grammar handbook
DESCRIPTION
Beginner to Intermediate LevelTRANSCRIPT
Grammar Handbook Beginner to Intermediate Level
Mieder van Loggerenberg
Copyright © 2010 SANOOK ENGLISH
E-mail: [email protected] ESL - TEFL - TEYL - TOEFL - TOEIC - IELTS
Index
Index
Grammatical Terms ……………………………………………………………………………… 1
Punctuation ……………………………………………………………………………… 5
Basic Grammatical Rules ……………………………………………………………………………… 10
Parts of Speech ……………………………………………………………………………… 11
Nouns ……………………………………………………………………………… 11
Articles ……………………………………………………………………………… 14
Pronouns ……………………………………………………………………………… 15
Verbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 22
Types of Verbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 27
A List of Verbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 28
Finite verbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 30
Non-finite verbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 35
Helping Verbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 41
Non-continuous Verbs (State Verbs) ……………………………………………………………………………… 43
Verbs can become Adjectives ……………………………………………………………………………… 48
Adjectives and Adverbs ……………………………………………………………………………… 49
Conjunctions ……………………………………………………………………………… 53
Prepositions ……………………………………………………………………………… 55
Interjections ……………………………………………………………………………… 67
Infinitive or –ing? ……………………………………………………………………………… 68
Gerunds and Infinitives ……………………………………………………………………………… 70
Simile ……………………………………………………………………………… 72
Metaphor ……………………………………………………………………………… 76
Hyperbole ……………………………………………………………………………… 79
Euphemism ……………………………………………………………………………… 80
Oxymoron ……………………………………………………………………………… 82
Phrases ……………………………………………………………………………… 83
Noun and Verb Phrases ……………………………………………………………………………… 83
Prepositional Phrases ……………………………………………………………………………… 84
Verbal’s and Verbal Phrases ……………………………………………………………………………… 85
Clauses ……………………………………………………………………………… 87
Independent and Dependent Clauses ……………………………………………………………………………… 87
Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses ……………………………………………………………………………… 89
Relative Clauses ……………………………………………………………………………… 90
Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses ……………………………………………………………………………… 91
Common Usage Problems ……………………………………………………………………………… 92
Homophones ……………………………………………………………………………… 92
Parallelism ……………………………………………………………………………… 93
Misplaced Modifiers ……………………………………………………………………………… 95
Dangling Modifiers ……………………………………………………………………………… 97
Sentence Fragments ……………………………………………………………………………… 98
Fused Sentences ……………………………………………………………………………… 100
Sentences and Sentence Elements ……………………………………………………………………………… 101
Sentence Types ……………………………………………………………………………… 101
Subjects and Predicates ……………………………………………………………………………… 102
Active and Passive Voice ……………………………………………………………………………… 104
Complements ……………………………………………………………………………… 106
Direct and Indirect Objects ……………………………………………………………………………… 107
Appositives ……………………………………………………………………………… 108
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Glossary of Grammatical Terms
Active Voice In the active voice, the subject of the verb does the action (e.g. They killed the President). See also Passive Voice.
Adjective A word like big, red, easy, French etc. An adjective describes a noun or pronoun.
Adverb
A word like slowly, quietly, well, often etc. An adverb modifies a verb. Article
The "indefinite" articles are a and an. The "definite article" is the. Auxiliary Verb
A verb that is used with a main verb, be, do and have are auxiliary verbs. Can, may, must etc. are modal auxiliary verbs.
Clause
A group of words containing a subject and its verb (for example: It was late when he arrived).
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Conjunction A word used to connect words, phrases and clauses (for example: and, but, if).
Infinitive
The basic form of a verb as in to work or work. Interjection
An exclamation inserted into an utterance without grammatical connection (for example: oh!, ah!, ouch!, well!).
Modal Verb
An auxiliary verb like; can, may, must etc. that modifies the main verb and expresses possibility, probability etc. It is also called "modal auxiliary verb".
Noun A word like table, dog, teacher, America etc. A noun is the name of an object, concept, person or place. A "concrete noun" is something you can see or touch like a person or car. An "abstract noun" is something that you cannot see or touch like a decision or happiness. A "countable noun" is something that you can count (for example: bottle, song, and dollar). An "uncountable noun" is something that you cannot count (for example: water, music, money). A “proper noun” is a noun which names a specific person, place, or thing (for example: John, Bangkok, Canada, Honda).
Object
In the active voice, a noun or its equivalent that receives the action of the verb. In the passive voice, a noun or its equivalent that does the action of the verb.
Participle
The -ing and -ed forms of verbs. The -ing form is called the "present participle". The -ed form is called the "past participle" (for irregular verbs, this is column 3).
Part Of Speech
One of the eight classes of word in English - noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction and interjection.
Passive Voice
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb (e.g. The President was killed). See also Active Voice.
Phrase
A group of words not containing a subject and its verb (e.g. on the table, the girl in a red dress). Predicate
Each sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The predicate is what is said about the subject.
Preposition
A word like at, to, in, over, etc. Prepositions usually come before a noun and give information about things like time, place and direction. Some more examples include:
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about above across after against around at before behind below
beneath beside besides between beyond by down during except for
from in inside into like near of off on out
outside over since through throughout till to toward under until
up upon with without
Pronoun
A word like; I, me, you, he, him, it etc. A pronoun replaces a noun. Other examples listed alphabetically include:
all he my she this
another her myself some us
any herself neither somebody we
anybody him nobody someone what
anyone himself none something which
anything his no one that who
both I nothing their whom
each it one theirs whose
either its others them you
everbody itself our themselves your
everyone many ours these yours
everything me ourselves they yourself
few mine several this yourselves
Sentence
A group of words that express a thought. A sentence conveys a statement, question, exclamation or command. A sentence contains or implies a subject and a predicate. In simple terms, a sentence must contain a verb and (usually) a subject. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!).
Subject
Every sentence contains (or implies) two parts: a subject and a predicate. The subject is the main noun (or equivalent) in a sentence about which something is said.
Tense
The form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future).
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Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.
Verb
A word like (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin. A verb describes an action or state. There are three types of verbs: linking, transitive and intransitive. A linking verb joins or connects a subjects to its complement or predicate. In the sentence, “Mr. Chris is my English teacher,” the verb “is” links the subject, “Chris” with its complement “my teacher.” A transitive verb is a verb that requires an object; that is, someone or something that receives the action. In the sentence, “The dog bit the man,” the verb “bit” is transitive. An intransitive verb does not require an object. In the sentence, “We danced all night,” the verb “dance” is intransitive as it does not require an object or receiver of the action.
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Punctuation
1. Period . 2. Comma , 3. Colon : 4. Semicolon ; 5. Question mark ? 6. Exclamation mark ! 7. Apostrophe ' 8. Hyphen - 9. Dash - 10. Single Quotation marks ‘ ’ 11. Quotation marks “ ” 12. Ellipsis … 13. Slash / 14. Brackets ( ) 15. Square brackets [ ] 16. Braces { }
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1. Period [.]
Use a period to show the end of a sentence.
Hockey is a popular sport in Canada.
The federal government is based in Ottawa.
Use a period after certain abbreviations.
B.C. is the province located on the West Coast.
Dr. Bethune was a Canadian who worked in China.
The company is located at 888 Bay St. in Toronto.
It is 4:00 p.m. in Halifax right now.
2. Comma [,]
Use a comma to show a pause in a sentence.
Therefore, we should write a letter to the prime minister.
Use a comma with quotation marks to show what someone has said directly.
"I can come today," she said, "but not tomorrow."
Use commas for listing three or more different things.
Ontario, Quebec, and B.C. are the three biggest provinces.
Use commas around relative clauses that add extra information to a sentence.
Emily Carr, who was born in 1871, was a great painter.
3. Colon [:]
Use a colon to introduce a list of things.
There are three positions in hockey: goalie, defense, and forward.
Use a colon to introduce a long quotation.
The prime minister said: "We will fight. We will not give up. We will win the next election."
4. Semicolon [;]
Use a semicolon to join related sentences together.
The festival is very popular; people from all over the world visit each year.
Use a semicolon in lists that already have commas.
The three biggest cities in Canada are Toronto, Ontario; Montreal, Quebec; and Vancouver, B.C.
5. Question Mark [?]
Use a question mark at the end of a sentence to show a direct question.
How many provinces are there in Canada?
Note: do not use a question mark for indirect questions.
The teacher asked the class a question. Do not ask me why.
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6. Exclamation Mark [!]
Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence to show surprise or excitement.
We won the Stanley Cup!
The forest is on fire!
7. Apostrophe [']
Use an apostrophe to show ownership of something.
This is David's computer.
These are the player's things. (Things that belong to the player)
Note: For nouns in plural form, put the apostrophe at the end of the noun.
These are the players' things. (Things that belong to the players)
Use an apostrophe to show letters that have been left out of a word.
I don't know how to fix it.
8. Hyphen [-]
Use a hyphen to join two words that form one idea together.
Sweet-smelling
fire-resistant
Use a hyphen to join prefixes to words.
Anti-Canadian
non-contact
Use a hyphen when writing compound numbers.
One-quarter
twenty-three
9. Dash [-]
Use a dash before a phrase that summarizes the idea of a sentence.
Mild, wet, and cloudy - these are the characteristics of weather in Vancouver.
Use a dash before and after a phrase or list that adds extra information in the middle of a
sentence.
The children - Pierre, Laura, and Ashley - went to the store.
Most Canadians - but not all - voted in the last election.
Use a dash to show that someone has been interrupted when speaking.
The woman said, "I want to ask - " when the earthquake began to shake the room.
10. Single Quotation Marks [‘]
Used to set off quotations within quotations:
He said, "The word 'splivich' will not be found in a standard dictionary".
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11. Quotation Marks ["]
Use quotation marks to show what someone has said directly.
The prime minister said, "We will win the election."
"I can come today," she said, "but not tomorrow."
12. Ellipsis […]
Ellipsis is a mark or series of marks that usually indicate an intentional omission of a word or
a phrase from the original text. An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech, an
unfinished thought, or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence. The ellipsis calls
for a slight pause in speech.
"I … am … coming.” She said out of breath.
An ellipsis may also imply an unstated alternative indicated by context.
For example, when Count Dracula says "I never drink … wine."
The implication is that he does drink something else, which in the context would be blood. In such
usage the ellipsis is stronger than a mere dash, where for example
"I never drink—wine."
Might only indicate that the Count, not a native English speaker, was pausing to get the correct
word.
In writing the speech of a character in fiction or nonfiction, the ellipsis is sometimes used to
represent an intentional silence of a character, usually invoked to emphasize a character's
irritation, appall, shock or disgust.
13. The slash [ / ]
Use the slash to separate "and" and "or", when appropriate. The phrase "and / or" suggests
that a series of options are not mutually exclusive.
"To register, you will need your driver's license and/or your birth certificate."
The slash is used when quoting lyrics and poetry to denote a line break. Be sure to add
spaces between your slashes here.
"Row, row, row your boat / gently down the stream / Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, / life is but
a dream."
The slash can replace the word "and" to join two nouns. By replacing "and" with a slash, you
suggest that there is equal important to both characteristics. Use these replacements in
moderation to place greater emphasis where "and" may not do so—as well as as not to
confuse the reader. You can also do the same for "or", as in "his /her". However you should
not use the slash to separate independent clauses, as shown below.
"The student and part-time employee has very little free time." → "The student / part-time
employee has very little free time."
"Do you want to go to the grocery store, or would you prefer to go to the mall?" → "Do you want
to go to the grocery store / would you prefer to go to the mall? – This is incorrect.
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14. Brackets & Parentheses [ ( ) ]
Understand the difference between parentheses, brackets, and braces.
Use parentheses ( ( ) ) to clarify, to place an afterthought, or to add a personal comment. Be
sure to include the period after the closing parenthesis.
Steve Case (AOL's former CEO) resigned from the Time-Warner board of directors in 2005.
Used for clarification. Here, commas can replace the parentheses.
