grammar book for spoken english course - chapter 1

8/3/2019 Grammar Book for Spoken English Course - Chapter 1

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Basics of Sentence Structure, All about Verbs

1

WHY WE NEED TO LEARN GRAMMAR FROM SCRATCH

Grammar together with Vocabulary forms the brick and mortar of any language. While vocabulary constitutes the content of the language

Grammar determines its form and structure. Without a sound knowledge of grammar, therefore, one cannot understand a language, let alone

master it.

One of the main problems faced by students in communicating effectively and fluently in English is their lack of confidence which stems from

their inadequate knowledge and understanding of English Grammar. Hence, thorough knowledge of basic grammar is a must for those who

wish to acquire communication skills in English. This is the reason why we thought it fit to bring out this book to enable you to understand

English Grammar the simple and effective way.

The objective of the authors is to present English Grammar within a systematic and logical framework, in which the student, in addition to

learning what constitutes good English, will get an in-depth understanding of why the language works the way it does. The best way to use this

book is as study material in a structured programme that takes the student through the contents of this book.

WHAT IS GRAMMAR?

Grammar is a set of conventions shared by all speakers of a language. It is the set of rules that govern how words ought to be strung together to

form meaningful sentences that enable smooth communication of ideas from one person to another. The extent to which we understand this

set of conventions has a significant bearing on our ability grasp ideas presented to us in the form of language, whether written on spoken.

Grammar provides us with a set of tools to make the transition from ideas to language. It is these same tools that we need to use in the reversedirection to make sense of what we read or hear.

GETTING STARTED - SENTENCE STRUCTURE:

The basic unit of any language is the Sentence. There are two distinct features of any sentence form and content. These constitute the brick

and mortar that bind the language into a coherent whole. Content is largely about vocabulary. Form is decided by the sentence structure.

A useful way of understanding sentence structure is to view every sentence as Subject + Predicate. The Subject is the thing the speaker wishes

to speak about and the Predicate is what he wishes to say about the Subject.

Any sentence in English can be broken into 3 types of units

1. Words - The ultimate building blocks of a sentence.2. Phrases Groups of words that together convey a particular idea. They cannot, however, stand alone as a sentence in their own

right.

3. Clauses Groups of words that can convey a whole idea and can stand alone as a complete sentence or convey a complete ideaeven if they are only part of a sentence and dependent on the rest of the sentence.You will get a better understanding of what constitutes phrase and clauses and the differences between them once we cover the basic concept

of finite verbs in subsequent sections. For the moment, we shall focus our attention on Words.

Words : - What a word means falls under the head vocabulary. In the study of grammar, however, words are looked at in terms of the

function they perform in a sentence rather than in terms of what they are and what they mean. In English grammar, words can be classified

into eight categories called parts of speech

1. Noun Words that indicate an object Animate/Inanimate, e.g. boy, tree, Ahmed, kindness, iron, army2. Verb Words that indicate action write, will be coming, can do, will have been shown3. Pronoun Words that stand for a noun I, you, we, he, she, him, them, her, it, who, that, whom, whose4. Adjective Words that qualify/describe a noun clever, rich, beautiful, more intelligent, most wonderful5. Adverb Words that qualify/describe a verb, an adjective or an adverb ranfast,prettyeasy, reallydifficult6. Preposition Words that relate things in, on, of, for, at, from, in front of, behind7. Conjunction Words that connect other words, phrases and clauses and, but, if, when, who, which8. Interjection Words that represent emotion Oh!, Ah!, Alas!

The study of Grammar is essentially about understanding these parts of speech and using that understanding to construct and analyse

sentences.

CHOOSING OUR PATH


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Given that the study ofGrammar revolves around understanding the 8 parts of speech listed above, where should we start and where should we

go from there? We shall start with the study of Verbs as they happen to be the most important part of speech fora person who wishes to becomegood at English. Why do weconsiderVerbs the most important part of speech? Considertheexamples given below.

a. Birds fly Birds Subject fly Verbb. Children drink Children Subject drink Verbc. John speaks John Subject speaks Verb

These are examples of the simplest sentences we can construct in English. Clearly, every one of these sentences consists of only 2 words1. a Noun serving as the subject of the sentence or the thing about which the sentence is2. a Verb that identifies the action performed by the subject

One can even go to the extreme with the following examples.

a. Go!b. Stop!

These are examples of single word sentences that we use in direct speech, i.e., in speech directly addressed to a person. In such cases, even the

subject is not specified explicitly, though it is implicit and is assumed to be You in all cases. The important point is that even a Verb all on its

own is considered a full sentence.

Further, any sentence, however long, revolves around the combination of subject and verb. This combination is the core or heart of any

sentence. It has meaning on its own even if the other parts were not included. Starting from this simple structure, sentences may be made

longer by the addition of more words that we call complements at one or more of 3 points in the simplest sentence structure (S + V) as denoted

below

Complement(s) + Subject + Complement(s) + Verb + Complement(s)

Consider the following examples. The underlined sections are the complements.

Several birds fly in the garden.

The fat child drinks milk

Professor John teaches Mathematics

Notwithstanding the fact that he may finally be pronounced innocent, the defendant shall pay a sum of Rs. 10 lakh into an escrow

account as interim relief for the victims of the accident caused by probable negligence on his part, failing which he shall be liable to

pay a penalty of Rs. 1 lakh in addition to interest calculated at 1 8% per annum starting today and on the entire amount of Rs. 11

lakh.

Complements of all types tell us more about the subject, the verb or other complements. The types of complements we encounter are

y Objects Words, phrases or clauses that identify things that actions are directed at/by. Grammatically speaking, objects are similarto subjects because they represent things.

y Descriptive words, phrases or clauses that tell us more about subjects (adjectives), verbs (adverbs), objects (adjectives) or otherdescriptive words, phrases or clauses (adverbs)

In addition, within these complements, we also encounter words that

y Connect words and meaningful strings of words to each othery Relate words and meaningful strings of words to each other

Without these words that connect and relate, it would be extremely difficult to form sentences beyond the simple ones involving subject, verb

and object.

This understanding enables us to chart out our path to getting a grip on the English language. We shall divide our task of learning into 4 parts.

y The grammar of verbsy The grammar of words, phrases and clauses that describe things, i.e., of subjects and objectsy The grammar of descriptive words and words that help relate and joiny The rules that govern putting subjects, verbs and objects into a coherent sentence using, where necessary, words that describe,

connect and relate

The first step and the most important one is the grammar of verbs and that is what we shall now turn our attention to.

INTRODUCTION TO VERBS

Verbs are words that indicate action. However, we also need to understand that languageis not that simple. Forinstance, the same word may be

used as a different part of speech depending on thecircumstances and theidea that the speakerwishes to communicate. This is all the more trueof words that wenormally considerVerbs. Considerthe followingexamples

Example 1


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a. Fishswimin water In this sentence, the wordswimis used to denote an action. This actionis performed by theNounfish. Thepurpose of the sentenceis to communicate that thenoun has thenature ofengagingin the actionreferred to.

b. I go foraswimeveryday In this sentence, the wordswimrefers to an activity ratherthan to a specific action. It thereforerefersto a thing and not an action. It must thus beconsidered a nounratherthan a verb.

c. Hegoes to theclub everyday to swim In this sentence,to +swim = to swimis the purpose ofgoing to the club. A purposeis athing. This is one more way to use the wordswim as a Nounratherthan as a verb.

