Grammar and Usage Student Help Desk

The Sentence at a Glance – A sentence has two parts: a complete subject and a complete predicate.

Large cities offer residents many distractions.Complete subject Complete predicate

1. Subjects and Predicates Complete subject – MOST CITIES have a downtown area. Simple subject – cities Complete predicate – Skyscrapers TOWER OVER PEDESTRIANS. Simple predicate – tower

2. Complements

Linking verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, feel, smell, taste…) Predicate noun – This is my NEIGHBORHOOD. (renames or defines

the subject) Predicate adjective – The park is PEACEFUL. (describes the subject)

Action verbs Direct object – I ride my BIKE downtown. (complements the verb’s

action) Indirect object – A map shows ME the route. (tells to whom/what or

for whom/what the action is done)

3. Kinds of sentences Declarative – I am going to the museum. (statement) Interrogative – Will it be interesting? (asks a question) Imperative – (You) Come with me. (command) Exclamatory – The show was fascinating! (exclaims)

Why do sentences matter in writing? Sentences are the foundations of your writing, and it is imperative that complete and correct sentences are used when writing.

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8 Parts of Speech

1. A NOUN names a person, place, thing, or idea. There are several ways to classify nouns.

BENJAMIN BANNEKER studied STARS through a SKYLIGHT near proper noun common compound

his PARENTS’ FARM. possessive common

o Common noun – general name for person, place, thing, or idea – not capitalized

o Proper noun – specific name for a person, place, thing, or idea – always capitalized

Common: astronaut planet mission Proper: Sally Ride Jupiter Apollo 11

o Concrete noun – names a thing that can be seen, heard, smelled, touched, or tasted.

The ASTRONAUTS collected ROCKS from the MOON.

o Abstract noun – names an idea, feeling, quality, or characteristic. Examples include exploration, excitement, lightness, and courage.

o Collective nouns – names a group of people or animals. Examples include community, audience, panel, crowd, class, government, staff, colony, pack, herd, flock.

Compound nouns – a noun made up of two or more wordsExamples include post office (2 words), daughter-in-law (hyphenated words), and railroad (combined words).

Why do nouns matter in writing? Without concrete common and proper nouns, writing is often too vague – always be as specific as possible!

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2. A PRONOUN is a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun. Like a noun, a pronoun can refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. The word that a pronoun refers to is called its ANTECEDENT.

Maria was lost. SHE didn’t panic. She checked the flashlight. IT still worked.(antecedent) (pronoun) (antecedent) (pronoun)

Why do pronouns matter in writing? Pronouns are often used to make writing flow smoothly from sentence to sentence. They also need to be used correctly as subjects or objects, in subject-verb agreement, in pronoun – antecedent agreement, and as possessives.

Personal pronouns

Singular Plural

1 st person I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours

2 nd person you, your, yours you, your, yours

he, she, it, him, they, them, their3 rd person her, it, his, hers, its theirs __

o Breakdown of personal pronouns

1. Subject pronouns – use as the subject of a sentence or as a predicate pronoun after a linking verb.

Singular Plural___ I we

you you he, she, it they

Subject: IT got us to the moon.Predicate Pronoun: The greatest astronauts were THEY.

2. Object pronouns – use as a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition.

_____Singular Plural me us

you you him, her, it them

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Direct object: Bad storms scare ME.Indirect object: I told HIM the story of Hurricane Floyd.Object of the preposition: The storm is coming straight at US.

3. Possessive pronouns – use to show ownership or relationship.

______Singular Plural my, mine our, ours

your, yours your, yours her, hers, his, its their, theirs

The owner and HIS best friend came to the rescue.This cat is MINE.YOURS is all black.

**A possessive pronoun NEVER has an apostrophe.

Interrogative pronouns are used to introduce a question.

WHO – used as a subject or predicate pronounWHOM – used as an objectWHOSE WHATWHICH

Demonstrative pronouns – points out a person, place, thing, ideaTHIS, THAT – singularTHESE, THOSE – plural

Indefinite pronouns – do not refer to a specific person, place, thing, or idea

Singular Plural S or P

another much both allanybody neither few anyanyone nobody many moreanything no one others mosteach nothing several

noneeither one someeverybody somebodyeveryone someoneeverything something

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S or P? Singular – The girls ate all of the pizza. (one pizza) Plural - The girls ate all of the pizzas. (several

pizzas)

NOTE: Pronoun/Antecedent Agreement The antecedent is the noun or pronoun that a pronoun replaces or refers to. The antecedent and the pronoun can be in the same sentence or in different sentences. They must agree in (1) number, (2) person, and (3) gender (masculine or feminine).

o Number – singular or pluralHopi culture, in all its forms, is alive and well. (both are singular)Traditional members keep cattle on their farms. (both are plural)

o Person – 1st, 2nd, 3rd

Visitors realize they can learn from other cultures. (3rd person)**Do not use YOU with 1st and 3rd persons.

o Gender – masculine or feminineLaura Mansfield teaches her students at Hopi High. (both are feminine)

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3. A VERB is a word used to express an action, a condition, or a state of being. The two main types of verbs are action verbs and linking verbs. Both may be accompanied by a helping verb.

