New Orleans, La. 484,674 67.3Richmond, Va. 197,790 57.2Savannah, Ga. 131,510 57.1Washington, D.C. 572,059 60.0

Black-Black-White White

Income Income GapGap

Religious Profile of Religious Profile of African AmericansAfrican Americans

PoliticsPolitics• The number of Black elected officials between The number of Black elected officials between

1970 and 2001 has increased by more than 1970 and 2001 has increased by more than five-foldfive-fold

– Population concentration and election Population concentration and election patternspatterns

• Gerrymandering the courts and minority Gerrymandering the courts and minority controlled political districtscontrolled political districts

EducationEducation• Quality and quantity of educationQuality and quantity of education

• Educational gap between between Blacks and Educational gap between between Blacks and WhitesWhites

– Always been presentAlways been present

– Gap is narrowing in recent yearsGap is narrowing in recent years

EducationEducation• There are also a number of qualitative There are also a number of qualitative

differences in the schooling of African differences in the schooling of African American childrenAmerican children

– insensitive teachers and unresponsive insensitive teachers and unresponsive administratorsadministrators

– poor counselingpoor counseling

– overcrowded classesovercrowded classes

– irrelevant curricula irrelevant curricula

– poor school facilitiespoor school facilities

School School SegregationSegregation

• De jure patterns of segregation - according to De jure patterns of segregation - according to policy or law children were assigned to policy or law children were assigned to schools on the basis of raceschools on the basis of race

– U.S Supreme Court decision in 1954 - U.S Supreme Court decision in 1954 - Brown v. Board of Education Topeka, Brown v. Board of Education Topeka, KansasKansas..

• De facto educational segregation De facto educational segregation

– Income and residential segregationIncome and residential segregation

• Tracking - school isolation and internal Tracking - school isolation and internal segregationsegregation

– Tracking and lower academic standards and Tracking and lower academic standards and achievementachievement

– Lower tracks results in lack of college Lower tracks results in lack of college preparednesspreparedness

School School SegregationSegregation

Higher EducationHigher Education• Over the years there has been an increase in African - Over the years there has been an increase in African -

American students going to college and graduatingAmerican students going to college and graduating

• Upward trend to higher education has declined and in Upward trend to higher education has declined and in part is a function ofpart is a function of

– decline in educational financial aiddecline in educational financial aid

– push for higher standardspush for higher standards

– employment opportunitiesemployment opportunities

– negative publicity and a decline in enforcement of negative publicity and a decline in enforcement of affirmative actionaffirmative action

– racial incidents on college campusesracial incidents on college campuses

The Economic The Economic PicturePicture

• Approximately 29% of African-Americans are Approximately 29% of African-Americans are middle class or highermiddle class or higher

• In 2003 the median income of Black households In 2003 the median income of Black households was $29,681 and White non-Hispanic was $29,681 and White non-Hispanic households had a median income of $45,631households had a median income of $45,631

• Twenty-four percent of Black families live in Twenty-four percent of Black families live in poverty in comparison to 8% of White non-poverty in comparison to 8% of White non-Hispanic familiesHispanic families

• The disparity in wealth between Blacks and The disparity in wealth between Blacks and Whites is greater than for incomeWhites is greater than for income

Income Income DistributiDistribution: Black on: Black

Versus Versus WhiteWhite

Comparing WealthComparing Wealth

EmploymentEmployment• National unemployment rate is higher for National unemployment rate is higher for

Blacks than WhitesBlacks than Whites

– More severe during economic downturns or More severe during economic downturns or recessionsrecessions

– Worse for African-Americans between the Worse for African-Americans between the ages of 16-24ages of 16-24

– Underemployment-working in a job in Underemployment-working in a job in which one is over qualifiedwhich one is over qualified

EmploymentEmployment• Factors related to the rate of unemployment Factors related to the rate of unemployment

among African-Americansamong African-Americans

– High concentration of African-Americans in High concentration of African-Americans in depressed central city economiesdepressed central city economies

– Increased job competition from other Increased job competition from other immigrant groups and white middle-class immigrant groups and white middle-class womenwomen

– Illegal job opportunitiesIllegal job opportunities

HousingHousing• Factors that contribute to housing segregation.Factors that contribute to housing segregation.

1. Personal prejudices1. Personal prejudices2. Steering by real estate companies2. Steering by real estate companies3. Lack of vigorous enforcement of anti-bias 3. Lack of vigorous enforcement of anti-bias

legislationlegislation4. Public housing policies and patterns of 4. Public housing policies and patterns of

construction.construction.5. Bank financial and loan bias5. Bank financial and loan bias6. Persistence of redlining6. Persistence of redlining7. Zoning laws and residential segregation7. Zoning laws and residential segregation

Criminal JusticeCriminal Justice• Victimization surveys: African-Americans are Victimization surveys: African-Americans are

more likely to be victims of violent crime and more likely to be victims of violent crime and property crimeproperty crime

• Differential justiceDifferential justice

– police protectionpolice protection

– racial profilingracial profiling

– sentencingsentencing

– victim discountingvictim discounting

Health CareHealth Care• High rates of diseaseHigh rates of disease

– In part function of class and less access to In part function of class and less access to health care resourceshealth care resources

– Fewer Black health care professionalsFewer Black health care professionals

– Environmental racism: more likely to live in Environmental racism: more likely to live in toxic environmentstoxic environments

Intergroup Relations Intergroup Relations ContinuumContinuum