Example 2

a. Hewas swimmingwhen hegot cramps In this sentence, the word swimming is used to refer to an action. This action is inprogress at the time the swimmergot cramps. We thus see that it is used as a Verb.b. Swimmingis my favouriteexercise In this sentence,swimmingis used to denote an activity. It must therefore beconsidered a

Noun.c. He dived into theswimmingpool In this sentence, the wordswimmingis used to tell us what kind of pool we are talking of. It

is thus being used to describe the Nounpool. Therefore,it must beconsidered an Adjective.

Example 3

a. I have spoken to him In this sentence,has + spoken = has spoken denotes the completion of the action of speaking. Thiscompletion was attained some time prior to the time of forming this sentence. It is thus a true action denoting word and may be

considered Verb.b. We offer a courseinSpoken English In this sentence,Spokenis used to create a smallercategory within the broaderword

English. It does so by adding an attribute to the word English. Thus,Spoken becomes a word that describes the NounEnglish.Therefore,it must beconsidered an Adjective.

Example 4

a. Iplaycricket every day Here,playis used to denote beingin the habit of playing.b. Igo to the playground to playcricket Here,to playis used to denote the purpose ofgoing to the playground. A purposeis a

thingand not anaction.Hence, here, play is not used as a Verb.

Theseexamples illustrate the point that words that look like Verbs may be used to denote something otherthan action. What makes this possible?Is the English language so whimsical that any word may be used forany purpose?

Words denote concepts, not things or actions

A very basic aspect of all words in English is that they stand for concepts rather than for specific things. For instance, the word cat stands for a

concept we carry in our mind. The concept cat stands for any thing that possesses the attributes that we associate with the things that we

chose to label cat. This would include physical features such as body shape, fur, paws, claws, tail, whiskers, etc., non-physical features such as

the particular sound they make, the furtive manner in which they are capable of walking, their agility, cunning, speed, dietary habits, etc. So,

when we say Cats mew, we are not making an observation by seeing some cats mew. We are in fact identifying an attribute that is

automatically known to us the moment we choose to talk of cats. It is part of the concept cats

The same is true of words that denote action. They stand for the concept of an action rather than a particular action. The concept of action has

to be converted into a particular action for it to truly denote action. How do we do this? Note that any action has to take place at some time.

Logically, therefore, only words that denote time can therefore be considered as true Verbs.

There is also enormous variety in the kinds of action that we may wish to speak about. The nature of one action could be different from the

nature of another. Action can be instantaneous or in progress. Therefore, we need to have distinct ways of speaking about them.

Another aspect of variety in speaking about actions comes with the introduction of the speaker. The very fact that the speaker is a human being

brings in 3 dimensions.

1. The speaker of a sentence has to be speaking at some time. He always speaks in the present moment. When the action happens isirrelevant to this. We call this time of speaking the sentence speaking time.

2. The speaker is speaking aboutthe action. So, the action is distinct from the speaker. So, the speaker is in effect viewing the action.He is viewing it from the point in time where he stands, i.e., the present moment. This means that the time of speaking and the time

of the action can be different. We call this time at which the action happens action time.

3. The speaker could also view (and speak about) the action from any arbitrary point in time. He could arbitrarily choose some randompoint in time (because that sits better with the idea he wishes to communicate) and view the action from that viewing point. A

simple analogy from the study of Physics will help you understand this better. Lets say your friend is in a moving train and walkingfrom his seat towards the pantry car. Clearly, you would see him walking at different speeds depending on whether you are standing

in the train or standing outside and watching him. Similarly, a speaker may wish to view and speak about an action that happened at

some time prior to some randomly chosen time. This randomly chosen time which then becomes the viewing point from where the

speaker views the action may be called the reference time.

Going by the above classification, we may observe the following points.

1. To the speaker, the speaking time is always in the present moment.2. Reference time, however, may be different from speaking time. It could be the same as, prior to or later than speaking time.3. Action time could be the same as or later than (it cannot be prior to as you cannot viewan action before it happens) reference time.


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How the English language handles all this complexity

English uses 2 devices to cut through this complexity and give the user of the language a simplified framework to work with. These devices are

1. Every word that may be used as a Verb has 5 and only forms in which it may be used, whether as a Verb or otherwise. These formswith examples of many Verbs in each form are given in the table below.

Verb in Present Tense

form

Past Tense form Past Participle form Present Participle form Infinitive form

Speak / Speaks Spoke Spoken Speaking To speak

Write / Writes Wrote Written Writing To write

Go/Goes Went Gone Going To go

Sing / Sings Sang Sung Singing To sing

Drive / Drives Drove Driven Driving To drive

Ring / Rings Rang Rung Ringing To ring

See / Sees Saw Seen Seeing To see

Fly / Flies Flew Flown Flying To fly

Swim / Swims Swam Swum Swimming To swim

Do / Does Did Done Doing To do

Rise / Rises Rose Risen Rising To rise

Think / Thinks Thought Thought Thinking To think

Run / Runs Ran Run Running To run

Teach / Teaches Taught Taught Teaching To teach

Sit / Sits Sat Sat Sitting To sit

Fight / Fights Fought Fought Fighting To fight

Seek / Seeks Sought Sought Seeking To seek

Cut / Cuts Cut Cut Cutting To cut

Put / Puts Put Put Putting To put

Let / Lets Let Let Letting To let

Talk / Talks Talked Talked Talking To talk

Open / Opens Opened Opened Opening To open

Look/ Looks Looked Looked Looking To look

2. Every true action word in English has 2 parts. One is the word denoting the concept of the action itself. The other, and equally if notmore important part is the one that brings the element of time into the action word. These special words are known as Auxiliary

Verbs or Auxiliaries. One may say that English has 4 basic classes of Auxiliaries

a. Auxiliaries of action The words of this type are do, does and did. Do and Does refer to action now while did refers to prioraction. Further, between them, do is used when the subject is

y the speaker Iy one or many persons the speaker is addressing youy many entities including the speaker we and multiple, named, particular objectsy many entities excluding the speaker theyand multiple, named, particular objects

while does is used when the subject is a single entitythat the speaker is not addressing directly. This includes he, she, itand

particular, named, single objects. Auxiliaries of action are in fact the most basic type of auxiliary verb. Other auxiliary verbs,

while they may be used apparently without the use of the auxiliaries of action, implicitly assume their use, especially when

they are used singly as the action word.

b. Auxiliaries of existence and identity The basic word of this type is be. Be is used to denote the action of existing or cominginto possession of certain attributes. It is used in the form be when the speaker is addressing it to one (you) or more (you or,

one or more named, particular objects) entities that constitute the subject. Consider the f ollowing examples

y You be right there In this sentence, be is used to tell the subject to exist in the place described later in the sentencey Be happy In this sentence you is the implicit subject you, be is used to tell the object to possess the attribute that

follows as part of its identity.