Types of Verbs

o ACTION verbs tell what the subject does. The action it expresses may be either physical or mental.

o Mental – Some people hate amusement parks.o Physical – The coaster plunged straight down.

Action verbs may be followed by a direct object or an indirect object.

Evel Knievel gave his fans a thrill. IO DO

An action verb which has a direct object is called TRANSITIVEAn action verb which does not have a direct object is called INTRANSITIVE

Why are action verbs so important in writing? They express strong feelings and provide excitement. Note the difference:

The Cyclone is scary to me. (linking verb)The Cyclone petrifies me. (action verb)

Avoid “dead” verbs such as run, eat, said, want, like, …. Make your verbs VIVID!

o LINKING verbs “link or connect” a subject to a noun or adjective which follows the linking verb (subject complement).

Predicate Noun: Paul Revere’s mount was a saddle horse. (renames the subject) S LV PN

Predicate Adjective: Saddle horses are powerful (describes the subject). S LV PA

is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been (the BE verbs)feels, sounds, tastes, smells, stays, turns, looks

o HELPING verbs often assist main verbs in designating time.

is, am, are, was, were, be, being, been, can, could, do, does, did, has, have, had, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would (23)

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Ex. Hannibal was winning battle after battle.Notes:

4. An ADJECTIVE (modifier) is a word that modifies or describes a noun or a pronoun.

Extraordinary weather can cause strange events. Adjective noun adjective noun

Kinds of Adjectives

In addition to regular adjectives, there are:

o Articles – a, an, theA – indefinite article used before a word with a consonant sound

An – indefinite article used before a word with a vowel sound

The – definite article

o Proper adjectives are formed from a proper noun and are always capitalized.

A tornado destroyed the Kansas town of Coffeyville.

o Demonstrative adjectives – This, that, these, and those are pronouns that can often be used as adjectives – This cartoon..

o Possessive adjectives – My, our, your, her, his, its, and their are possessive pronouns that may be used as adjectives – His hat

o Indefinite adjectives - All, each, both, few, most, and some are pronouns that may be used as adjectives – Both parents…

o Nouns as adjectives – Nouns may be used as adjectives when placed in front of a noun – crime scene, cup holder

Note: An adjective is located right next to the word it modifies unless the adjective follows a linking verb: The lightning was explosive.

adjective

Why are adjectives so important in writing? They bring a story to life and provide exciting detail. Avoid dead adjectives such as good, bad, nice, pretty, long, short……

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The Thesaurus is a powerful tool when looking for exhilarating adjectives.

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5. An ADVERB is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

Teenagers often make a unique impression. (often modifies the verb make)

They wear very creative clothing. (very modifies the adjective creative)

They nearly always have their own way of talking. (nearly modifies the adverb always)

Adverbs answer HOW?, WHEN?, WHERE?, or TO WHAT EXTENT?.

Adverbs can appear in several different positions.Shari completed the exam quickly.Shari quickly completed the exam.Quickly, Shari completed the exam.

Intensifiers: Adverbs that modify adjectives or other adverbs. They are usually placed directly before the word they modify. Intensifiers usually answer the question to what extent.

Almost extremely quite so usually quiteReally especially nearly too very barely

Many adverbs end in –LY – quietly, silently, beautifully, graciously

Negative words such as no, not, and never are adverbs.

Why do adverbs matter in writing? They add information that makes verbs clearer and more specific.

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6. A PREPOSITION is a word that shows a relationship between a noun or pronoun and some other word in the sentence.

o It is the first word in a prepositional phrase.o Often reveals a “place in space.” (around, by, next to, beyond)o May be compound (instead of, in place of, because of)

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE – a group of words that begins with a preposition, ends with a noun or pronoun, and is used as an adjective or an adverb.

o Adjective prepositional phrase: Robots perform several jobs in the automobile industry.

(describes the noun jobs)**Must come next to the noun/pronoun it modifies.

o Adverb prepositional phrase:Industrial robots operate from fixed positions.

(describes the verb operate)**May be placed anywhere in the sentence.

Common prepositions

About At Despite Like ToAbove Before Down Near towardAcross Behind During Of underAfter Below Except Off until

Against Beneath For On upAlong Beside From Out With

Among Between In Over withinAround Beyond Inside Past without

As By Into through

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7. A CONJUNCTION is a word used to join words or groups of words. Different kinds of conjunctions are used in different ways.

Kinds of Conjunctions

o Coordinating conjunctions connect words used in the same way. (two words, phrases, or clauses)

and, or, nor, for, but, yet, so

Motors and software control a robot named Cog.He can move to the left or to the right.Cog is a computer-driven machine, but it acts like a human.

o Correlative conjunctions are pairs of words that connect words used in the same way.

both…and either…or neither…norwhether…or not only…but also

Both Cob and Kismet are robots with intelligence.

8. An INTERJECTION expresses concern, terror, disgust, joy, surprise, or draws attention.

Oh no, oops, help, yuck, awesome, hooray, wow, whoops, hey

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