You will need a flashlight for the camping trip (don't forget the batteries!).
Abbreviations in Brackets
At the first mentioning of an organisation in a newspaper article, both its abbreviation and
the spelled-out form are mentioned, one of which is enclosed in brackets
He was an active member of the IOC (International Olympic Committee).
He was an active member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).
An afterthought. Note that the period (full stop) follows the last parentheses —not before
the first. Also note that replacing the parentheses with a comma may not be entirely suitable
here, and is better off with a period or a semicolon.
15. Square Brackets ( [ ] )
Use brackets ( [ ] ) to signify an editor's note in a regular piece of writing. You can also use
brackets to clarify or to revise a direct quote so that it appeals to your own writing. Brackets
are often used to encompass the word "sic" (Latin for thus), suggesting that the previous
word or phrase was written "as is", with the error intended to be displayed.
"[The blast] was absolutely devastating," said Susan Smith, a local bystander at the scene of the
incident.
"It was absolutely devastating!" – the actual quote by Susan Smith.
16. Braces [ { } ]
Braces ( { } ) are most widely used in denoting a numeric set in mathematics. Though
generally uncommon, braces can also be used in regular writing to indicate a set of equal,
independent choices.
{ 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 }
Choose your favorite utensil { fork, knife, spoon } and bring it to me.
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Basic Grammatical Rules
This explains and illustrates the basic grammatical rules concerning parts of speech, phrases, clauses, sentences and sentence elements, and common problems of usage.
Parts of Speech Phrases Clauses Common Usage Problems Sentences and Sentence Elements
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Nouns
NOUNS DEFINED A NOUN is a name word: a type of word that gives a name to a person, place, or thing. NOUNS give names to: concrete things: Carlos lost his keys. abstract ideas: Her personal philosophy is odd. abstract qualities: She says I lack sensitivity. feelings: I feel great joy when I run. actions: Parking can be difficult around campus. people: Michael Douglas is our instructor. animals: What kind of a bear is Asiatic Bear? places: Sussex Rd. divides East London from Central London. NOUNS can be divided into two major kinds: COMMON NOUNS and PROPER NOUNS. A common noun names any member of a group of persons, places, or things. A proper noun names a particular member of a common noun group. Some examples of common nouns are: person, country, team, and bear. Some examples of proper nouns are: Bill, Senegal, Bulls, and Asiatic. A third kind of noun is a GERUND, which is a noun in the form of the present participle of a verb (the -ing form). [See Verbs: Principal Parts]. Although gerunds are formed from verbs, they name actions and therefore function as nouns in sentences. Present participle as a verb: I have been typing for six hours straight. Present participle as a gerund/noun: Skiing is a blast; I love skiing. In other words, words ending in -ing can act as a noun or a verb, depending on context. COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS Every NOUN can be distinguished as COMMON or PROPER. COMMON NOUNS name ordinary things that are not specific or important enough to be capitalized (except at the beginning of a sentence). Common nouns refer to any of a class of people places or things. Common nouns include most of the nouns used to name things. The following are just a few examples: television, color, candles, computer, president, music, telephone, dog, weather PROPER NOUNS name particular people, places, or things that are special enough to be always capitalized. The following are a few examples: President Clinton , Georgia, Sony, Catholic , Pacific Ocean, Melissa, McDonalds, Walnut Street
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Reg. Count. Irr. Count. Uncount.
Singular a chair a man water
Plural chairs men -
MASS AND COUNT NOUNS Every noun can also be distinguished as count or mass. Count Nouns Count nouns are nouns that can be quantified or counted with a number. Some types of count nouns are:
Names of persons, animals, plants, insects, and their parts: a boy, a kitten, a rose, an ear, three boys, seven kittens, twelve roses, two ears
Objects with a definite shape: a building, a balloon, a house, an octopus, four buildings, six balloons, four houses, two octopi
Units of measurement and words of classification: a gram, a pound, a piece, a lump, an item, a bit, a family, a state, a language, a phrase a word
Some abstract words: a hindrance, a scheme, an idea, a plan, a taboo, a rest
Tests for Count Nouns:
Count nouns can be quantified by a number.
They have singular and plural forms.
They can use a, an, or one as a modifier.
They can use "many" as a modifier.
Mass Nouns are uncountable by a number. Mass nouns are quantified by a word that signifies amount. Some types of mass nouns are:
Materials, Food, Metals, and natural qualities: bread, cotton, wood, lightness, adolescence
Names of liquids, gases, and substances made of many small particles: cappuccino, oil, smoke, oxygen, rice, sugar, salt, cement, gravel
Names of Languages: English, Spanish, French, Latin, Sanskrit, Chinese
Many abstract nouns, including those ending in -ness, -ance, -ence, -ity: beauty, ignorance, peace, serenity, helpfulness, patriotism
Most gerunds: looking, listening, swimming, running, anticipating
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Remember, a number can not be used to quantify a mass noun. Incorrect: four woods, one rice, three courages) To measure or classify mass nouns use "of" after a measurement: a foot of wood, a pound of rice, an ounce of courage, a bar of chocolate, a piece of music, a bag of money Tests for Mass Nouns:
Mass nouns are quantified by an amount rather than a number.
They have only one form (singular).
They cannot have "a," "an," or "one" before them as modifiers.
They can use "much" as a modifier.
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Article A or An?
"A" goes before all words that begin with consonants.
a cat a dog a purple onion a buffalo a big apple
with one exception: Use an before unsounded h.
an honorable peace an honest error
"An" goes before all words that begin with vowels:
an apricot an egg an Indian an orbit an uprising
with two exceptions: When u makes the same sound as the y in you, or o makes the same sound as w in won, then a is used.
a union a united front a unicorn a used napkin a U.S. ship a one-legged man
Note: The choice of article is actually based upon the phonetic (sound) quality of the first letter in a word, not on the orthographic (written) representation of the letter. If the first letter makes a vowel-type sound, you use "an"; if the first letter would makes a consonant-type sound, you use "a." So, if you consider the rule from a phonetic perspective, there aren't any exceptions. Since the 'h' hasn't any phonetic representation, no audible sound, in the first exception, the sound that follows the article is a vowel; consequently, 'an' is used. In the second exception, the word-initial 'y' sound (unicorn) is actually a glide [j] phonetically, which has consonantal properties; consequently, it is treated as a consonant, requiring 'a'.
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Pronouns
PRONOUNS DEFINED Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns. Pronouns come in different forms to show different meanings. NOUN AND PRONOUN CASE Case refers to how nouns and pronouns are used in relation to the other words in a sentence. The three cases are subjective, objective, and possessive. Pronouns that are used as subjects or subject complements should appear in the subjective case, those that act as direct or indirect objects or are the object of a preposition use the case.
Subjective Case
Objective Case
I (First Person Singular) we (First Person Plural) you (Second Person Singular and Plural) he, she, it (Third Person Singular) they (Third Person Plural)
me (First Person Singular) us (First Person Plural) you (Second Person Singular and Plural) him, her, it (Third Person Singular) them (Third Person Plural)
Subjective Case Subjective case is sometimes called the nominative case. A noun or pronoun is in the subjective when it is used as the subject of the sentence or as a predicate noun. A predicate noun follows a form of the "be" verb, and it renames the subject of the sentence. In the following examples, nouns and pronouns in the subjective case are italicized. I hope to finish my paper tonight. Valerie danced in the statewide competition. He is a clown. (The word clown is a predicate noun) Objective Case A noun or pronoun is in the objective case when it is used as a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of the preposition. Dad prepared the dinner. Our dog crawled under the fence. Mom gave us the money.
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Possessive Case A noun or pronoun is in the possessive case when it is used to show ownership of an object: Mom washed Valerie's leotard. Where did you find her book? A Chart of Pronoun Cases
Subjective Objective Possessive
I me my + n., mine
You you your + n., yours
He him his + n., his
She her her + n., hers
It it its + n., its
We us our + n., ours
They them their + n., theirs
PERSONAL PRONOUNS When pronouns are singular it means that one person or thing is being referred to. When they are plural it means the pronoun refers to more than one person or thing. Personal Pronouns are the most commonly used pronouns. Singular personal pronouns: I, me, you, he, him, she, her, it Plural personal pronouns: we, us, you, they, them Example: John baked a cake for Eileen = He baked it for her. Personal Pronouns
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
Singular I me
you she, her (F) he, him (M)
it
Plural we, us you they them
First person pronouns refer to the person speaking. Example:
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I am very hungry, let's get something to eat. Second person pronouns refer to the person being spoken to. Example: If you are hungry we could go get something to eat. Third person pronouns refer to the person being spoken about. Example: If he is hungry we could take him for something to eat. Additionally, the third person singular form identifies whether the person being spoken about is a man or a woman. In the example above we know that a man is being talked about because he is used as a pronoun.
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Possessive Pronouns are personal pronouns that show ownership or possession. Singular possessive pronouns: my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its Plural possessive pronouns: our, ours, your, yours, their, theirs Example: I found John's hat = I found his hat.
Possessive Pronouns
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
Singular I my
mine
you yours
her, hers (F) his (M)
its
Plural our ours
your yours
their theirs
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out a particular person or thing. Demonstrative Pronouns call attention to their antecedents. An antecedent is the word or words to which a pronoun refers. Singular demonstrative pronouns: this, that Plural demonstrative pronouns: these, those Example: The yellow car is his = That is his car.
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Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
Singular Plural
this that
these those
This is the chair I'm going to buy. Are those shoes on sale?
INTENSIVE AND REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Intensive pronouns are used to emphasize a noun or pronoun. Example: The president herself took us out to lunch. The intensive pronoun herself emphasizes the president. The third person singular form also shows that the president is a woman. A reflexive pronoun shows that the doer of an action is also the receiver of the action. Example: Chris cut himself. We can tell that the person who cut is also the person who was cut. That Chris is a man is shown by use of the masculine form himself. Reflexive Pronouns reflect the action back to the noun or pronoun that has just been named (ends in -self or -selves). Singular reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself... Plural reflexive pronouns: ourselves, themselves, yourselves Example: I will find it myself. Hint: When a pronoun is used in a sentence, it should always be clear to what or to whom the pronoun is referring. Too many pronouns in a sentence can be very confusing: He went there to do that, but she didn't know where he was.
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Intensive and Reflexive Pronouns
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
Singular I myself
you herself (F) himself (M)
itself
Plural ourselves yourselves themselves
PRONOUN/ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT A pronoun is a substitute for a noun. The pronouns or nouns that they refer to are called antecedents. A pronoun and its antecedent are in agreement if they are both singular and both plural. Example: Dr. House finished his rounds. In English, pronouns are used to replace nouns. This means that you don't have to use the same noun over and over. The noun that is replaced by a pronoun is called an antecedent. In the sentence: The car won't start, it needs some gas. The antecedent for the pronoun it is the noun car. Frequent misuse of plural pronouns occur with two types of singular antecedents: indefinite pronouns and generic nouns. Indefinite Pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. They include:
any no one everybody anyone something
either each neither everyone
everything anybody someone none
Example: In class everyone performs at his or her [not their] level of ability. To correct a mistakenly plural pronoun referring to a singular indefinite pronoun, you can do one of three things:
Replace the plural pronoun with he or she or [his or her.] Example: When someone has been drinking, he or she is probably acting dumb.
Make the antecedent plural. Example: When frat boys have been drinking, they are probably acting dumb.
Rewrite the sentence so that no problem of agreement exists. Example: A frat boy who has been drinking is probably acting dumb.
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Generic Nouns represent a typical member or any member of a group, such as a typical student or any lawyer. Example: Every student must pull all-nighters regularly if he or she wants to excel. The same three options for correction apply for indefinite pronouns and general nouns. Treat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural. Collective nouns include such words as: jury, committee, crowd, family, audience, couple, troop, team, class. Ordinarily the group functions as a unit, so the noun should be considered singular; however, if the members of the group function as individuals, the noun should be treated as plural. Example: The O.J. Simpson jury has reached its decision. Compare: The Illini crowd clapped their hands. Compound antecedents connected by "and" should be treated as plural. Example: Jack and Jill climbed up a hill and fetched their pail of water. When compound antecedents are connected by "or" or "nor" (or by "either...or" or "neither...nor"), make the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent. Examples: Either Desi or Lucy should be fired from her job. Neither the engineering student nor the biology majors could remember their schedules.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. Example: Who was at the door? What did they want?