However, note that be implicitly used in this manner assumes the use of the appropriate auxiliary of action before itself. This

could be illustrated as below. The two sentences

y Be happyy Do be happyconvey the same meaning and are equivalent. This point will be elaborated upon when we come to the negative form of be

and the addition of modal verbs before be.

When the speaker is not addressing the subject but speaking about it, modified forms ofbe such as am, is, are, was and were

are used after the subject. They are always used to denote that the subject exists with the identity thatincludes the attribute

describedin the words that follow or are implied to follow. The process of deciding which of these 5 to use in a specific case is

closely related to the use of do and does when the speaker is addressing the subject.

y Where the reference time is in the present and the subject is such that we would have used


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o do, use are except when the subject is I, in which case use am.o does, use is.

(Refer to rules laid out above regarding usage ofdo vs does when the speaker is addressing the subject)

y Where the reference time is in the past and the subject is such that we would have usedo do, use were except when the subject is I, in which case use waso does, use was.

(Refer to rules laid out above regarding usage ofdo vs does when the speaker is addressing the subject)

The table below summarises the usage of am, is, are, was and were

Subject Present Past

I Am was

You Are were

We Are were

They Are were

He Is was

She Is was

It Is was

1 Named entity Is Was

Many named entities Are were

One thing Is was

Many things Are were

c. Auxiliaries of possession These auxiliaries may be summarized as exist(s) in the possession of. The basic word of this type ishave. Other words that belong to this category are has and had. In fact, when has, have and hadare used as stand alone verbs

to denote possession of an object or objects, they would be implicitly or explicitly preceded by do or does in the same manner

as described above for the usage of do and does. This is illustrated by the following examples.

y He has two pens He does have two pensy We have truth on our side We dohave truth on our sidey You have good handwriting You dohave good handwritingHad is used uniformly for all subjects when the reference time is in thepast. In choosing between has and have, we follow the

same rule as in the case of Auxiliaries of existence and identity, i.e., when the subject is such that we would have used do, use

have and when the subject is such that we would have used does, use have. In both cases, we choose the usage of do/does

assuming the speaker is addressing the subject.

d. Auxiliaries of prediction The basic words of this type are will and shall. They are used to denote that the action takes place atsome time in the future. They communicate certainty about the action. They may be translated as Exists with the certainty to

act/of occurring

The rules given above may be called the rules governing Subject-Verb agreement and constitute one of the most important laws of grammar

that within these rules, every sentence shall be such that the Subject and the Verb are in agreement with each other. With these rules in mind,

let us go back to the five forms of the Verb and understand them more. In the process, we will also understand how to use Auxiliaries and the

five forms of Verbs to represent actions of all kinds.

1. Simple Present form of the verb This is the basic form of any Verb. It is the fundamental word that denotes the concept of theparticular action. In the table, however, we see that there are 2 forms for example, swim and swims. The reason we have 2 forms

is that the former is short-hand for do + basic form of the Verb while the latter is short-hand for does + basic form of the Verb.

2. Simple Past form of the verb This is short-hand for did + basic form of the verb. We may note that there are two kinds of simplepast forms those which retain the basic structure of the basic Verb, i.e., are verb + d/ed/ied (with some minor changes) and those

whose form is very different from that of the basic Verb, e.g., speak-spoke, sing-sang, swim-swam. The latter type of Verbs are

known in English as Irregular Verbs. There are many irregular Verbs in English and one of the tasks of the learner is to develop

awareness of the Irregular Verbs and their forms. That, however, is a task in expanding vocabulary and is not expanded on in this

text. In Appendix XXX, you will find a list of a number of Irregular Verbs and their 5 forms.

3. Past Participle This form, which for Regular Verbs is the same as the simple past form and for Irregular Verbs is distinct from thebasic form, stands for the status of completion of the particular action. It is basically a property or attribute that may be possessed

and is to be treated as an adjective

4. Present Participle This form, which consists of the basic Verb + -ing basically stands for the attribute of existing in the process ofthe particular action or for the process of the action itself. For instance, swimming is the attribute of existing in the process of

moving in a coordinated manner in water. At the same time, swimming also refers to the process of moving in a coordinated manner

in water. Thus, it may be used as a Noun as well as an Adjective.

5. Infinitive This form is unique among the 5 forms. It represents the purpose of engaging in that action. For instance, in the sentencey I came here to study


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to study stands for with the purpose of engaging in the action of studying. It is usually used as an add-on to other verbs to denote

the purpose of the action. It is the use of a Verb to denote a thing (purpose) related to another Verb. In that sense, it is more a noun

than a Verb.

So, by their basic definition, the Present and Past forms of any Verb automatically denote time. They denote pure action now and at a point in

time in the past respectively. What about the other forms? They denote action when combined with suitable Auxiliaries. Before going into that,

however, it is important to mention that the Auxiliary be also has its Past Participle and Present Participle forms. These are been and being

respectively. Having mentioned this, let us move on to the task of denoting all sorts of action other than pure action happening nowor at an

instant in the past.

Type of action to denote Form of the verb Name

Exists with the certainty to act as defined in

the action word that follows

will + basic form of the Verb Simple Future

Exist(s) with the identity of existing in a

process of the particular action

am/is/are/was/were + Present Participle

form of the Verb

Present Continuous or Present Progressive

Existed with the identity of existing in a

process of the particular action

was/were + Present Participle form of the

Verb

Past Continuous or Past Progressive

Exists with the certainty toexist with the

identity of existing in a process of the

particular action (at some specific time in the

future)

will + be + Present Participle form of the Verb Future Continuous or Future Progressive

Exist(s) with the possession ofthe status of

completion of the particular action now

has/have + Past Participle form of the Verb Present Perfect

Existed with the possession ofthe status ofcompletion of the particular action at some

specific time prior to now

had + Past Participle Past Perfect

Exists with the certainty toexist in possession

of the status ofcompletion of the particular

action at some specific time in the future

will + have + Past Participle Future Perfect

Exist(s) in possession ofthe status of

completion of existing in the process of the

particular action now

has + been + Present Participle Present Perfect Continuous or Present

Perfect Progressive

Existed in possession ofthe status of

completion of existing in the process of the

particular action at some specific time prior

to now

had + been + Present Participle Past Perfect Continuous or Past Perfect

Progressive

Exists with the certainty toexist in possession

ofthe status of completion of existing in the

process of the particular action at some

specific time in the future

Will + have + been + Present Participle Future Perfect Continuous or Future Perfect

Progressive

The 10 types of time and action denoting combinations of words listed above and, the Simple Present and Simple Past forms of the Verb are

called the Tenses of a Verb. These 12 forms of any verb denote the entire range of action that we may wish to denote and constitute a

comprehensive listing of all possible Tenses that we may ever use.

