gramatica ii stephan prepositions and conjunctions new15052011

Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática II

Prepositionsand

Conjunctions

Prof. Stephan Hughes


PrepositionAdverbParticle

Between x Among when we are talking about three elements – the difference between an adverb, a preposition, and a particle?

What is a conjunction? A conjoin? A coordinator? A subordinator?


What is a preposition? What is a simple preposition? What is a complex preposition?

What is the best way to teach prepositions? And what about the best way to translate them?

What approach should I adopt when dealing with prepositions?

How can they presented in a very practical manner?

• Initial definition and categorization of prepositions

• How prepositions are presented in teaching materials

• A semantic description of the preposition• Lexical or Grammatical morpheme?


• Conjunctions as lexical morphemes• Linkers, linking words, connectors• Units of cohesion and coherence – sentence,

paragraph and text level• Related processes: ellipsis, empty infinitives


Some prepositions

About Behind Concerning Like To

Above Below Despite Near Toward

Across Beneath Down Of Under

After Beside During Off Underneath

Against Besides Except On Until

Along Between For Over Unto

Among Beyond From Past Up

Around But (except) In Since Upon

At Inside Through With Within


Prepositions - form and types

Simple - one-word elements

in, on, at, above, below, over, under, around, through, before, after, to, from, about, by, with, without, between, among, inside, outside, near, underneath

Prepositions - form and types

Complex - two or more word combinations

SP + Noun + SP

SP = Simple Preposition

"Our deeds are like children that are born to us; they live and act apart from our own will. Nay, children may be strangled, but deeds never: they have an indestructible life both in and out of our consciousness." (George Elliot)

"Thank God men cannot as yet fly and lay waste the sky as well as the earth!"(Henry David Thoreau)

"The people can always be brought to the bidding of their leaders. All you have to do is tell them they are in danger of being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger." (Herman Goering)

"Thanks to the Interstate Highway System, it is possible to travel from coast to coast without seeing anything." (Charles Kuralt)

"To see what is in front of one's nose needs a constant struggle". George Orwell)

"In addition to my other numerous acquaintances, I have one more intimate confidant. My depression is the most faithful mistress I have known. No wonder, then, that I return the love." (Soren Kierkegaard)

Prepositions (Bordet and Jamet, 2010)

• Discursive element –semantic value• Unit of meaning• Void of syntactic function• Primitive semantic unit


Prepositions (Bordet and Jamet, 2010)

• Functional element – syntactic value• Grammatical sign• Void of semantic autonomy• Primal grammaticalized unit


What is said about them

Connect a noun or pronoun to another word in a sentence

Adjectivize and adverbialize a word: one of the boys, enter through the window

Are spatially or figuratively derived from physical notions of space

Act as other parts of speech , i.e. noun or verb: down the sandwich with a glass of milk


What is said about them 2

• Prepositions and conjunctions are grammatical signs, so they are indicators of the grammatical, supralexical meanings of the words in the structure in which they appear. “ (Zugun, 2003)


Prepositions in teaching materials

• Grouped semantically – e.g. prepositions of time, place etc.

• Presented literally and graphically• Transferred and figurative meanings are often

classified as fixed expressions


What can be inferred

Prepositions tend to “extract” meaning from the nouns, verbs, or adjetives or adverbs that accompany them.


Just one case of “away”

The problems won’t go away by themselves. You have to do something about them.

If only we could just wish our problems away.I feel as if I have washed my fears away after

that yoga session.Some people believe they can will the troubles

away with positive thinking.


How prepositions are highlighted

Defined morphologically, not syntacticallyPresented by type: from most common to most

complexAssumed as having meaning, even when

temporal or physical information is providedCategorized within a larger umbrella group

known as particles


Setbacks

• Unclear boundaries between simple and complex; weak and strong, grammatical and lexical (call for a continuum)

• Dual identity: prepositions » adverbs, e.g. out, about, like, after, up.

• Grammar and discourse dependency


Why treat them as semantic units?

• Translatability, e.g. I’m in!• Direct and indirect equivalence, e.g. Are we on

for tonight?• Teachability, e.g. He was up and about soon

after the surgery.• Phrasal verbs, e.g. I whip my hair back and

forth• Idiomatic nature e.g. I’m into you, I’m on the

case• Lexicalizing nature e.g. The car rounded the

corner at breakneck speed.


The basis of translation

Translation means finding an equivalence between “two sound complexes based on their common link with the same notion”. (Copcaeg, 1998)


The basis of translation

Instead of units of meaning, we could refer to units of notion or concepts. The latter is universal and less subjective than the former.


Teaching prepositions calls for a presentation of concepts or notion, e.g. notions of space, time, manner and place and an analysis of how the speakers of that given language see these concepts.