When the antecedent names one or more people use: who whom which
When the antecedent names one or more things use: what which
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RELATIVE PRONOUNS Relative pronouns are used to begin subordinate clauses. Example: The movie that they wanted to see started at 7:00 pm. who whoever whom whomever whose which that
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Verbs
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS The three principal parts of verbs are the present tense form, the past tense form, and the past participle. (The present participle or "-ing" form is sometimes considered a fourth principal part.) Present Tense indicates an action in the present: Now the class begins. She walks to class. Past Tense indicates an action that occurred in the past: We wanted to see the show. The little girl blew a bubble. The Past Participle can be used as an adjective or modifier. It is typically formed by adding 'd' or 'ed' to the base form. Many times, this form is identical to the past tense of the verb: Since the dishes were washed, we left the kitchen. The broken vase sat unceremoniously on the kitchen table. COMMON MISTAKES There are many irregular verbs (about 250) that confuse writers when forming past tense and past participles. Here is a sample of irregular verbs.
Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
drink drank drunk
see saw seen
be been been
* am,are, is, have, has * was, were, had * been, had
AUXILIARY VERBS Auxiliary or helping verbs are verbs that are used to help form verb phrases but cannot do so independently. There are four basic auxiliary verb groups:
1. to be 2. to have 3. modal auxiliaries 4. to do
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To Be This auxiliary verb is used in the progressive tenses and passive voice: Progressive Tense: You are kicking. You were kicking. You have been kicking. Passive Voice: You are kicked. You were kicked. You have been kicked. To Have This verb is used as an auxiliary in the perfect tense: I have finished my paper. I had finished my paper. I have been finished with my paper. Modal Auxiliaries There is only one tense of these verbs and they are always followed by an infinitive. They are most commonly used to represent degrees of freedom or severity. Most common modal auxiliaries: will, shall, can, may, need (to), dare, would, should, could, might, must, ought (to) Ability: I can run. Necessity: I must run. Obligation: I ought to run. Permission: I may run. To Do This verb is used when the main verb of the sentence requires aid of an auxiliary, but there is no other helping verb that will fit. It is often used in questions, negative or emphatic statements: Does he drive? He drives, doesn't he? Despite his flat tire he does drive. PERFECT AND PROGRESSIVE VERB FORMS The perfect form is the verb tense used to indicate a completed, or "perfected," action or condition. Verbs can appear in any one of three perfect tenses: present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect.
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Verbs in the perfect form use a form of "have" or "had" + the past participle. (It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.) Present Perfect: I have finished my homework already. Past Perfect: He had watched TV for an hour before dinner. Future Perfect: Nancy will have finished by the time her parents return The progressive form is a verb tense used to show an ongoing action in progress at some point in time. It shows an action still in progress. Verbs can appear in any one of three progressive tenses: present progressive, past progressive, and future progressive. The verbs in the progressive form use a form of "to be" + the present participle (an -ing verb). (It is the form of the helping verb that indicates the tense.) Present Progressive: The cake is baking slowly. Past Progressive: The trees were waving back and forth. Future Progressive: The children will be laughing. The perfect and progressive forms can be combined, as in the following examples (Again, the form of the helping verbs indicates the tense): Present Perfect Progressive: I have been running for an hour. Past Perfect Progressive: I had been running for an hour. Future Perfect Progressive: I will have been running for an hour. REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS Verbs are subdivided into two groups, regular verbs and irregular verbs, on the basis of how their past tense and past participles are formed. Regular Verbs Most verbs are regular verbs. Regular verbs are those whose past tense and past participles are formed by adding a -d or an -ed to the end of the verb. To roll is a good example of a regular verb: roll, rolled, rolled Sometimes the last consonant must be doubled before adding the -ed ending. For example: plan, planned, planned Irregular Verbs There is no formula to predict how an irregular verb will form its past-tense and past-participle forms. There are over 250 irregular verbs in English. Although they do not follow a formula, there are some fairly common irregular forms. Some of these forms are:
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break broke broken
cut cut cut
come came come
repay repaid repaid
Distinguishing Regular and Irregular Verbs Dictionaries are perhaps the most valuable tool one can use in distinguishing between regular and irregular verbs. If only one form of the verb is listed, the verb is regular. If the verb is irregular, the dictionary will list the principal parts of the other forms. VERB MOOD Verbs may be in one of three moods: indicative, imperative, or subjunctive. The indicative mood is used to make factual statements. The imperative mood makes a request or a command. The subjunctive mood can express a doubt or a wish using clauses beginning with if or that and can express a request, demand or proposal in a clause beginning with that. Indicative mood Present indicative: Jerry Seinfeld laughs on television. Past indicative: Jerry laughed on television. Future indicative: Jerry will laugh on television tomorrow. Imperative mood Notice how much sharper the picture appears. Call her tomorrow. Take a seat! Subjunctive mood Past Subjunctive:
1. He talks about grammar as if he were an expert. (Expresses doubt or an idea contrary to fact.)
2. I wish that I were a fast runner. (Expresses a wish.) Present Subjunctive:
1. The professor requests that the paper be turned in on time. (Expresses a request.) 2. The rules require that each contestant submit an entry form. (Expresses a demand.) 3. I suggest that the heat be reduced. (Illustrates a proposal.)
Auxiliary verbs such as could, would, and should might also express the subjunctive mood, especially when one expresses a condition contrary to fact. Examples:
Past subjunctive Condition contrary to fact
If the forecaster were correct, I would be prepared.
If the forecaster could be correct, I would be prepared.
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If the company were to fly her, she would interview.
If the company would fly her, she would interview.
If Joe were to marry Ann, he would be happy. If Joe should marry Ann, he would be happy.
Verbs that are often followed by that clauses with subjunctive verbs: announce, ask, as if, as though, demand, determine, indicate, insist, move, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, and suggest.
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Types of Verbs
There are two main types of verbs in English grammar. The following states: (a) the names of different kinds of verbs and (b) their relationship to each other. The Verb's Role in a Sentence Verbs can be divided according to the job they do in a sentence. The grammar-expert's way of saying this is that we can divide verbs syntactically. These are the divisions and sub-divisions according to syntax:
1. finite verbs ◦ transitive verbs ◦ intransitive verbs ◦ linking Verbs
2. non-finite verbs ◦ infinitives ◦ gerunds ◦ participles
present participle past participle perfect participle
3. helping verbs (auxiliaries) ◦ primary auxiliaries ◦ modal auxiliaries
Formation of the Verb-Word We know that verbs are words, just like any other part of speech. The words that represent the verbs follow different patterns of spelling or sound. Verbs can, therefore, be divided into various kinds depending upon how they are formed. Grammarians would call this a morphological division.
▪ regular verbs ▪ irregular verbs ▪ compound verbs ▪ phrasal verbs
Verbs According to Meaning Those who know grammar well call this division of verbs a semantic classification.
▪ action words (action verbs) ▪ being ▪ having
Now you know the names of different verbs and how they are classified. We can classify them according to their role in a sentence (syntactically), or their formation (morphologically), or their meaning (semantically).
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A List of Verbs (Finites and Non-finites)
This list of verbs gives us all the possible finite and non-finite verbs that can be formed from a single verb to eat. The Verb 'to eat' A List of Finite Verbs: ▪ The Active Forms Based on only Primary Auxiliaries as Helping Verbs.
◦ eat / eats used in the simple present tense. (Both these verbs use the dummy primary auxiliary 'do' in negative and interrogative (question) sentences.)
◦ am / is / are + eating present continuous tense. ◦ has / have + eaten present perfect tense. ◦ has / have + been +
eating present perfect continuous.
◦ ate simple past tense. ◦ was / were + eating past continuous. ◦ had + eaten past perfect. ◦ had + been + eating past perfect continuous.
▪ The Passive Forms Using only Primary Auxiliaries as Helping Verbs.
◦ am /is / are + eaten simple present. ◦ am / is / are + being +
eaten present continuous.
◦ has / have + been + eaten
present perfect.
◦ was / were + eaten simple past. ◦ was / were + being +
eaten past continuous.
◦ had + been + eaten past perfect.
▪ The Active Forms Using Modals as Helping Verbs. The modals are: ◦ can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to, used to, dare (to), need
(to). ▪ In the examples below I have used shall / will to illustrate the finite verb phrases using modals.
Most of the modals above can replace shall / will in the phrases below to give us meaningful English. ◦ shall / will + eat ◦ shall / will + be + eating ◦ shall / will + have + eaten ◦ shall / will + have + been + eating
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▪ The Passive Forms Based on Modals as Helping Verbs. The passive forms are fewer than the active. Here too most of the other modals can replace shall / will. ◦ shall / will + be + eaten ◦ shall / will + have + been + eaten
A List of Non-finite Verbs (Verbals):
◦ to eat - infinitive (as in 'He likes to eat slowly.') ◦ eating - gerund (as in 'Eating too much spoils your health.')
▪ The three participles: ◦ eating - present
participle (as in 'I saw him eating those mangoes.')
◦ eaten - past participle (as in 'The sweets eaten just now are a gift from our neighbor.') ◦ having eaten - perfect
participle (as in 'Having eaten the sweets, we decided to send a thank-you note to our neighbor.')
The List of Verbs — both Finite and Non-finite is complete. This list is useful for several reasons:
▪ Grammar learners sometimes make the mistake of thinking a non-finite verb to be a finite verb. This list of verbs will help you to clearly recognize the finite verb as well as the verbals or non-finites (if any) in a sentence, if you use the list as a grammar guide. How? If you want to know whether the verb 'is writing' is finite or not, search for a similar form in the list. You will see 'is eating' listed as a finite verb. Therefore 'is writing' is a finite verb. If your verb was only 'writing', then it would be a non-finite verb (i.e. gerund or participle in this case).
▪ Identifying the finite verb is necessary, because it is the essential verb in a sentence; non-finites are
helpful but not essential for the existence of a sentence.
▪ The subject, object, indirect object, etc are built around the finite verb. The finite verb is like a nucleus of the clause or sentence.
▪ Knowing the exact words in a finite verb phrase helps us to correctly identify the 'operator' (i.e. the
first word of the finite verb phrase). This is required because the construction of negative and interrogative (question) sentences have something important to do with the 'operator'.
The possible finite and non-finite forms of the verbs be, have and do will be coming soon in another 'list of verbs'.
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Finite Verbs
Finite verbs and non-finite verbs are two broad categories of verbs. Look at these two groups of sentences.
Group A Group B
I like to sing songs. We like to sing songs. You like to sing songs. He likes to sing songs. She likes to sing songs. Anita likes to sing songs. They like to sing songs.
I am fond of eating mangoes. We are fond of eating mangoes. You are fond of eating mangoes. He is fond of eating mangoes. She is fond of eating mangoes. Antony is fond of eating mangoes. They are fond of eating mangoes.
In sentences in Group A, we have the verbs 'like' and 'sing.' The verb 'like' takes on different forms (like, likes) in the six sentences in the group. The verb 'sing' has the same unchangeable form 'to sing' in all the sentences. So, in group 1, we have one verb which changes and the other which does not change. In the sentences in Group B, we have a similar thing. We have the verb 'be' in different forms (am, is, are) and the unchangeable verb form 'eating' of the verb 'eat.' So in group 2, we have again one changing verb and the other an unchanging verb. What are Finite Verbs? The verb 'like' in group A and the verb 'be' in group B are verbs which change. The reason these verbs change their forms must surely be because of the words I, we, you, he, she, Anita, they... since it is clear that all other words within the same group of sentences are the same. These verbs which change according to words (I, we, you, he, she, Anita, and they,) are called Finite Verbs. The word 'finite' means 'limited.' Since the words (I, we, you, he, etc.,) can make these verbs change, the power of these verbs must be limited indeed! What are Non-finite Verbs? They are verbs which do not change. In group A above, the verb 'to sing’ and in group B, the verb 'eating' are non-finite verbs of two different types. No word in a sentence can impose a change on these verbs. I suppose, that is why we call them non-finite, which means 'not limited' by other words in a sentence.