One observation we may make of the 12 Tenses listed above is that while the Simple and the Progressive tenses denote action at a certain

point in time, the Perfect tenses denote the action of existence in possession of the status of completion. To possess the status of completion

at any point in time, it is necessary that the action should have taken place prior to that time. This is a logical necessity of this form of the tense

itself. In simple terms, we can see that the reference time from which we describe the action is different from and, more specifically, later than

the time of action. There is thus a 3-way split in time as speaking time, reference time and action time. Restated in simpler terms, the Perfect

Tense denotes action that took place or will take place viewed from a time after the action time. There is a clear interval between the action

time and the reference time. For example, if we consider the sentence

y Agatha Christie has written many a brilliant bookwe are saying that seen from the present moment, the subject attained the status of completion of the action write at some time in the past.

Similarly, if we consider the sentencey I had done my homework by then

the phrase by then indicates a particular point in time in the past while the Past Perfect tense denotes that the subject existed in possession of

the status of completion of the action do at some time prior to that.

Equally interesting is the case of the Perfect Continuous tenses. These denote an extremely complex idea of that the subject exists in

possession of the status of completion of existing in the process of the particular action at some specific time. This is possible only if there is a

period of time prior to the reference time during which the possession of the status of completion was continually or continuously attained. For

example, if we consider the sentence


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y Sachin Tendulkar has been playing cricket since he was 10 years oldthe Verb denotes the following complex idea that the subject,

y (as indicated by has) seen from the present moment, exists in possession ofy (as indicated by been) the status of completion of existing iny (as indicated byplaying) the process of the particular action.

The important point to note thatplaying is something that happens over a period of time. The status of completion of existing in the process of

playing must be attained at every instant Sachin is playing. Existence in possession of this status of completion must also happen over the same

period of time, i.e., at various points in time in that period. In this case, the period of time starts at the time Sachin was 10 years old and

continues till the present moment. Thus, we see that the Perfect Continuous Tense requires a period of time ending in the reference time

during which the subject must exist in possession of the status of c ompletion of existing in the process of the particular action.

Another very interesting case is the Simple Present Tense. It is an obvious aspect of reality that no one can utter two words at the same time.

So, the time when the speaker utters the Subject must necessarily be different from the time of uttering the Verb. This means that it is

impossible for any human being to construct a sentence where the subject acts in the present moment. What then does the Simple Present

Tense indicate? It indicates the nature or identity or, in the case of animate objects, habits of the subject. For instance, when we say

y The sun rises in the eastwe mean that the subject exists with the nature or identity of rising in the east. Similarly, when we say

y I eat ricewe mean that the subject exists with the nature of eating rice. The reason it is the PresentTense is that at any point in time, the subject exists

with the specified nature/identity/habit. Even if the particular activity happened at some time(s) in the past or is slated to happen at some

time(s) in the future, at the present instant, it is part of the nature of the subject and the subject exists with that nature. It is this existence that

the Present Tense describes. Consider, for instance, the following examples.

y The President arrives in Chennai tomorrow.While the Presidents arrival is scheduled for tomorrow, i.e., some time in the future, the statement tells us that at the present moment, asper his schedule (which is part of the Presidents identity), he exists with the identity of arriving in Chennai tomorrow. Therefore, the correct

tense to use is the Simple Present Tense and not the Simple Future Tense.

The table below gives examples of the use of different auxiliaries with different kinds of subjects to denote different kinds of actions. The first

table identifies the Verb and the second table associates each Verb with its Tense.

Auxiliary

VerbUse as a stand-alone verb Use as an Auxiliary Verb Identifying the Verb

Do I do I do play cricket (I play cricket) do play (play)

Does He does. He does play cricket (He plays cricket) does play (plays)

Did She did. She did meet him (She met him) did meet (met)

Be You be right there Always changedto am, is, are, was or were Non-existent

Am I am Ram. I am a painter. I amplaying cricket. am playing

Is This painting is beautiful. It israining cats and dogs. is raining

Are They are from Russia. We areworking together. are workingWas She was there at 6 am. He wasreading a book. was reading

Were We were happy. They werestudying History. were studying

Will I willbe a doctor when I grow up.

I willbe playing cricket this evening.

I will havedone the job before 8 am

I willhavebeen studying for four years by then.

will be

will be playing

will have done

will have been studying

Shall I shalldo your booking right away.

I shallbe writing to you every week.

I shall havedone the job before 8 am

I shallhave been waiting for 15 minutes by the time

you reach.

shall do

shall be writing

shall have done

shall have been waiting

Has He has some money to spare. She hascompleted her task.

Tendulkar hasbeen playing cricket since he was 11.

has completed

has been playing

Have I have no time to waste. I havefinished painting the house.

I havebeen waiting for two hours.

have finished

have been waiting

Had Mary had a little lamb. I hadbeen to London.

She hadbeen playing minor roles until then.

had been

had been playing

Identifying the Verb Identifying the Tense

Do play (play) Simple Present

does play (plays) Simple Present

did meet (met) Simple Past


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Identifying the Verb Identifying the Tense

am playing Present Continuous

is raining Present Continuous

are working Present Continuous

was reading Past Continuous

were studying Past Continuous

will be

will be playing

will have done

will have been studying

Simple Future

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous

shall do

shall be writing

shall have done

shall have been waiting

Simple Future

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous

has completed

has been playing

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous

have finished

have been waiting

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous

had been

had been playing

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

Summarising the above, tables, we see the following. When used in conjunction with other words that denote action, auxiliary verbs give a

sense of time required for words denoting the concept of a specific action to denote true action words, i.e., verbs that denote the time and

nature of the action. One can even say that without auxiliary verbs, no action denoting word is can be formed. In formal English grammar,action-denoting words that indicate the time and nature of the action clearly are considered Verbs in function are called finite verbs while

those that do not indicate both time and nature of the action are considered Verbs in form but not in function and are called non-finites.

The table below summarises the use of different combinations of auxiliaries to denote different tenses.

Auxiliary Verb Form of Main Verb Tense used for

am, is, are Present Participle Present Continuous

was, were Present Participle Past Continuous

will, shall Present Tense Simple Future

will be, shall be Present Participle Future Continuous

has, have Past Participle Present Perfect

has been, have been Present Participle Present Perfect Continuous

Had Past Participle Past Perfect

had been Present Participle Past Perfect Continuous

will have, shall have Past Participle Future Perfectwill have been, shall have been Present Participle Future Perfect Continuous

Examples of usage of different Tenses With Explanations as per theory outlined above

1. I feel happyy Reference time Now Presenty Time of action Now Not Perfecty Refers to action this instant feel Simple Present

2. She watches a movie every Fridayy Reference time That same day on every Friday Presenty Time of action Every Friday Not Perfecty Refers to action this instant watches Simple Present

3. George saw a tigery Reference time Earlier Pasty Time of action The same as reference time Not Perfecty Refers to action at the same instant saw Simple Past

4. We will win the gamey Reference time Later Futurey Time of action The same as reference time Not Perfecty Refers to action at that instant will win Simple Future