Mastering prepositions seem to be an eternal thorn in language learners’ sides and thus a source of frustration for the learner in question.


Ensino de Língua Inglesa e Novas Tecnologias - Gramática IILexical derivant

Grammatical morpheme

No intermediate or transitory stage

Grammaticalization (Kurylowicz, 1965)

Affixes gain full-fledged statusSyntactic litmus test: the more prepositional, the

more grammaticalclosed class = advanced grammaticalization =

desemanticizationPrepositions/adverbs fluctuate from lexical to

grammatical and vice versa. Loss of compositional meaning – separate

elements, one meanining


Would a process called re-semanticization take place when grammaticalized items assume

new meanings, sometimes even redundant ?BETWEEN: BY- + TWEONUM (two people)


How can we tell?

• Like phrasal verbs, grammaticalized prepositions can be separated whereas lexicalized ones cannot

• The longer the preposition, the lesser the grammaticalization: compare instead of with yet

• unstressed words due to phonological attrition or erosion, e.g. OF


• Lexicalization and Grammaticalization of prepositions are cyclical processes. As such, prepositions alternate between the two categories over time



On the one hand, prepositions are dependent _ or _ relation _ semantic continuity _ the lexical content _ the term they accompany, and _ the other hand _ the syntactic function they have

Grammaticalized or lexicalized?


On the one hand, prepositions are dependent on or in relation of semantic continuity with the lexical content of the term they accompany, and on the other hand, with the syntactic function they have


Linking devicesConjunctions

AdverbsRelative pronouns

InfinitivesAuxiliaries Participles

Discourse markers

Same sentence

• She used to call me “Tiny” although I was as tall as she was.

• Three more nuclear stations were built despite/in spite of widespread opposition

• Even though I have a degree in Business Administration, I can’t fill out a tax form.

• Much as she loved her son, she could not accept his choice of career.

• Doctors’ salaries have risen considerably whereas/while nurses’ pay have dropped.


Two sentences or clauses

• Car crashes have become rare; even so, there should be stricter safety regulations

• Prices have been rising. It is unlikely, however, that this increase is going to continue for long.

• It is a grueling competition. Nevertheless, thousands of runners take part every year.

• Urban expansion would be a good thing. On the other hand, it would be sad to lose the countryside atmosphere.


Conjunctions

Syntactic (grammatical) elements used to link ideas in a particular so as to portray contrast, coordination, explanation, concession etc.

Elements that link ideas beyond the scope of the noun or prepositional phrase, i.e. sentence, paragraph and whole text


Coordinators

• Linking of elements of same syntactic status (nouns, adverbials, adjectives)

Paul and David cold and wet

tired but happy slowly but surely

tea or coffee hot or cold


Coordinators

• This also applies to longer units

We can eat now or wait till later

I love tennis but (I) don't play well


Subordinators

• Linking of unequal syntactic status

I left early because I had an interview early the next day.

We visited Madame Tussaud while we were in London


Most common subordinators

• Because• While• If • Although • Before• Since• Till• Unless• Whereas• Whether


Coordinators

• Must appear between the elements coordinated: Paul plays football and David plays chess

• Can have the order of the coordinated elements reversed, without changing meaning: David plays chess and Paul plays football


Subordinators

• Do not need to occur between the connected items: Because I had an interview the next day, I left early.

• When there is a change of order in the connected items, there is either a change in meaning or a dubious sentence: I had an interview the next day, because I left early.


Questions to consider

• Does animacy affect word order in conjunctions?• Are there any restrictions to relativization in

English?• Are particles/discourse markers a lexical class?

(Zwicky, 1985) If so, why the two together?


Missing words

• You make me want to say I do. • She told me to tidy up but I already had.

• They won the match although I never thought they would.

Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition

• Short answers: Should I revise for the test? I think you should

• Comments: “I thought the film was wonderful.” “I didn’t.”

• Subsequent responses: “I wish you’d lock the door when you come in.” “But I did!”

• With more than one auxiliary: “He could have been lying.” “Yes, he could/he could have been.”


Reduced infinitives

• To give continuity to thoughts expressed, e.g. “Haven’t you done the washing-up?” “No, I’m just about to.”

• To respond politely, e.g. “Are you coming for a walk?” “No, I dont want to, thanks.”

• To comment: She’s less moody that she used to be.


Reduced infinitives

• My mother can't read. She just never learnt to. (She just never learnt how)

• I know I should not have offended you. I didn't

mean to.

• At first he refused to help, but eventually they got him to.

Adverbs

• Despite not being well-off, he gives quite handsomely to charities.

• I admire him as a lecturer, though I find him a

difficult person to get along with as a colleague.

• He left school without any qualifications. Nevertheless, he is now one of the wealthiest men in the country.