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Are Finite Verbs Necessary? Yes. Every sentence in English needs such a verb. It is an essential part of a sentence. You may find sentences in which a noun or a pronoun is missing (because it's hidden), but you don't usually find a sentence in which a finite verb is missing. What are their types? They may be transitive, intransitive or linking. In a sentence you can have any one of these types. 1. Transitive 2. Intransitive 3. Linking What is there to learn about them? About these verbs we need to understand important things like:
▪ agreement with the subject; ▪ tense; ▪ aspect; ▪ voice; and ▪ mood.
We can think of these as properties of the verb or as "rules" which finite verbs obey. They are obedient and reliable verbs! Non-finite verbs are the wayward ones. Though they are born in the verb family, the non-finites often act like nouns, and sometimes like adjectives or adverbs. 1. Transitive Verb A transitive verb is a type of finite verb. A finite verb is considered transitive or intransitive depending upon its relationship with some other words in the sentence. Another way of saying this is that the division into transitive and intransitive is based on syntax. What is a transitive verb? Look at these sentences.
1. He met her yesterday. 2. She wrote a story last year. 3. Rust destroys iron.
In these sentences, the verbs are the words: met, wrote and destroys. In each sentence, you ask the question, 'met whom/what?' You will get the answers as follows:
▪ sentence 1 — question: met whom? — answer: her ▪ sentence 2 — question: wrote what? — answer: story ▪ sentence 3 — question: destroys what? — answer: iron
(Note that we use whom in the questions for human beings and what for things and also for animals.)The words her, story and iron in the sentences above are called objects in grammar. A transitive verb is, therefore, a verb which has an object. What is an object? An object, we may say, is the aim or purpose or destination or target of a verb's action. In our three example-sentences above, the verbs met, wrote and destroys have the words her, story and iron as their targets. These targets are called objects. With a transitive verb, we can expect these objects.
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Why do we use the word 'transitive'? We call these verbs 'transitive' because these verbs have the property of transitivity. What is transitivity? To transit means to pass through. Each of the verbs met, wrote and destroys in our examples has its action conveyed (carried) to the object. We might also say that the action begins with the subject (he, she, rust in our sentences) and passes through the verb to the object. This property of the verb is transitivity. Hence we call these verbs transitive. Understanding these verbs in this way helps us to remember what they are. Here's a list of transitive verbs. eat, drink, read, write, play, see, hear, answer, buy, find, love, like, understand, catch, bring, sing, meet, give, take, get, forget, buy, sell, pay, help. Here are some of these verbs used in sentences.
Sentence verb object
(a) The teacher answered the question. answered question
(b) My friend bought a house. bought house
(c) The children found the money. found money
(d) Most Indians love cricket. love cricket
(e) Children like football. like football
2. Intransitive Verb What is an intransitive verb? Simple, I suppose. It is a verb which is not transitive—a verb which does not take an object. Here are some examples along with some sentences. walk, jump, sleep, sit, lie, stand, weep, kneel, fall, fly, flow, remain, die, belong, wait, come, go. (a) We walk to the railway station. (b) The children jump with joy. (c) Babies sleep for many hours. (d) My brother stood there. (e) Jesus wept. Some Exceptions You will often find transitive verbs used intransitively, i.e. without an object.
▪ They are eating. ▪ We play in the evening. ▪ I understand.
At rare times intransitive verbs are used transitively. ▪ How did you cover all that distance? We walked it. ('walked' has the object 'it' in
this sentence) ▪ I cannot stand such nonsense. ('stand' has the object 'nonsense' in this sentence)
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Besides transitive and intransitive verbs, we have linking verbs in the finite verbs family. 3. Linking Verbs
Linking Verbs คอกรยารปแบบหนงในภาษาองกฤษทท าหนาท Link หรอวาเชอมค านามหรอประธานของประโยคทอยดานหนาเพ บอก หรอขยายประธานทอยดานหนา ตวอยางของ Linking verbs ไดแก
Example:
1. to appear ปรากฏ 2. to get ไดรบ 3. to prove พสจน 4. to sound เสยง
5. to be เปน อย คอ 6. to go ไป 7. to remain ยงคง 8. to stay พก
9. to become กลายเปน 10. to grow เตบโต 11. to seem ดเหมอน 12. to taste ชม
13. to feel รสก 14. to look ด คลาย 15. to smell กลน 16. to turn หมน พลก เลยว
USE การใช
The linking verbs above are often followed by adjectives instead of adverbs. In such situations, the adjective describes the subject of the sentence rather than the verb. Study the examples below to learn the difference. กรยา Linking verb ดานบนมกจะตามดวย Adjective แทนทจะเปน Adverb ในบางสถานการณ ค าคณศพท หรอวา adjective จะอธบายหรอขยายประธานของประโยคมากกวาทจะเปนค ากรยา ลองดตวอยางประโยคเพอความเขาใจ Example:
▪ Mary seemed sad. Correct ถกตองเพราะ Linking verb "seemed" ตามดวยค า Adj. คอ sad
▪ Mary seemed sadly. Not Correct ไมถกตองเพราะ Linking verb "seemed" ตามดวยค า Adv. คอ sadly
▪ The cake tastes good. Correct ถกตองเพราะ Linking verb "tastes" ตามดวยค า Adj. คอ good
▪ The cake tastes well. Not Correct ไมถกตองเพราะ Linking verb "tastes" ตามดวยค า Adv. คอ well
▪ The train is slow. Correct เหตผลเดยวกน หลง is เปน Adj. คอ slow
▪ The train is slowly. Not Correct เหตผลเดยวกน คอหลง is เปน Adv. คอ slowly
▪ James grew tired. Correct
▪ Sarah remained calm. Correct
IMPORTANT สงส าคญ
The verbs in the list above are not always used as linking verbs. Compare the examples below. ค ากรยาดานบนไมไดมความหมายเปน Linking verb เสมอไป จะตองดรปประโยคประกอบดวย
▪ Sally grew angry. "Angry" describes Sally. In this sentence, "to grow" is being used as a linking verb meaning "to become." ประโยคน grew เปน Linking verb เพราะวาหมายถง กลายมาเปน และตามดวย Adj.
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▪ The plant grew quickly.
"Quickly" does not describe the plant, it describes the manner in which it grows. In this sentence, "to grow" is not being used as a linking verb. ส าหรบประโยคน grew เปนกรยาหลกของประโยค โดยสงเกตค าทตามหลงจะเปน Adv ทมาขยายกรยาหลก คอ เตบโตอยางรวดเรว
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Non-Finite Verbs
1. Infinitives Infinitives are one of the three groups of non-finite verbs, the others being gerunds and participles. We shall look at this particular type of verb from three angles:
1. how it looks (its form or morphology); 2. what work it does in a sentence (its function or syntax); and 3. its meaning (or semantics).
How Can You Recognize an Infinitive? Its form is usually as follows: to eat, to drink, to play, to be, etc. Usually the infinitive has a 'to' before it. In some cases the word 'to' is dropped. We speak of such a verb (with the word 'to' dropped) as a bare infinitive. The bare infinitive is the standard form of an English verb. What work does it do? According to function, that is, the work it does in a sentence (syntax), it may be both a noun and a verb. Here is an example: I like to finish the work quickly. In this sentence the infinitive to finish does the following jobs:
▪ It is the object of the finite verb like - therefore to finish is similar to a noun (because being an object is a noun's job).
▪ The phrase to finish has its own object, work - so to finish is a verb (since verbs have objects).
▪ The adverb quickly modifies (i.e. tells us something more about) to finish. Since the phrase to finish is modifiable by an adverb, it must be a verb.
We can say that the infinitive, though born in the verb family, does not limit itself to being a verb. It often behaves like a noun when it goes around socializing in the world of sentences! In some cases:
▪ It behaves even as an adjective, as in the following sentence. That was a game to watch! In this sentence, to watch tells us something more about the quality of the game (a noun). Describing a noun is the work of an adjective.
▪ Sometimes it can behave like an adverb. The sentence below illustrates this. Her voice is pleasant to hear. The phrase to hear tells us something more about the quality of being pleasant. The word pleasant is an adjective, and words that tell us more about an adjective are traditionally called adverbs.
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The Infinitive and Meaning. If we take the meaning, (semantics) then the infinitive could be viewed as a pure, unmodified form of a verb. This pure meaning we modify, change, or mutate, by imposing on it such things as tense, modality, voice, etc. The infinitive in itself (semantically) is a pure action word (to do, to write, etc) or a word denoting existence (to be). 2. The Gerund A gerund is a non-finite verb and is often referred to as a verbal noun. There are three kinds of non-finite verbs. The other two are the infinitive and the participle. To understand the gerund, we shall look at its...
▪ Morphology - i.e. the shape of the gerund-word ▪ Syntax - i.e. its function in a sentence ▪ and semantics - i.e. its meaning.
The Morphology of the Gerund. It has an "-ing" ending. Please note that all verbs ending in "-ing" are not gerunds. Present participles also have the same form. It is easy therefore to confuse a gerund with a present participle. Hence, we cannot depend on morphology alone to identify (recognize) it. We need to look also at the work it does in a sentence.
The Syntax of the Gerund. The gerund does the work of a noun in a sentence. This means, it can be any one of the following:
1. The subject of a verb, as in the sentence... Swimming is good exercise. The word swimming is the subject of the verb is.
2. The object of a finite verb, as in... You enjoy learning a new language. The word learning is the object of the finite verb enjoy.
3. The object of a non-finite verb... She intends to begin writing the story soon. The word writing is the object of to begin, an infinitive (i.e. a non-finite verb).
4. The object of a preposition... He is interested in joining the group. The word joining is the object of the preposition in.
5. The indirect object of a verb... She gave reading great importance in her life. The word reading is the indirect object of the verb gave.
All these functions which the gerund is shown doing are usually those of a noun. Depending on the function, the grammatical case of the gerund will be nominative or accusative or genitive, etc.
The Semantics of the Gerund. You know that the noun is a name. The gerund is also a name. It is the name of an activity. In so far as it is an activity, it is a verb. In so far as it is a name, it is a noun.
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Avoiding Confusion.
Sometimes, not only the morphology, but also the syntax may lead us to believe a word is a present participle. At such times semantics helps us to recognize a gerund. Here are two examples:
▪ walking stick—the word walking looks like an adjective describing stick...but it is not— walking stick is not a stick which walks. It is a compressed form of stick for walking. So walking is the object of the preposition for. So walking is a gerund.
▪ reading room—the phrase does not mean that the room reads. It is a compression of a room for (the purpose of) reading. So reading is a gerund.
3. Participles What is a Participle? Look at these two sentences:
1. The stranger ignored the barking dogs. 2. I saw a boy riding a bicycle.
In sentence 1, the word barking...
▪ is formed from the verb 'bark' and it also denotes an action; therefore it is a verb; ▪ describes the noun 'dogs' and therefore it is like an adjective.
In sentence 2, the whole phrase riding a bicycle...
▪ acts like an adjective. It describes the noun 'boy'. The whole phrase is called a participial phrase and the word 'riding' is called its head...and as the head it is mainly responsible for the adjectival function.
▪ The word 'riding' also acts like a verb, because it has 'bicycle' as its object. Also remember that the phrase 'riding a bicycle' is an action-based description of the boy.
So then, what is a participle? A participle is a verbal adjective. It is by birth a verb, but mostly serves nouns and pronouns as an adjective does.
Types of Participles They are of three types:
▪ Present Participle; ▪ Past Participle; and ▪ Perfect Participle.