5. I am carrying an umbrellay Reference time Now Presenty Time of action Now Not Perfect


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y Refers to an ongoing action am carrying Present Continuous6. She is writing a letter

y Reference time Now Presenty Time of action Now Not Perfecty Refers to an ongoing action is writing Present Continuous

7. They are arranging a showy Reference time Now Presenty Time of action Now Not Perfecty Refers to an ongoing action are arranging Present Continuous

8. The tiger was hiding behind a bush y Reference time Some time earlier than now Pasty Time of action The same as reference time Not Perfecty Refers to an ongoing action was hiding Past Continuous

9. My friends will be leaving for Delhiy Reference time Some time later than now Futurey Time of action The same as reference time Not Perfecty Refers to an ongoing action wil l be leaving Future Continuous

10. When I went to the station, the train had already lefty Reference time The time of my going to the station Earlier than now (indicated by went) Pasty Time of action The time of the trains departure Earlier than the reference time Perfecty Refers to an action at an instant left Past Perfect

11. She had committed this mistake several times beforey Reference time Not specified explicitly Before and had indicates some incident or time earlier than now Pasty Time of action The time of commission of the previous mistakes Before indicates earlier than the reference time Perfecty Refers to an action at an instant committed Past Perfect

12. Farmers have harvested the food grainsy Reference time Not specified explicitly have indicates that reference time is to be taken as now Presenty Time of action Some time prior to the reference time Earlier than the reference time Perfecty Refers to an action at an instant harvested Present Perfect

13. Preethi has finished her joby Reference time Not specified explicitly has indicates that reference time is to be taken as now Presenty Time of action Some time prior to the reference time Earlier than the reference time Perfecty Refers to an action at an instant finished Present Perfect

14. By this time tomorrow, he will have read this novely Reference time This time tomorrow Futurey Time of action Some time prior to the reference time Reading novel happens before this time tomorrow Perfecty Refers to an action at an instant will have read and not will have been reading Future Perfect

15. Harbhajan has been bowling well in this matchy Reference time Specified indirectly through in this match this match has to be happening now The statement is being

made at some time when the match is in progress Present

y Time of action Comments about bowling done in a match can be made only after the bowling has been done Time of actionprior to reference time Perfect

y Refers to ongoing action bowling Present Perfect Continuous16. The police have been searching for him till now

y Reference time Specified explicitly through now Presenty Time of action Searching must have started prior to Reference time Perfecty Refers to ongoing action searching Present Perfect Continuous

17. She had been taking treatment from the doctor for one year when her condition dramatically worsenedy Reference time The instant at which her condition dramatically worsened worsened implies it must have been earlier

than now Past

y Time of action Prior to the instant of worsening, the reference time Perfecty Refers to an ongoing action taking Past Perfect Continuous

18. Mary had been looking after her sisters children till her marriage.y Reference time The time of her sisters marriage had indicates it must have been earlier than now Pasty Time of action Prior to the marriage, the reference time Perfecty Refers to an ongoing action taking care Past Perfect Continuous

Active vs Passive Voice

Take a look the examples 1 to 18 given above. In particular, pay close attention to the relationship between the subject and the action. Take the

following example

y I feel happy feelis the finite verb. It is an action that the subject Iis engaged in.


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y They are arranging a show are arranging is the finite verb. It is a n action that the subject, They, is engaged in.Thus, we see that the subjectis actively engaged in the action described by the Finite Verb. Such sentences are said to be in the Active Voice.

What else can be the relationship between the subject and the object? Any action directed at an object has two entities on the two sides

y The entity that engages in the actiony The entity at which the action is directed or the entity that is subject to the action

Therefore, it is possible that the relationship between the subject and the action is as given in the 2nd

option just above. In other words it can be

that the subject of the sentence is acted upon as described by the Finite Verb. Clearly, some other entity, specified or unspecified is acting on

the subject as described. The subject, then, is the passive recipientof an action that is clearly engaged in by the other entity. Sentences of this

type are said to be in the Passive Voice. In this section, we shall investigate the structure of finite verbs in the Passive Voice.

In the Passive Voice, the subject is given the status ofcompletion of the specific action by the entity that acts on it. Thus, the verb in the Passive

Voice always uses the Past Participle form of the basic Verb.

Further, the subject can be in exactly 3 states with respect to attainment of the status of completion. As of a particular instant, it may

1. exist in possession of the status of completion given to it by the acting entity These are the Simple Tenses which follow thestructure

y exist(s) (am/is/are) in possession of the status of completion (PastParticiple) Simple Present Tensey existed (was/were) in possession of the status of completion (PastParticiple) Simple Past Tensey exists with the certainty to (will) exist (be) in possession of the status of completion (Past participle) Simple Future Tense

2. exist in the process of existing in possession of the status of completion These are the Continuous or Progressive Tenses whichfollow the structure

y exists(s) (am/is/are) in the process of existing (being) in possession of the status of completion (PastParticiple) PresentContinuous or Present Progressive Tense

y existed (was/were) in the process of existing (being) in possession of the status of completion (Past Participle) PastContinuous or Past Progressive Tense

A third structure leading to the Future Continuous is impossible because it would require the f ollowing structure

y exists with the certainty to (will) exist (be) in the process of existing (being) in possession of the status of completion (PastParticiple) This would require a second auxiliary with the meaning existto be included after the will. That can only be be.

That leads to the following structure

o will+ be + being + PastParticiple This structure automatically becomes the Future Continuous Tense in the Activevoice where the PastParticiple becomes the adjective while the finite verb is will+ be + being.

We see that the attempt to create a Future Continuous Tense in the Passive Voice converts the Verb into one in the Future

Continuous Tense of the Active Voice. Thus, we have shown that the Future Continuous Tense in the Passive Voice is logically

impossible.

3. exist in possession of a prior state of existence in possession of the status of completion of the primary action. These are thePerfect Tenses which follow the structure

y exist(s) in possession of (has/have) a prior state of existence (been) in the possession of the state of completion of the primaryaction (PastParticiple) Present Perfect Tense

y existed in possession of (had) a prior state of existence (been) in possession of the state of completion of the primary action(PastParticiple) Past Perfect Tense

y exists with the certainty to (will) exist in possession of (have) a prior state of existence (been) in possession of the state ofcompletion of the primary action (PastParticiple) Future Perfect Tense

Unlike in the Active Voice, a fourth state is not possible. This is because a fourth state requires the following structure exist in possession of

(has) a status of prior existence in (been) the process of existing (being) in possession of the status of completion (PastParticiple). It will in

effect become a finite verb involving the newly introduced word being rather than one involving the PastParticiple. For instance, we will have

to use a construct such as

y The job has been being doneWith the introduction ofbeing, has been being now becomes the finite verb and the word done denotes something the job has been being. It

becomes a sentence in the Active Voice with the primary Verb being be. Further, the sentence is also in the Present Perfect Tense of the Active

Voice. Thus, we see that in the attempt to form a sentence in the Perfect Continuous Tense in the Passive Voice, we ended up constructing a

sentence in the Perfect Continuous Tense in the Active Voice but with a different Primary Verb. This explains why the Perfect Continuous Tense

in the Passive Voice is logically impossible.