Participles/Relative pronouns/Reduced clauses

• I don't believe a word they say, given they never tell the truth.

• Booking a flight in advance is always a better

deal.

• The women hurt in the accident are said to still be in critical condition at the emergency ward.

Adverbs vs Particles/Discourse markers

• Adverbs can modify the entire sentence, e.g. Sadly, the starting time had to pushed back.

• Particles refer to the whole sentence as logical arguments, e.g Not knowing what to do, I didecided to wait

• Discourse markers can be created from adverbs and adverbials, e.g. Quite honestly, you need a better job.



Comment

Linking

The point in tme

Comment

PlaceIndefinite time

Comment

Adverb position

Sensibly

• He (A) discussed the design with her (B).

A – It was wise B – In a sensible way

Honestly

(B)I don’t think the mayor is capable of answering the questions (A). (honestly)

A – In a honest way B – I’m telling the truth

Obviously

• He (B) realized she wasn’t (A) well.

A- Of course she wasn’t B- Of course he did

Kindly

The pilots (B) agreed to speak to the journalists (A).

A – In a kind way B – it was kind of them

Discourse markers

• What is being said and what was said • What is being said and what is going to be said• Speaker’s attitude and what he/she is saying• Speaker’s attitude and what was said



Meanings portrayed

• Introduction: To begin with• Reference: With reference to• Change of subject: By the way• Reinforcement: As a matter of fact• Emphasis: Mainly• Cause: Since• Result, consequence: That's why• Inference, conclusion: Therefore• Purpose: In order to• Future projection: From now on


Meanings portrayed• Agreement: According to• Searching the recent past: So far• Momentary situations: For now• Simultaneity: In the meantime• Defining circumstances: In the midst of• Generalizing: As a rule• Coincidental events: Whenever• Time relationship: As time goes by


Meanings portrayed

• Addressing: To whom it may concern• Weak forms: So far• Exclusion: As for me • Position definers : From the standpoint of• Assurance: Of course • Equivalence: By the same token• Condition: As long as • Contrast: Whereas• Reiterating: In other words


Meanings portrayed

• Giving examples: For instance• Figurative: if you will• Alternation: In his turn • Last solution: As a last resort• Addition: Not only... but also• Dismissal: By the same token• Reminder: Whereas• Reiterating: (Otherwise) In other words• Consequence: As a result

Discourse Markers - what does each mean?

• Basically, the country is spending too much money.

• You might think I'm crazy when I say something like that but actually, I'm not.

• Apparently, there are a lot of new openings in the hotel business.

• Surely you understand what I mean when I say this?

Discourse Markers• Basically, the country is spending too much

money. (That's the most important point)• You might think I'm crazy when I say something

like that but actually, I'm not. (I'm contradicting you gently)

• Apparently, there are a lot of new openings in the hotel business. (I've heard this, but don't know if it's true)

• Surely you understand what I mean when I say this? (I don't know why you don't see things my way)

Some other discourse Markers

• Admittedly = I know this weakens my point• After all = You have to admit• As a matter of fact = This might come as a

surprise• Mind you/Still = This is something you

should consider/I know this may contradict what I said earlier

• I mean = What I'm trying to say is• Obviously = The fact cannot be denied

Some other discourse Markers

• At least = I'm rectifying what I said• Naturally = This is what I would expect (to

happen)• Anyway = Concluding the topic/Moving on to

another topic• All in all = I'm considering all the angles in the

situation• So to speak = I'm speaking in a figurative

manner• By the way = This isn't connected to what I was

just talking/The topic reminds me of another one

Similar in meaning*

• Admittedly = Mind you/Still• Naturally = Obviously• All in all = After all• By the way = As a matter of fact

(* with some restrictions, depending on the context)

Using auxiliaries to avoid repetition

• Short answers: Should I revise for the test? I think you should

• Comments: “I thought the film was wonderful.” “I didn’t.”

• Subsequent responses: “I wish you’d lock the door when you come in.” “But I did!”

• With more than one auxiliary: “He could have been lying.” “Yes, he could/he could have been.”


Reduced infinitives

• To give continuity to thoughts expressed, e.g. “Haven’t you done the washing-up?” “No, I’m just about to.”

• To respond politely, e.g. “Are you coming for a walk?” “No, I dont want to, thanks.”

• To comment: She’s less moody that she used to be.


Some useful resources

• Cassell's Students' English Grammar• Ways to Grammar• Murphy's English Grammar• Practical English Usage• A Student's Grammar of the English Language


gramatica ii stephan prepositions and conjunctions new15052011

Education

prepositions ensino

prepositions bordet

prepositions form

prepositions andconjunctions

categorization of prepositions

prepositions of time

particles ensino

infinitives ensino