Sometimes you may hear or read that there are two (not three) types of participles. This is said because the Perfect Participle has no independent form, but one that depends on the form of the Past Participle. The point is to recognize the different forms whether you classify them as two or three. The point is to satisfactorily answer for ourselves the question, "what is a participle" by recognizing its forms and their associated grammatical functions. It is possible to recognize each of these types
▪ from their morphology (form), ▪ and the syntax (the work they do in sentences).
The meanings they convey are also different. An expert writer can use participles in subtle ways.
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How Can you Recognize Participles? They are sometimes difficult to understand or deal with; but it need not be so for you if you go through the following carefully. Understanding the types is part of the original and larger question: what is a participle? The forms of the three types of participles are as follows: The Present Participle
This non-finite verb can be recognized from its -ing ending (e.g. eating, playing, singing, studying, sleeping). However, this fact alone is not enough to recognize it for sure, because the gerund also has the same ending. So then, how can you know for sure that an -ing word is a present participle? Here's how... A present participle does the work of an adjective, but a gerund does the work of a noun. Though both have the same form, they are different in the jobs they do (i.e. in their function). These two examples will make this point clear to you...
▪ I enjoy singing. ('singing' is the object of the verb 'enjoy'—being an object of a verb is the mark of a noun—therefore, 'singing' is a gerund.)
▪ She is a singing girl. ('singing' describes the noun 'girl'—describing a noun is the function of an adjective—therefore 'singing' is a participle.)
So if you want to recognize a present participle you need to take into consideration not only its form but also its use in sentences.
The Past Participle
All past participles do not have one type of form. So they are harder to recognize. Here are some ways to help you recognize them...
▪ They often have one of these endings: -ed, -d, -t, -en, -n (as in: developed, hoped, burnt, fallen, grown).
▪ Sometimes they are formed by making an internal change in the basic form of the verb (e.g. sung from sing, won from win, bound from bind, met from meet).
▪ A third way of forming the past participle is by not changing the form of the verb at all (as in verbs: put, cut, set).
The Perfect Participle
The form of this particular non-finite verb depends on that of the previous one, i.e. the past participle. The form is: the word 'having' + the past participle. (e.g. having sung, having won, having met, having rested, having seen, etc). After the most important questions of what is a participle, what are its types and what forms it takes, we move on to how to use participles. Present Participle About the Present Participle, we already know two things:
1. that it has an -ing ending; and 2. that we can distinguish it from a gerund.
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Functions With the help of a number of examples, you will be able to understand every job it is capable of doing in sentences. It can function in these ways:
1. As part of some finite verb phrases...
The Present Participle is the word in any finite verb phrase that shows the continuous (progressive) aspect. If you go to the part on list of verbs, you will see all the finite verb phrases that can be formed from the verb eat. Out of these forms, I will take four examples and show you what I mean:
▪ am eating; ▪ had been eating; ▪ was being eaten; ▪ will be eating.
These phrases show the aspect of continuity. The word in bold in each of these phrases is the word which is especially responsible for expressing continuity and that word is a present participle. (Please be aware, that this participle can sometimes occur along with a past participle, as in the second and third examples above, where been and eaten are past participles.)
2. As a Participial Adjective...
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. The adjective lazy in the phrase lazy dog describes the noun dog. When we use a participle in this way, we call it a participial adjective. In the phrase sleeping dog, the word sleeping describes the dog. Now there is some difference between an ordinary descriptive adjective and a participial adjective. The word sleeping (participial adjective) is derived from a verb (sleep) and therefore, is an action-based descriptive word. The word lazy (descriptive adjective) is a quality-based descriptive word. The present participle (as well as, the past participle) can be used in this way. This type of use, where the adjective, is close to the noun (almost always on its left side in English) is called an attributive use.
3. As a Predicative Adjective...
Look at this sentence: The little boy is smart. The adjective smart is an essential part of the predicate. If you remove smart from the sentence, you don't have a sentence. The adjective smart is called a predicative adjective. The other adjective little (an attributive adjective) can be removed and we would still have a sentence. A present participle can be used as a predicative adjective, as in the following sentence: The news is disturbing. If you remove the present participle (disturbing) from this sentence, you will not have the sentence.
4. As a verb with an object...
Look at these sentences: ▪ Opening the gate, the man entered the compound. ▪ We saw the man, carrying a box on his head.
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The participle opening has the noun gate as its object; and the participle carrying has the noun box as its object. This is not surprising, because participles are verbs by birth. They may go around doing other things (like describing nouns) which "respectable" verbs don't do, but the verb-gene is in them!
5. As an adjective with modifiers and determiners.
Look at these phrases: ▪ the loudly shouting boss ▪ my two extremely struggling friends
The present participle shouting is modified by the degree modifier loudly; and the word the (an article) precedes the modifier. In the next phrase, the participle struggling is modified by the degree modifier extremely; and we have the determiners two and my preceding. The participle is behaving here exactly like an adjective in a noun phrase. It allows modifiers and determiners to keep it company. (You will see later that the past participle also behaves in this way.)
6. As a verb with an active or a passive meaning...
Look at these sentences. ▪ The crowd watching the match loudly cheered. ▪ The games being played occupy a lot of our time.
The participle watching has an active meaning because it describes the crowd as doing the watching activity. The participle being played has a passive meaning because the games don't do the playing, but have the playing done to them.
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Helping Verbs
Helping Verbs (also called Auxiliary Verbs) are not always clearly understood. The verb 'is' in the sentence — 'John is a good student' is incorrectly branded as an auxiliary verb. The truth is that the verb 'is' can function as a helping verb in one sentence and as a main verb in another...
▪ John is a good student. (is – is a main verb in this sentence). ▪ John is reading a book. (is- is a helping verb; and reading is the main verb—both these
verbs together forming a single finite verb phrase). What are Helping Verbs? Helping Verbs are part of finite verb phrases. Finite verb phrases usually have a main part and a helping part. Finite verbs are usually phrases (groups of words), except for two instances, when they are single words. In all other instances, a finite verb phrase consists of two or three or four words. To satisfy those who are curious, here the two occurrences of single-word finite verbs:
▪ the simple present tense active affirmative (e.g. sing/sings); and ▪ the simple past tense active affirmative(e.g. sang).
Please ignore these two exceptions right now. Here are some examples of finite verb phrases in sentences...
▪ I write an article every week. ▪ Now the article is written. ▪ My daughter has been writing it since last Monday. ▪ In my wife's opinion, I should have been writing it.
The finite verbs in these sentences can be broken up as follows:
Helping Verb(s) Main Verb
write
is written
has been writing
should have been writing
From this table we know that write, written and writing are the main verbs. Each of them is a different form of the verb 'to write.' All the other verbs in the table are helping verbs.
▪ Both 'is' and 'been' are forms of the verb 'to be.' ▪ 'has' and 'have' are forms of the verb 'to have.' ▪ The verb 'should' is called a modal auxiliary (or simply a modal).
You can also notice that in the four sentences above...
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▪ there is no helping verb in the first sentence, ▪ you find one, two, and three auxiliary verbs in the second, third and fourth sentences
respectively. There is a main verb in all the sentences. So, a helping verb requires a main verb to receive its help. Without a main verb, there can be no helping verb. How Do Helping Verbs Help?
1. Some helping verbs (called Primary Auxiliaries) help syntactically, i.e. they perform some grammatical function, such as... ▪ in forming the passive, ▪ in expressing the continuity (progressive) aspect, ▪ in expressing the perfect (completed) aspect, ▪ in providing a dummy verb where a negative or interrogative sentence is to be made in
particular tenses.
2. Other helping verbs (called Modal Auxiliaries) perform semantic functions. They add meaning to the meaning of the main verb. What they add are meanings like... ▪ ability, ▪ possibility, ▪ permission, ▪ command, ▪ habitual action, etc.
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Non-continuous Verbs (State Verbs)
Non-continuous verbs, or state verbs, are verbs that we can't use in the continuous form. Most verbs talk about actions. State verbs don't talk about actions; they talk about states, feelings, possession, and things that happen inside our heads. State verbs usually talk about things that are permanent and do not change. Example of How to Use State Verbs
▪ I know the answer (correct) I am knowing the answer (not correct)
▪ I love my daughter (correct) I am loving my daughter (not correct)
Common State Verbs Feelings
▪ dislike ▪ feel ▪ like ▪ love ▪ prefer
▪ fear ▪ hate
Things inside our Heads
▪ believe ▪ imagine ▪ realize ▪ remember ▪ possession
▪ forget ▪ know ▪ recognize ▪ understand ▪ belong
▪ own
Other State Verbs
▪ care ▪ need ▪ seem ▪ want ▪ wish
▪ mean ▪ promise ▪ surprise
Types of Verbs Group I Continuous Verbs The first group, called "Continuous Verbs", contains most English verbs. These verbs are usually physical actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all tenses.
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Continuous Verbs ▪ to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch etc.
Examples:
▪ I eat dinner every day. Correct ▪ I am eating dinner now. Correct
Group II Non-continuous Verbs The second group, called "Non-continuous Verbs", is smaller. These verbs are usually things you cannot see somebody doing. These verbs are rarely used in "continuous" tenses. They include: Abstract Verbs
▪ to be, to want, to cost, to seem, to need, to care, to contain, to owe, to exist... Possession Verbs
▪ to possess, to own, to belong... Emotion Verbs
▪ to like, to love, to hate, to dislike, to fear, to envy, to mind... Examples:
▪ He is here now. Correct He is being here now. Not Correct
▪ He wants a drink now. Correct He is wanting a drink now. Not Correct
Group III Mixed Verbs The third group, called "Mixed Verbs", is the smallest group. These verbs have more than one meaning. Some meanings behave like "Non-continuous Verbs", while other meanings behave like "Continuous Verbs." Mixed Verbs
▪ to have, to appear, to see, to hear, to feel, to weigh, to look ... List of Mixed Verbs with Examples and Definitions: to appear:
▪ Donna appears confused. Non-continuous Verb (Donna seems confused.)
▪ My favorite singer is appearing at the jazz club tonight. Continuous Verb (My favorite singer is giving a performance at the jazz club tonight.)
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to have: ▪ I have a dollar now. Non-continuous Verb
(I possess a dollar.) ▪ I am having fun now. Continuous Verb
(I am experiencing fun now.) to hear:
▪ She hears the music. Non-continuous Verb (She hears the music with her ears.)
▪ She is hearing voices. Continuous Verb (To hear something others cannot hear. She is hearing voices in her mind.)
to miss:
▪ John misses Sally. Non-continuous Verb (He is sad because she is not there.)
▪ Debbie is missing her favorite TV program. Continuous Verb (She is not there to see her favorite program.)
to see:
▪ I see her. Non-continuous Verb (I see her with my eyes.)
▪ I am seeing the doctor. Continuous Verb (To visit or consult with a doctor, dentist, or lawyer.)
▪ I am seeing her. Continuous Verb (I am having a relationship with her.)
▪ He is seeing ghosts at night. Continuous Verb (To see something others cannot see. For example ghosts, aura, a vision of the future etc.)
to smell:
▪ The coffee smells good. Non-continuous Verb (The coffee has a good smell.)
▪ I am smelling the flowers. Continuous Verb (I am sniffing the flowers.)
to taste:
▪ The coffee tastes good. Non-continuous Verb (The coffee has a good taste.)
▪ I am tasting the cake. Continuous Verb (I am trying the cake to see what it tastes like.)
to think:
▪ He thinks the test is easy. Non-continuous Verb (He considers the test to be easy.)
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▪ She is thinking about the question. Continuous Verb (She is pondering the question, going over it in her mind.)
to weigh:
▪ The table weighs a lot. Non-continuous Verb (The table has a great weight.)
▪ She is weighing herself. Continuous Verb (She is determining her weight.)
Some Verbs Can Be Especially Confusing: to be:
▪ Joe is American. Non-continuous Verb (Joe is an American citizen.)
▪ Joe is being very American. Continuous Verb (Joe is behaving like a stereotypical American.)
▪ Joe is being very rude. Continuous Verb (Joe is behaving very rudely. Usually he is not rude.)