The analysis above shows us that there are only 3 broad Tenses possible in the Passive Voice. These are the Simple Tense, the Simple

Continuous or Progressive Tense and the PerfectTense. Within the Simple Continuous Tense, the Future Continuous Tense in the Passive Voice

is impossible. Thus we see that there are only 8 tenses in the Passive Voice as against 12 in the Active Voice.

Summary of Tenses in the Passive Voice and their meanings


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Type of action to denote Form of the verb Name

exist(s) in possession ofthe status of

completion

am/is/are + Past Participle Simple Present Tense

existed in possession ofthe status of

completion

was/were + Past Participle Simple Past Tense

exists with the certainty toexist inthe status

of completion

will + be + Past Participle Simple Future Tense

exists(s) inthe process of existing inthe

status of completion

am/is/are + being + Past Participle Present Continuous or Present Progressive

Tense

existed inthe process of existing inthe status

of completion

was/were + being + Past Participle Past Continuous or Past Progressive Tense

exist(s) in possession ofthe status of

completion of existence inthe status of

completion

has/have + been + Past Participle Present Perfect Tense

existed in possession ofthe status of

completion of existence in the status of

completion

had + been + Past Participle Past Perfect Tense

exists with certainty toexist in possession of

the status of completion of existence in the

status of completion

will + have + been + Past Participle Future Perfect Tense

Summary Table of structures of all Tenses in the Active Voice

Present Past Future

Simple Subject - Verb in Present Tense

Object

Subject - Verb in Past Tense

Object

Subject will + Verb in Present

Tense Object

Continuous Subject - am/is/are + Present

Participle Object

Subject - was/were + Present

Participle - Object

Subject - will + be + Present

Participle Object

Perfect Subject - has/have + Past

Participle - Object

Subject - had + Past Participle -

Object

Subject will + have + Past

Participle Object

Perfect Continuous Subject - has/have + been +

Present Participle - Object

Subject - had + been + Present

Participle - Object

Subject - will + have + been +

Present Participle Object

Summary Table of structures of all Tenses in the Active Voice

Present Past Future

Simple Subject - is/are + Past participle+ by Object

Subject - was/were+ Pastparticiple + by Object

Subject - will/shall + be + Pastparticiple + by Object

Continuous Subject - is/are + being + Past

participle + by Object

Subject - was/were + being +

Past participle + by ObjectX

Perfect Subject - has/have + been +

Past participle + by Object

Subject - had + been + Past

participle + by Object

Subject - will + have + been +

Past participle + by Object

Perfect Continuous X X X

Auxiliaries and Forming Sentences in the Negative and Interrogative Forms

All the sentences that we have formed and analysed until now are in what is called the Affirmative form. This form is the basic template that

defines the structure of 2 other types of sentences Negative and Interrogative Sentences.

Negative sentences are a negation or a denial of an action by or upon a subject. Negation is achieved by inserting the word not in after the first

auxiliary in a Finite Verb. Given below are the rules for the formation of negative sentences from the basic affirmative sentences.

1. When Auxiliary Verbs are used prior to the Main Verb, just place a notafter the first Auxiliary Verb in the Finite Verb.2. When the verb is in the Simple Present, first replace the verb with do+ basicform ofverb or does + basicform ofverb. Note that do is

used when the basic form of the Verb is already in use while does is used when the Main Verb takes the form Basicform ofVerb + s/-es/-

ies. Once the replacement is made, place a not after the do/does because it is now the first auxiliary. This applies to auxiliaries of

possession (has/have) used as the main verb

y Iplaycricket = I do playcricket => I do not playcrickety Heplays cricket = He does playcricket => He does not playcricket.y I have a pen = I dohave a pen => I do nothave a peny She has a good voice = She does have a good voice => She does nothave a good voice


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3. When the verb is in the Simple Past, first replace the verb with did+ basicform ofVerb. Now place a notafter the didbecause it is nowthe first auxiliary. This applies to auxiliaries of possession (had) used as the main verb

y He sang well = He didsing well => He didnot sing welly Wefoughthard = We didfighthard => We didnotfighthardy I hada good time = I didhave a good time => I didnothave a good time

4. When the main verb is do, does or did, add a do after that and then place the notafter the original do, does or did. Consider the followingexamples.

y I do my homework = I dodomy homework => I do notdo my homeworky She does the embroidery = She does do the embroidery => She does notdo the embroideryy He dida good job = He diddo a good job => He didnotdo a good job

Interrogative sentences raise questions. The most basic questions that may be raised are those related to Action, Existence, Possession and

Certainty. Interrogation is achieved by moving the main Auxiliary Verb to the beginning of the sentence. Given below are the rules for the

formation of interrogative sentences from the basic affirmative sentences.

1. When Auxiliary Verbs are used prior to the Main Verb, move the first Auxiliary Verb in the Finite Verb to the beginning of the sentence.2. When the verb is in the Simple Present, first replace the verb with do+ basicform ofverb or does + basicform ofverb. Note that do is

used when the basic form of the Verb is already in use while does is used when the Main Verb takes the form Basicform ofVerb + s/-es/-

ies. Once the replacement is made, move the first Auxiliary Verb in the Finite Verb to the beginning of the sentence. This applies also to

auxiliaries of possession (has/have) used as the main verb.

y You sing well= You do sing well => Do you sing well?y Heplays cricket = He does playcricket => Does heplaycricket?y They have the ability = They dohave the ability => Do they have the ability?y She has a good voice = She does have a good voice => Does she have a good voice?

3. When the verb is in the Simple Past, first replace the verb with did+ basicform ofVerb. Now move the first Auxiliary Verb in the FiniteVerb to the beginning of the sentence. This applies also to auxiliaries of possession (had) used as the main verb.

y He sang well = He didsing well => Didhe sing well?y Wefoughthard = We didfighthard => Didwe fighthard?y Rakesh hada good time = Rakesh didhave a good time => DidRakeshhave a good time?

4. When the main verb is do, does or did, add a do after that and then place the notafter the original do, does or did. Consider the followingexamples.

y You do structural design = You dodostructural design => Do you do structural design?y She does the embroidery = She does do the embroidery => Does she do the embroidery?y He dida good job = He diddo a good job => Didhe do a good job?

Passive Voice and Intransitive Verbs

Verbs used in such a way in the Active Voice that the sentence cannot be rewritten in the Passive Voice are called Intransitive Verbs. Consider

the following examples.

y She speaks fasty He has arrivedy Ravi goes to school

The reason these verbs in these usages cannot be rewritten in the Passive Voice is that they do not have an object following the verb towards

which the action is directed (a direct object). As we understood in the introduction to the Passive Voice, logically, only an object towards which

action is directed can be the passive recipient of action. Therefore, intransitive verbs may be easily identified by the absence of a direct object.