▪ Joe is being very formal. Continuous Verb (Joe is behaving very formally. Usually he is not formal.)
NOTICE: Only rarely is "to be" used in a continuous form. This is most commonly done when a person is temporarily behaving badly or stereotypically. It can also be used when someone's behavior is noticeably different. to feel:
▪ The massage feels great. Non-continuous Verb (The massage has a pleasing feeling.)
▪ I don't feel well today. Continuous or Non-continuous Verb ▪ I am not feeling well today.
(I am a little sick.) NOTICE: Feel is very flexible and there is no difference in meaning in the two sentences above.) Verb Tense Group I - Continuous Verbs: The first group, called "Continuous Verbs", contains most English verbs. These verbs are usually physical actions which you can see somebody doing. These verbs can be used in all tenses. Continuous Verbs:
▪ to run, to walk, to eat, to fly, to go, to say, to touch, etc.
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Group II - Non-continuous Verbs: The second group, called "Non-continuous Verbs", is smaller. These verbs are usually things you cannot see somebody doing. These verbs are rarely used in "continuous" tenses. They include: Abstract Verbs:
▪ to be, to want, to cost, to seem, to need, to care, to contain, to owe, to exist... Possession Verbs:
▪ to possess, to own, to belong... Emotion Verbs:
▪ to like, to love, to hate, to dislike, to fear, to envy, to mind... Group III - Mixed Verbs: The third group, called "Mixed Verbs", is the smallest group. These verbs have more than one meaning. Some meanings behave like "Non-continuous Verbs", while other meanings behave like "Continuous Verbs." Mixed Verbs:
▪ to have, to appear, to see, to hear, to feel, to weigh, to look...
There are also a number of verbs that don't take the continuous forms in one meaning but DO take the continuous forms in other meanings. Here are some of the most important: Non-Continuous Meanings
▪ feel = 'have an opinion' - He feels he should get a second chance. ▪ see = 'understand' - I see what you mean. ▪ think = 'have an opinion' - I think we should leave immediately. ▪ appear = 'look like' - That appears to be stale. ▪ look = 'seem' - It looks impossible! ▪ taste = 'have a taste' - That tastes yummy!
Continuous Meanings
▪ feel = 'feel physically' - I'm feeling awful this afternoon. ▪ see = 'visit' - She's seeing a doctor this morning. ▪ think = 'use the brain' - He's thinking hard about the problem. ▪ appear = 'be on stage / perform' - Jack Daniels is performing at the Paramount tonight. ▪ look = 'stare at' - I'm looking at that strange man. ▪ taste = 'use the mouth' - The cook is tasting the sauce!
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Verbs can become Adjectives
Words that are normally verbs can often be used as adjectives. If a word modifies a noun or pronoun, it is an adjective, even if that word is usually associated with a different part of speech.
Sometimes the present participle (verb plus ing) form of a verb becomes an adjective:
A rolling stone gathers no moss.
Sometimes the past participle form of a verb becomes an adjective:
I will accept a written apology.
Such adjectives are sometimes called participle adjectives.
Each sentence may contain any number of verbs and adjectives, but only one word will be a participle adjective.
1. Many kind carpenters offered to repair the broken porch. Break
2. Never kiss a smiling crocodile. Smile
3. My father prefers to drink filtered spring water. Filter
4. This isn’t chocolate ice cream; it’s frozen chocolate milk! Freeze
5. The fallen leaves covered the new driveway. Fall
6. She was happy to find the translated version of the book. Translate
7. The sleeping dog’s snoring was louder than a freight train. Sleep
8. We pushed our way through the newly driven snow. Drive
9. I’d rather eat at a recently inspected restaurant. Inspect
10. Are you just hoping it will happen or is it a done deal? Do
11. Maria forgot to bring her new fishing pole. Fish / Fishing
12. Sadly, as she aged, he became just another forgotten name. Forget
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Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives Defined Adjectives are words that are used to modify a noun. Example: green grass (the adjective "green" describes the noun "grass") There are three kinds of adjectives known as the positive, comparative, and superlative forms, as in green, greener, greenest. Adjectives can be grouped into seven areas: (1) nouns as adjectives, (2) adjectives that modify an object, (3) numbers as adjectives, (4) pronouns and articles as adjectives, (5) multiple adjectives, (6) compound adjectives, and (7) adjectives used as nouns. 1. Nouns as adjectives a. A noun can be used to qualify (or describe) another noun, as in goose feathers, in which case there are no comparative or superlative forms such as "gooser" or "goosest." b. Some nouns can be made into an adjective by adding an ending such as -ish, -like, -ly, -y, -en, -al, -ar, -ory. Examples: He spoke in a childish manner. My, what a womanly figure you have. His teeth were yellowish in color. He was sitting at a wooden desk. He works at the Postal Office. What a spectacular show! Our program is going through a transitory period. Oftentimes, the endings -en and -al will be dropped, and the noun form will be used by itself, as in oak table, wool shirt, and, coast line. 2. Adjectives that modify an object a. Adjectives such as like and worth may be used to modify objects. Examples: Stale bread tastes like Styrofoam. Your textbook is worth one dollar. b. Sometimes prepositions, like "of" and "with" are used to form adjectives. Examples: She is fearful of dogs.
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Sometimes parents can be impatient with you. 3. Numbers as adjectives Any words related to number are considered adjectives, such as: "two," "twenty," "few," "many," "dozen," "third," and so on. 4. Pronouns and articles as adjectives a. Pronouns such as "this," "that," and "those" used to modify a noun are called demonstrative adjectives. b. Possessive pronouns such as "my," "your," and "his" used to modify a noun are called possessive adjectives. c. Articles such as "a," "an," and "the" are also adjectives. 5. Multiple adjectives When using more than one adjective to modify a noun, the adjectives may be separated by a conjunction or by commas. Example: Your teeth are strong and beautiful. You have strong, beautiful teeth. 6. Compound adjectives a. Nouns and adjectives may be combined to modify another noun, in which case the word can be hyphenated (although the hyphen is often a matter of personal preference). Examples: He is a warm-hearted fellow. I can be empty-headed sometimes. b. Past participles of verbs can also be used as adjectives, such as native born, foreign made, soft spoken, warmly dressed, well behaved, and so on. 7. Adjectives used as nouns It is possible to use an adjective as a noun by simply using the adjective as the subject and omitting the noun it modifies. Usually, adjectives used as nouns refer to a specific quality shared by a group (the pleasant) or a specific human characteristic shared by a group of people (the wise). Examples: We moderns are to the ancients what the poor are to the rich. Adverbs Defined An adverb is a word or group of words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They come in three different classes: simple, interrogative, and conjunctive.
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A simple adverb is used as a simple modifier telling manner, time, place, degree, or number. Examples: Eric jumped yesterday. The table belongs there. He seemed extremely edgy. She came to the party first. An interrogative adverb asks a question. Example: Where have you been? A conjunctive adverb connects independent clauses. Some common conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, also, anyhow, besides, consequently, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, still, then, therefore, and yet. Use a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb to join the two clauses. Example: Michael did not do his homework; however, he still received good grades. Common Mistakes Most is an adjective, but almost is an adverb Easy is an adjective, but easily is an adverb Good is an adjective, but well is an adverb Positioning Adverbs "only is" and "is only" have different meanings Comparatives and Superlatives Comparative: the second or middle degree of comparison in adjectives or adverbs Superlative: the third or highest degree of comparison in adjectives or adverbs The comparative and superlative degrees are formed by adding the -er and -est suffix to adjectives and adverbs with a single consonant for an ending. Comparative Superlative big bigger biggest soon sooner soonest Adjectives and adverbs ending in -y drop the -y and add an -ier in the comparative degree and an -iest in the superlative degree: Comparative Superlative dry drier driest early earlier earliest
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Adjectives and adverbs ending in the silent or mute -e drop the ending -e and add the -er for the comparative and the -est for the superlative: Comparative Superlative pale paler palest free freer freest Degrees of comparison can also be distinguished with the use of more and most: more clever; most clever Irregular adjectives: Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst much more most little less least
far farther further
farthest furthest
old older elder
elder eldest
Irregular adverbs: Comparative Superlative badly worse worst
far farther further
farthest furthest
little less least
much more most
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Conjunctions
Conjunctions Defined Conjunctions are grammatical connectors that link words, phrases or clauses. A conjunction can indicate the relationship between the elements that it connects in the sentence. Without these, we would not see the relationship. There are three types of conjunctions: coordinating, correlative, and subordinating. Coordinating Conjunctions A coordinating conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses that have equal, or the same grammatical functions: two nouns, verbs, adjectives, prepositional phrases, adverb clauses, etc. The coordinating conjunctions include: and, but, or, yet, nor, for, and so. Examples: Connecting nouns: I will buy a coat and a hat. Connecting verbs: I did not call nor write my mother. Connecting adjectives: The boy was nice but weird. Connecting dependent clauses: If the students show and the teacher is prepared, class will be productive. Connecting independent clauses: Ten thousand students applied to the college, but only six thousand were admitted. Correlative Conjunctions A correlative conjunction is a coordinating conjunction that works in pairs to connect elements in a sentence. The correlative conjunctions include: both...and, not...but, not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor, although...yet, whether...or. Examples: Connecting nouns: The name of the store is not Food World but Food Land. Connecting adjectives: The place of employment shall provide both health and life insurance. Connecting prepositional phrases: Orange juice is made either by squeezing oranges or by mixing a can of frozen concentrate. Connecting independent clauses: Not only did the cat jump over the fence, but he also scratched the paint. Subordinating Conjunctions A subordinating conjunction connects elements with different grammatical functions, usually a dependent and an independent clause. The subordinating conjunctions include: after, in case, unless, although, in that, until, as, now that, when, as if, once, whenever, as though, since, where, because, so, whereas, before, so that, whether, even though, than, which, except that, that, while, however, though, who/whom, if. Examples: He acts as though he is has done something wrong.
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I am sure that the teacher will let class out early. When the bell rings, the students must sit down. Since the cat ran away, the girl has been sad. Sample Exercises for Teaching Conjunctions Use coordinating conjunctions to connect these words, phrases, or clauses: 1. The boy has a red coat. The boy has a blue coat. 2. The man was nice. The man had a good sense of humor. 3. The teachers are on strike. The students do not have school. 4. The dog ran down the street. The cat ran down the street Use correlative conjunctions to connect these words, phrases, or clauses: 1. The boy went to school. The boy was late. 2. My daughter went to the party. My son went to the party. 3. I ate spaghetti. I ate salad. 4. The dog ran across the street. The dog did not run in front of a car. Use subordinating conjunctions to combine these sentences: 1. The car drove by. We saw cows in the pasture. 2. The teacher failed me. I did not take my final. 3. I went to school. I was late. 4. I called the police. There was a strange man outside. Conjunctive Adverbs A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects independent clauses. Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs are: however, moreover, nevertheless and therefore. Usage Conjunctive adverbs require semicolons: "The operation will probably be successful; however, I should tell you I'm nervous about performing it," said Dr. Gonzo. Common Pitfalls Conjunctive adverbs are often confused with coordinating conjunctions such as and, but, for, nor, or, yet or while. One difference is that coordinating conjunctions join clauses of equal rank and conjunctive adverbs do not. Another difference is that conjunctive adverbs are not true linking devices themselves, as indicated by their needing semicolons: I don't have enough butter for my batter; therefore, I'll buy butter to make my batter better.The flexibility of the conjunctive adverb in the sentence also indicates they aren't true linking devices like coordinating conjunctions. For example, the second part of this sentence could also be written: ...I will therefore buy some butter to make my batter better.
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Prepositions
A preposition is a word or group of words that shows the relationship--in time, space, or some other senses--between its object (the noun or pronoun that follows the preposition) and another word in the sentence: Allison put the bag in her locker. ("In" shows the spatial relationship between the verb "put" and the object of the preposition "locker.) Jamie kicked the ball through the goalposts. ("Through" indicates the direction which the ball traveled.) There are three kinds of prepositions, simple, compound, and phrasal. The following are representative examples of each: 1. Simple: after, except, off, with 2. Compound: alongside, throughout, underneath 3. Phrasal: across from, near to, in place of Here is a list of most of the common prepositions in English: aboard, about, above, according to, across, across from, after, against, along, alongside, alongside of, along with, amid, among, apart from, around, aside from, at, away from, back of, because of, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but, by, by means of, concerning, considering, despite, down, down from, during, except, except for, excepting for, from, from among, from between, from under, in, in addition to, in behalf of, in front of, in place of, in regard to, inside, inside of, in spite of, instead of, into, like, near, near to, of, off, on, on account of, on behalf of, onto, on top of, opposite, out, out of, outside, outside of, over, over to, owing to, past, prior to, regarding, round, round about, save, since, subsequent to, together, with, through, throughout, till, to, toward, under, underneath, until, unto, up, up to, upon, with, within, without A prepositional phrase includes the preposition, the object of the preposition, and the modifiers of the object. It may function as an adverb or an adjective: The cat climbed on the couch. (The phrase describes "climbed," so it's an adverb.) The park by the lake is a great place to play volleyball. (The phrase acts as an adjective because it gives more information about the park.)
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The following list shows some of the more common uses of prepositions. Where: place position across Her house is across the street. at He used to be a student at an American university. against His bicycle was leaning against the fence. behind The garage is behind the house. by That house by the lake is my dream house down We saw her walking down Fifth Avenue this afternoon. in She was dozing in an armchair when we got there. in back of The taxi is parked-in back of the bus. in front of The ball rolled in front of the us. inside Come in. It is warmer inside the house. near You shouldn't smoke near gasoline. on He put the book on the table. on top of I want cake and ice cream, and on top of that I want whipped cream. over The mother pulled the blanket over the baby. outside There's a bird's nest outside my window. to She went to the grocery store. through The bird flew through the open window. under I found that book. It was under the desk. underneath Put a pad underneath that hot coffee pot. up He was walking up the street. upon He placed his hat upon his head. among If you look carefully, you might find the letter among those papers. after Walk straight ahead then take the first street after the bridge. before I have your letter before me now. below They live in the apartment below ours. opposite The school is opposite the church. Where: direction into I saw her going into the theater a few minutes ago. out of He took some money out of his pocket. toward This road leads toward the sea. by way of Can't we go to New York by way of Philadelphia? across He is building a house across the street. opposite The post office is opposite the court house. When: time at I told her to meet us at six o'clock sharp. by Alice should be back by seven at the latest. in I'll meet you in an hour. for They are leaving for three weeks. during During the summer, I think I'll go to Florida. after Would you please call after eight. before Take this medicine before mealtime. until (till) We must wait until noon.
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on + time Do you think the train is arriving on time? in + time Please hurry up, or we'll never be in time for the first act. Around I get to my office around nine every morning. about I think she will be' away about a week. from...to The office will be open from nine to one every day from...until She works from eight until two six days a week. Why: Purpose, reason for Take this medicine for your headache. Whose: Possession of The leader of the scouts has not arrived yet. to Those books belong to Mary. How: Manner by I enjoy going there by train.' on I met her on the train. in You must be dressed in formal clothes at th4t hotel. with She met me with a scowl on her face. like She is not at all graceful; she walks like a duck. How: Agent, material by This film was directed by an American director. in The play was originally written in English. with I must fill my pen with ink. What, which at The shop at the corner sells stamps. on The apartment on the second floor is smaller than ours. by That book by Capote is a masterpiece. in The man in the dark suit is Mr. Howard. of This kind of material cannot be found today. for She was given an award for her high grades. as She works as a secretary.. How much, how long: measurement for We walked for miles and miles. He had lived here for years.. I paid sixty cents for a dozen eggs. of I want to buy two b7ottles of milk. by Meat is sold by the pound or by the kilo.
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Some prepositions are used to express a variety of meanings, and often present difficulties. Some of the common prepositions with their various meanings and their most common uses are summarized below for reference purposes. By Means or agent We went by bus. The letter was delivered by the postman. That story was written by a friend of mine. Without help, or alone (when used with a reflexive pronoun) He lives by himself. She did the homework by herself. I always study by myself. Passing near something and continuing without stopping I always walk by that house on my way to work. Several buses go by our house. Do you go by the post office? Time expression meaning, not later than I hope I can finish my work by six o'clock. He will be here by five o'clock. All classes will be over by June. PREPOSITIONS OF LOCATION: ABOVE, BELOW, OVER, UNDER, INSIDE, OUTSIDE, NEAR Above Anywhere higher than a certain point The ceiling is above our heads. The dictionary is on the shelf above the encyclopedia. Our airplane was above the clouds during most of the trip. The temperature is well above freezing. Below Anywhere lower than a certain point There is a shop below their apartment. From the airplane we could see mountains below us. That valley is below sea level. The temperature was below freezing this morning. Over Directly above a certain point: more than, during a long period of time.
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There is a light over the table. He held an umbrella over his head. We flew over the mountains. It cost over ten thousand baht. He is over eighty years old. Over the years, he had proven himself to be a true friend. Under Directly below a certain point: less than: under the supervision of The cat is sleeping under the chair. His shoes are under the bed. Your French book is under those magazines. The children in this class are under six years of age. John works under Dave Moore. Inside Completely within a certain location The paper is inside the drawer. Come inside the house it is much cooler here, You will find your gift inside that box. Outside Completely out of a certain location the opposite of inside He is outside the house. He is in the garden. Please wait outside the office. The car is outside the garage. Near Indefinite position not far away from a certain place The bank is near the post office. She lives near me. His car is parked near the school. To Continuing to a definite place We walked to the station. He drove to Bangkok. They traveled to France. Toward In the direction of All mosques face toward Mecca
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He is pointing toward his friend's house. Those children are running toward us. Into Motion that ends somewhere inside a certain place He has already gone into the theater. He put his hand into his pocket. She fell into the water. Out of Motion that ends somewhere outside a certain place She moved all the chairs out of the room. What time will they come out of the theater? The teacher sent the noisy boy out of the classroom. Through First into and then out of (To go through is to enter and then leave directly.) Let's walk through the park. We drove through several villages. You have to go through Room 3 in order to get to Room 4. IN, AT, ON In Location or residence in a state a city, or a country (The place is usually a large area or a large city.) He lives in America. That river is in Laos. She lives in Cairo Point of time or period of time thought of as a complete unit I saw him in January. It was in 1965. The mail comes in the morning. We swim and play in the summer. Duration of time He can do it in an hour. He finished the book in one evening. I wrote that composition in half an hour. Languages They were speaking in Arabic. The play was produced in French. That opera was originally written in Italian.
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Inside, within, enclosed He is in his office now. His hand is in his pocket. She is in the garden. After a certain length of time He will come in an hour. At Location or residence in a small town, or a street address if the house number is given He lives at Bangkok. We have finally arrived at his town. He lives at 18 Magnolia Street. Exact time He arrived at 8:00 o'clock. Those farmers stop working at sunset.. He gets up at dawn. Price The prices of those books begin at 70 baht and go up. They are on sale at 30 baht a dozen. I cannot afford to buy them at that price. Direction or aim Look at those boys fighting. That child threw a stone at me. The hunter aimed his gun at the birds. Location, place He is at school now. Dr. Miller is at his office. He is at work. On Resting on or touching something The book is on the table. The picture is on the wall, There is a light on the ceiling. Days of the week and other dates In the Northern Hemisphere summer begins on June 21. We do not have classes on Sundays. Our vacation begins on Friday. Location of residence on a street if the number is not given I live on McKinley Street.
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She is visiting a friend on Magnolia Street. For Duration of time She played the piano for two hours. We have been waiting for twenty minutes. They lived in Chiang Mai for two years. In exchange for He rented the house for very little money. I bought this book for eighty baht. Can you buy a good notebook for ten baht? For the pleasure or benefit of Mary sang songs for us. Shall I open the window for you? She baked a cake for me. Instead of: in place of She was busy, so I did her work for her. When his father was away, Tom did the work for him. Alice is going to cook dinner for her mother. For is often used in this way: be + adjective + for + noun + infinitive It is impossible for Tom to pronounce that word correctly. It is important for them to arrive early. It is too late for us to go to the party. BESIDE (NEXT TO), OPPOSITE, AS FAR AS, BETWEEN, AMONG Beside (Next to) He is sitting beside Alice. He is sitting next to Alice. The library is next to the post office. The library is beside the post office. Opposite Tom sits opposite me in the cafeteria every day. There is a new building opposite our house. Our school is opposite a park. As far as We walked as far as the park before we got tired. He threw the ball as far as he could.
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He threw the ball as far as that tree. We can see as far as the horizon. Between Alice Is sitting between Jane and Mary. I want to put the table between those two windows. Wednesday comes between Tuesday and Thursday. Among I found your letter among my school papers. He is sitting among some of his friends. Please do not put your papers among the ones I have corrected. BENEATH, UNDERNEATH, OFF, UPON Beneath, Underneath Beneath and underneath mean almost the same thing in many uses. Generally, both indicate a position lower than a given point. When the meanings diverge underneath conveys more specifically the meaning of one object being covered up by another, and beneath may be used in a figurative sense. It may be useful to associate underneath with under and beneath with below. Two hundred feet beneath (below) the surface of the earth solid rock was found. You will find a pot of gold underneath (under) a huge stone at the foot of the rainbow. Mr. Glum considers such fairy tales beneath his dignity. Off Removed from contact or connection; away from a place occupied before We took the book off the shelf. He took the picture off the wall. I can't find the calendar. It is off the wall. I lost a button off my coat. Upon Resting on top of (about the same meaning as on, when it means in contact with, or above.) His hat is upon his head. He put it on the shelf. Her photograph is upon the mantelpiece. BESIDES, LIKE, UNLIKE, DESPITE, IN ORDER TO Besides In addition to, more than Two others won prizes besides us.
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Besides those five verbs, he learned five nouns. She has written many good books besides that one. Like; Unlike Like means similar to. Unlike is the opposite of like. (Just like means identical; exactly the same as.) His mind is like an adding machine. You look just like your brother. Do you think English is like French? The film is unlike the book. Being so impolite is unlike him. He is usually very nice. Despite Despite like in spite of has the meaning of without regard to another circumstance or situation (It is often used in the expression 'despite the fact that’.) They are playing football despite the rain. They are playing despite the fact that it is raining. She came to school today in spite of the doctor’s warnings. In order to For the purpose of (usually can be replaced by to.) We will have to hurry in order to arrive on time. One has to go to the office in order to learn the results. In order to save time, please don't do that. SINCE, DURING, THROUGHOUT, BEFORE, AFTER, UNTIL, WITHIN, ACCORDING TO Since Duration of time based on stated prior period of time or specific date I have known him since his marriage. They have lived there since 1965. I haven't seen them since our party. During Over a stated period of time or while a given event is in progress; may be either constant or intermittent Juree lived in Chumporn during most of his childhood. We ate hot dogs and drank cokes during the football game. It rained several times during August. Throughout Much of the same meaning as during with stress on the intensity or continuity of action; indicates unceasing activity from the beginning until the end of the period of time mentioned.
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The girls whispered throughout the concert. It rained throughout our week at the beach. Before and After These words have obvious opposite meanings in time expressions I will see you after the examination. I would like to meet you before class time. He studies before an examination. He relaxes after all examinations. Until Period of time before something else happens; up to I will wait for you until five o'clock. He lived there until his marriage. I have to work up to five o'clock today. I have to work until five o'clock today. Within Inside described limits He said he would finish the report within the required time. The mail will arrive within an hour. According to Used in citing authority or source of information According to the last census, Houston has more than a million inhabitants. According to the critics, the play is excellent. According to my watch, it is 12:30. Prepositions at the end of the sentence. It used to be said that one should never end a sentence with a preposition, but in actual practice that is a rule that cannot always be followed. Prepositions commonly end sentences under the following circumstances: When an interrogative pronoun is the object of a preposition. Who (Whom) are you speaking for? What are you looking for? When a relative pronoun is used as the object of a preposition. This is the house that I used to live in. There is the man that I was speaking of. When the relative pronoun is omitted. This is the house I used to live in. = (This is the house in which I is used to live.) Here is the book I was speaking of. = (This is the book of which I was speaking.)