This also tells us that a verb may be transitive or intransitive depending on whether it is followed by a primary object. Therefore, it is possible

for the same verb to be transitive in some cases and intransitive in some other cases.

Deriving the Past and Past Participle forms of verbs Irregular Verbs

As we have learnt so far, one of the most important steps in learning English is learning the 5 forms of a verb. The table below highlights the

rules usually followed to convert verbs into their Past Tense form

S No. Structure Past Tense/PastParticiple Form

Examples

1Verbs ending in y with the y preceded by a

consonantVerb-y+ied Carry-y+ied = Carried

2Verbs ending in y with the y preceded by a

vowelVerb+ed Allay+ed = Allayed

3 Verbs ending in any other consonant Verb+ed Reason+ed = Reasoned

4 Verbs ending in e Verb+d Free+d = Freed

5 Words that end in b, g, m, n and p Verb+last letter+ed Slip + p + ed = Slipped


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(last letter is doubled) Nab + b + ed = Nabbed

While the majority of verbs in English fit into one of these categories, there are some verbs, however, which are either modified very differently

or are altogether replaced by another word in the Past or the Past Participle form.

y Teach Taught - Taughty Rise Rose - Riseny Do Did - Done

Such verbs are called irregular verbs. Many of these irregular verbs are also commonly used in day-to-day speech and writing. Hence, in order

to attain a high level of competence in English, it is necessary to learn as many of these irregular verbs as possible and how to use them in

different situations. Annexure 1 contains a table of a number of irregular verbs arranged in alphabetical order. The table contains the Present,

Past and Past Participle forms of each verb.

Phrasal Verbs

Another interesting and important aspect of English is the concept of Phrasal Verbs. A Phrasal Verb is a combination of a Verb and a

Preposition that means an action very different from the original Verb or what would be inferred logically from the meanings of the Verb and

the Preposition.

y Call + up An order to report for active military duty/telephoneo Just 2 days into his vacation, he was calledup for active service on account of the sudden outbreak of waro Icalledhim up to discuss the latestdevelopments

y Call + out Announce so that others may hearo The teachercalledout the names of the students one by one to take attendance.

y Call + off Cancel a scheduled activityo The match was calledoffdue to incessant rain.

y Call + upon Urge, Exhorto Dr. Abdul Kalamcalledupon students to rededicate themselves to the cause of science

y Call + on To make a visit to meet a person, preferably at the latters place (home/office)o Icalledon him to enquire about his health

y Call + in Get someone to come and do a jobo We hadto callin a plumber to fix the leaking sinko The situation went out of handandthe army hadto be calledin

y Call + for Demando The opposition partycalledfor the ministers resignation after the scandal broke out

In all these examples, we see that the phrase has a meaning very different from that of the word call though they have a peripheral similarity

with it. Phrasal verbs get their meaning through history of usage and have to be learnt through exposure and familiarisation. Annexure Igives a

list of common phrasal verbs used in day-to-day English with examples of the same.

Past, Past Participle and Present Participle forms of Phrasal Verbs are formed by using the corresponding Past, Past Participle and Present

Participle form respectively of the original verb.

Present Past Past Participle Present participle

Catch up Caught up Caught up Catching up

Catch on Caught on Caught on Catching on

Do in Did in Done in Doing in

Introduction to Modals

Verbs are words used to make a reference to an action. This, however, does not cover the entire range of ideas we wish to communicate. For

instance, rather than just make a reference to a future action, we may want to predict a future action or outcome. The difference here is that

this kind of statement allows us to convey not just a description but also the speakers opinions, assessments, recommendations, preferences,

orders, deductions, etc., regarding the actions or outcomes being referred to. Modals are words used to make the above possible.

Given below is a list of commonly used modals.

y Musty Shouldy Wouldy Couldy Cany Mighty May


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y Ought toy Have to

Usage of Modals

Modals may be considered as replacements of the primary auxiliary of a verb. In simple terms, they take the place of the first auxiliary in a verb

consisting of multiple words including one or more auxiliaries. However, apart from this, the introduction of a modal may also change the basic

structure of the verb itself. Consider the following pair of statements

y Ram is sicky Ram must be sick

The modal mustalong with be replaced the original verb is. Consider now the following example

y I hadspoken to him before booking the tickety I shouldhave spoken to him before booking the ticket

The verb hadspoken is replaced by the modal verb shouldhave spoken. Note that the auxiliary had indicating the past perfect tense has been

replaced with the auxiliary have which normally represents the Present Perfect Tense. Use of modal verbs would involve such changes in

structure and it is important for a student to be familiar with how each of the 20 tenses changes its structure upon use of a modal.

Modals are inserted at the head of a Finite Verb. The insertion of a modal is also accompanied by significant changes in the structure of the

Verb. The nature of these changes depends on the structure of the original Finite Verb, i.e., on the Voice as well as the Auxiliary used. The next

segment explains the insertion of Modals in sentences in the Active Voice and the subsequent segment explains the insertion of Modals in

sentences in the Passive Voice

Inserting Modals in sentences in the Active Voice

Modal Structure 1. Where the Finite Verb uses an explicit Auxiliary of Certainty at the head, the Modal replaces that Auxiliaryy I willmeethim I shouldmeethimy I willbe meeting him I shouldbe meeting himy I willhave spoken by then I shouldhave spoken by theny I willhave been studying for 7 years by then I wouldhave been studying for 7 years by then

Modal Structure 2. Where the Finite Verb uses an Auxiliary of Possession, that Auxiliary must first be transformed into the have form. Next,the have must be preceded by the Modal.

y I havespoken to him I havespoken to hum I shouldhavespoken to himy I hadspoken to him I havespoken to hum I shouldhavespoken to himy I have been speaking to him I have been speaking to him I shouldhave been speaking to himy I hadbeen speaking to him I have been speaking to him I shouldhave been speaking to him

Modal Structure 3. Where the Finite Verb uses an AuxiliaryofExistence in the PresentTense, the Auxiliary should be replaced with Modal +be format as given below

y I am careful I shouldbe carefuly You are diligent You shouldbe diligenty She is wary of his intentions She shouldbe wary of his intentionsy They are extremely grateful They wouldbe extremely grateful

Modal Structure 4. Where the Finite Verb uses an Auxiliary of Existence in the Past Tense, the Auxiliary should be replaced with Modal +have + been format.

y They were ecstatic with joy They musthave been ecstatic with joyy We were very careful We shouldhave been very carefuly I was watching his every move I shouldhave been watching his every movey The coach was using Shyam on the right wing The coach shouldhave been using Shyam on the right wingy His fans were waiting eagerly for him to show up His fans musthave been waiting eagerly for him to show up

Modal Structure 5. Where the Finite Verb uses an AuxiliaryofAction in the PresentTense implicitly, first make it explicit by rewriting theverb in the do/does + Basicform ofVerb structure. Now, replace the Auxiliary of Action with the Modal.

y Iplayon the left wing I do playon the left wing I shouldplayon the left wingy Sheplays the guitar She does playthe guitar She shouldplaythe guitar

Modal Structure 6. Where the Finite Verb uses an Auxiliary ofAction in the Past Tense implicitly, replace it with Modal + have + PastParticiple form ofthe Verb.

y I spoke to him yesterday I shouldhave spoken to him yesterdayy She sang a popular number She couldhave sung a popular number

Inserting Modals in the Passive Voice


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Modal Structure 7. Where the Finite Verb contains is, will be or is + being followed by thePastParticiple, replace the is, will be or is beingwith modal + be

y The job is done The job shouldbedoney He will beinvited He shouldbeinvitedy A letter is being sent A letter shouldbe sent

Modal Structure 8. Where the Finite Verb contains was, was being or has/have/hadbeen followed by the PastParticiple, replace the was,was being or has/have/hadbeen with modal + have + been.

y The footage was seen by millions of people The footreage wouldhave been seen by millions of peopley The new recruits were being trainedfor the job The new recruits shouldhave been trainedfor the joby The letter has beenwritten The letter shouldhave beenwritteny The letter hadbeenwritten The letter shouldhave beenwritteny The letter willhave beenwritten The letter shouldhave beenwritten

The following table summarises the analysis above and condenses it into 6 different structures in which modal verbs may be used and the

corresponding original tenses that were modified to attain that form. Understanding this can greatly enhance your comprehension of the

shades of meanings introduced by modals.

S No Structure of Sentence with

Modal

Tenses of verbs it can replace Particulars

1 Subject + Modal + Present Tense

+ Complement

Simple Present (AV)

Simple Future (AV)

am/is/are become be. does/do become do. Simple

Present Tense with s becomes Simple Present Tense

All modals may be used

2 Subject + Modal + be + PresentParticiple + Complement

Present Continuous (AV)Future Continuous (AV)

All modals except can may be used

3 Subject + Modal + have + Past

Participle + Complement

Present Perfect (AV)

Simple Past (AV)

Past Perfect (AV)

Future Perfect (AV)


4 Subject + Modal + have + been+

Present Participle + Complement

Present Perfect Continuous (AV)

Past Continuous (AV)

Past Perfect Continuous (AV)

Future Perfect Continuous (AV)


5 Subject + Modal + be + Past

participle + by + complement

Simple Present (PV)

Present Continuous (PV)

Simple Future (PV)

All modals may be used

6 Subject + Modal + have + been +

Past Participle + by +

Complement

Present Perfect (PV)

Simple Past (PV)

Past Continuous (PV)Past Perfect (PV)

Future Perfect (PV)


Understanding the range of meanings introduced by Modals

Modal Meaning

Must Presents an imperative to act as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

Should Makes a recommendation for immediate or future action as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

States the speakers expectation of the status of the Subject with respect to the rest of the verb and the complement

Would States the speakers opinion that the subject would prefer to act as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

Could It is possible and even preferable that the subject acts as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

Used to make polite offers when subject is I, and to make polite suggestions when the subject is You.

Can The subject has the capability to act as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

May Expresses the probability that the subject acts as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

Might Expresses the probability (weaker than may) that the subject acts as described by the rest of the verb and the complement

Ought to Expresses the speakers opinion that to act as described by the rest of the verb and the complement is the morally preferable option

for the subject

Have to Expresses the speakers opinion that the subject possesses an imperative to act as described by the rest of the verb and the

complement

The formation of Negative and Interrogative sentences with Modals

The formation of negative and interrogative sentences using Modals follows rules similar to those involved in formation of such sentences using

the primary Auxiliaries.


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Negation is achieved by inserting the word not in after the Modal in a Finite Verb. Given below are the rules for the formation of negative

sentences from the basic affirmative sentences using Modals. Construction of Interrogative sentences is achieved by moving the Modal to the

beginning of the sentence.

A point of caution while using modals in the negative and interrogative forms

While in the case of Auxiliary verbs, the Negative and Interrogative forms correspond to the Affirmative form in terms of meaning and usage,

the same is not applicable with respect to Modals. For instance, the sentence

May I come in?

is not the question form of

I may come in.

The former is a way of seeking permission to come in while the latter mentions the possibility of coming in. In fact, some usages of some

modals do not have a corresponding negative or interrogative form with the same modal. Consider the following conversations

Student: May I come in?

Teacher: You may come in.

Weatherman: It might rain tomorrow.

Sports enthusiast: Could it rain tomorrow?

Insert Exercise Create the negative & interrogative forms given the affirmative form

INTRODUCTION TO PHRASES AND CLAUSES

Now that we have explored the concept of finite verbs and non-finites, we may now take the next step and define the concepts phrase and

clause.

Phrase - A group of words that conveys a single idea but does not contain a finite verb, though it may contain a non-finite verb

1. A number of attempts were made ( Phrase containing no verb)2. Coming out from the hall, he met the pressmen (Phrase containing a non-finite verb)3. Written by a scholar, the book makes excellent reading. (Phrases containing non-finite verbs)4. To understand philosophy is difficult (An infinitive)Clause - A group of words that conveys a whole idea and contains a finite verb

1. I taught him ( containing the finite verb taught) - Simple sentence containing only one clause and thus one finite verb2. When I saw him, he was crying Two clauses combining the finite verbs saw and was crying3.

I warned him but he did not listen Two clauses containing the finite verbs warned and did not listen.

The important point a learner needs to understand is that the bare minimum requirement for a complete sentence is 1 clause. A stand-alone

phrase never makes a complete sentence. A sentence could consist of 1 or more clauses and any number of phrases, but there should always

be 1 clause that forms the core of the sentence. Everything else in the sentence, be it a word, phrase or clause, plays the role of adding to the

contents of that core clause, giving us more information about the subject or verb of that core cause or about other words, phrases or clauses

in the sentence.

Types of Phrases and Clauses:

Phrases and clauses serve many different purposes in a sentence.

1. Noun phrase A group of words that stands for something(s) orsomeone, i.e., a nouny The clever boy escaped.y It is an interesting novel

2. Adjectival phrase A group of words that describes/qualifies a Noun, Noun equivalent or a Noun Phrasey This is a jewel of gold.y I raised a very important point.

3. AdverbialPhrase A group of words that stands for something which describes/qualifies a verb, an adjective or an adverby She walked in a brisk manner.y He studied for two hours.y They lived in a big city

There are 2 types of clauses in any sentence Main Clause and Subordinate Clause.


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Main Clause When a clause is a stand-alone part of a sentence and is not dependent on any other part of the sentence to convey a

meaningful idea

y John ran fasty He is intelligent but he is lazyy I called on him and I enquired about his healthSubordinate Clause When a clause cannot stand on its own as an independent sentence and depends on another part of the sentence for it to

be meaningful

y I dont know where he lives.y She forgot that I had helped her.y If they wish, they can get it.y Though the time was over, he continued writing the examinationSubordinate clauses, like phrases, are of three types

1. Noun clausesy I know that he has lied.

2. Adjectival clauses andy They attacked the fort which was surrounded by a moat.

3. Adverbial clauses1. Raju left the place when they came here.

grammar book for spoken english course - chapter 1

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