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After an infinitive at the end of the sentence. He used his new pen to write with. Notice the position of the preposition in the following sentences: He admires the man for whom he works. He admires the man whom he works for. He admires the man that he works for. He admires the man he works for. Verbs and Prepositions In English some verbs pattern with certain prepositions. The preposition and its object may follow the verb directly or may be separated from it by an adverbial modifier or by the object of the verb. talk to When did you talk to Mary? talk about I saw her yesterday. We talked about travel plans. approve of She approves of my plans to go to the mountains. comment on She commented at length on her work schedule. complain about She complained bitterly about it. object to Just what did she object to? refer to She referred mainly to needing more travel time between cities. think about What does she think about the work itself? believe in She believes in it strongly. rely on You can rely on that. look for She is only looking for more time. decide on She has decided on a talk with the manager. work for She works for a good company. explain to She will explain her situation to the manager in detail. blame for He can hardly blame her for her trouble with plan schedules. listen to He will probably listen sympathetically to her complaints. depend on What he does may depend on a number of considerations. excuse for She is prepared to excuse him for some delay. deal with She believes, however, that she will be fairly dealt with. care for I am sure I would not care for her job. Other verbs and prepositions that are frequently used together include the following: compare with introduce to compare to add to thanks for agree with prefer to correspond with return to hear from reach for pay for call on laugh at consist of belong to listen to respond to look at
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Interjections
Interjections are words or expressions which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjections are usually placed at the beginning of a sentence. They have no grammatical connection to the sentence in which they occur; therefore, interjections may stand alone. In addition, if an interjection is mild, it is followed by a comma. If it is strong, it is followed by an exclamation point. In no instance should an interjection with a comma or exclamation point be followed by a period or comma respectively. Examples include words like: Oh, Darn, Hey, and Well. The following are two examples of the proper usage of interjections in sentences: Well, I suppose I should stay home and study this weekend. Darn! I broke my fingernail.
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Infinitive or –ing?
Sometimes we need to decide whether to use a verb in its:
-ing form (doing, singing) or
infinitive form (to do, to sing).
For example, only one of the following sentences is correct. Which one?
I dislike working late. (???) I dislike to work late. (???)
When to use the infinitive
The infinitive form is used after certain verbs: - forget, help, learn, teach, train - choose, expect, hope, need, offer, want, would like - agree, encourage, pretend, promise, recommend - allow, can/can't afford, decide, manage, mean, refuse
I forgot to close the window. Mary needs to leave early. Why are they encouraged to learn English? We can't afford to take a long holiday.
The infinitive form is always used after adjectives, for example: - disappointed, glad, happy, pleased, relieved, sad, surprised
I was happy to help them. She will be delighted to see you.
This includes too + adjective:
The water was too cold to swim in. Is your coffee too hot to drink?
The infinitive form is used after adjective + enough:
He was strong enough to lift it. She is rich enough to buy two.
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When to use -ing
The -ing form is used when the word is the subject of a sentence or clause:
Swimming is good exercise. Doctors say that smoking is bad for you.
The -ing form is used after a preposition:
I look forward to meeting you. They left without saying "Goodbye."
The -ing form is used after certain verbs: - avoid, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, mind/not mind, practise
I dislike getting up early. Would you mind opening the window?
Some verbs can be followed by the -ing form or the infinitive without a big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose, start.
It started to rain. It started raining. I like to play tennis. I like playing tennis.
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Gerunds and Infinitives
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS
VERB + GERUND (a) I enjoy playing tennis.
Gerunds are used as the objects of certain verbs. In (a), enjoy is followed by a gerund (playing). Enjoy is not followed by an infinitive. INCORRECT: I enjoy to play tennis. Common verbs that are followed by gerunds are given in the list below.
(b) Joe quit smoking. (c) Joe gave up smoking.
(b) and (c) have the same meaning. Some two-word verbs, e.g., give up, are followed by gerunds. These two-word verbs are given in parentheses in the list below.
VERB + GERUND enjoy quit (give up) avoid consider (think about) appreciate finish (get through) postpone (put off) discuss (talk about) mind stop delay mention keep (keep on) suggest
*Stop can also be followed immediately by an infinitive of purpose (in order to). COMPARE the following:
(1) stop + gerund: When the professor entered the room, the students stopped talking. (2) stop + infinitive of purpose: While I was walking down the street, I ran into an old
friend. I stopped to talk to him. (I stopped walking in order to talk to him.)
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES
VERB + INFINITIVE (a) I hope to see you again soon. (b) He promised to be here by ten. (c) He promised not to be late.
Some verbs are followed immediately by an infinitive, as in (a) and (b) - See Group A below. Negative form: not precedes the infinitive.
VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE (d) Mr. Lee told me to be here at ten o'clock. (e) The police ordered the driver to stop.
Some verbs are followed by a (pro)noun and then an infinitive, as in (d) and (e). See Group B below.
(f) I was told to be here at ten o'clock. (g) The driver was ordered to stop.
These verbs are followed immediately by an infinitive when they are used in the passive, as in (f) and (g).
(h) I expect to pass the test. (i) I expect Mary to pass the test.
Ask, expect, would like, want, and need may or may not be followed bv a (pro)noun object. COMPARE: In (h): I think I will pass the test. In (i): I think Mary will pass the test.
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GROUP A: VERB + INFINITIVE hope to promise to seem to ask to plan to agree to appear to expect to intend to* offer to pretend to would like to decide to refuse to want to need to GROUP B: VERB + (PRO)NOUN + INFINITIVE tell someone to invite someone to require someone to ask someone to advise someone to permit someone to order someone to expect someone to encourage someone to allow someone to force someone to would like someone to remind someone to warn someone to want someone to need someone to *Intend is usually followed by an infinitive (I intend to go to the meeting) but sometimes may be followed by a gerund (I intend going to the meeting) with no change in meaning. **A gerund is used after advise (active) if there is no (pro)noun object. COMPARE:
(1) He advised buying a Fiat. (2) He advised me to buy a Fiat. I was advised to buy a Fiat.
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Simile
It's been a hard day's night, and I've been working like a dog
The Beatles
A simile is a figure of speech that says that one thing is like another different thing. We can use similes to make descriptions more emphatic or vivid.
We often use the words as...as and like with similes.
Common patterns for similes, with example sentences, are:
something [is*] AS adjective AS something His skin was as cold as ice. It felt as hard as rock. She looked as gentle as a lamb.
something [is*] LIKE something My love is like a red, red rose. These cookies taste like garbage. He had a temper (that was) like a volcano.
something [does**] LIKE something He eats like a pig. He smokes like a chimney. They fought like cats and dogs.
* stative verb:
A stative verb is one which asserts that one of its arguments has a particular property (possibly in relation to its other arguments). Statives differ from other aspectual classes of verbs in that they are static; they have no duration and no distinguished endpoint. Verbs which are not stative are often called dynamic verbs.
Examples of sentences with stative verbs:
I am tired.
I have two children.
I like the color blue.
I think they want something to eat.
We believe in many gods...
The case contains six bottles.
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** action verb
Action verbs can also be actions you can't see such as:
Sue thought about pets. She wanted a puppy.
Action verbs are time-telling verbs. They also tell when something takes place. Examples:
My dog runs faster than yours. (present tense) Yesterday he ran around the block. (past tense) Tomorrow he will run in a race. (future tense)
Actions verbs main be used alone as the main verb of a sentence; as in:
My kitten fell into the pond.
Or the action verb may use a helping verb; as in:
If you get too close to the edge, you will fall too.
Here are some more examples of well known similes:
[is] AS adjective AS something meaning
as blind as a bat completely blind
as cold as ice very cold
as flat as a pancake completely flat
as gentle as a lamb very gentle
as light as a feather very light
as old as the hills very old
as sharp as a knife very sharp
as strong as a bull very strong
as white as snow pure white
as wise as an owl very wise
[is] LIKE something possible meaning (depending on context)
like a rose beautiful
like a volcano dangerous, unpredictable
like garbage disgusting
like an animal inhuman
like spaghetti entangled
like golddust precious
like a tip very untidy (tip = garbage dump)
like a dream wonderful, incredible
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[does] LIKE something meaning
to drink like a fish to drink a lot
to eat like a bird to eat very little
to eat like a horse to eat a lot
to eat like a pig to eat impolitely
to fight like cats and dogs to fight fiercely
to sing like an angel to sing beautifully
to sleep like a log to sleep well and soundly
to smoke like a chimney to smoke heavily, all the time
to soar like an eagle to fly high and free
to work like a dog to work very hard
Note that with the AS...AS pattern, the first AS is sometimes suppressed, for example:
His skin was cold as ice.
The above patterns of simile are the most common, but there are others made with adverbs or words such as than and as if, for example:
He ran as fast as the wind. He is larger than life. They ran as if for their lives.
Similes can include other figures of speech. For example, "He ran like greased lightning" is a simile that includes hyperbole (greased lightning).
Similes often make use of irony or sarcasm. In such cases they may even mean the opposite of the adjective used. Look at these examples:
His explanation was as clear as mud. (not clear at all since mud is opaque) The film was about as interesting as watching a copy of Windows download. (long and
boring) Watching the show was like watching paint dry. (very boring)
Similes are often found (and they sometimes originate) in poetry and other literature. Here are a few examples:
A woman without a man is like a fish without a bicycle —Irina Dunn Dawn breaks open like a wound that bleeds afresh —Wilfred Owen Death has many times invited me: it was like the salt invisible in the waves —Pablo Neruda Guiltless forever, like a tree —Robert Browning Happy as pigs in mud —David Eddings How like the winter hath my absence been —William Shakespeare As idle as a painted ship upon a painted ocean —Samuel Taylor Coleridge Jubilant as a flag unfurled —Dorothy Parker So are you to my thoughts as food to life —William Shakespeare Yellow butterflies flickered along the shade like flecks of sun —William Faulkner
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Popular songs, too, make use of simile:
A woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle —U2 Cheaper than a hot dog with no mustard —Beastie Boys I must do what's right, as sure as Kilimanjaro rises like Olympus above the Serengeti —Toto It's been a hard day's night, and I've been working like a dog —The Beatles Like A Rolling Stone —Bob Dylan Like a bat outta [out of] hell —Meat Loaf My heart is like an open highway —Jon Bon Jovi These are the seasons of emotion and like the winds they rise and fall —Led Zeppelin Thick as a Brick —Jethro Tull You are as subtle as a brick to the small of my back —Taking Back Sunday
Caution: Many similes are clichés (phrases that are overused and betray a lack of original thought). You should use well know similes with care, but it is certainly useful to know them so that you can understand language that contains them.
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Metaphor
All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players They have their exits and their entrances
William Shakespeare
A metaphor is a figure of speech that says that one thing is another different thing. This allows us to use fewer words and forces the reader or listener to find the similarities.
The word metaphor comes from the Greek word metapherin (meaning "transfer").
The simplest form of metaphor is: "The [first thing] is a [second thing]."
Look at this example:
Her home was a prison.
In the above sentence, we understand immediately that her home had some of the characteristics of a prison. Mainly, we imagine, she could not leave her home. She was trapped inside. Why it was a prison we do not know, but that would be clear from the context--perhaps her husband forced her to stay at home, perhaps she was afraid of the outside. We don't know, but the rest of the story would tell us. What is important here is that in five simple words we understand a lot about her environment, how she felt and how she behaved. In this sentence, "prison" is a metaphor.
Look at another example:
George is a sheep.
What is one characteristic of sheep? They follow each other. So we can imagine that George is a follower, not a leader. In this sentence "sheep" is a metaphor.
Look at these examples of metaphors with sample sentences and meanings:
Metaphor example Metaphorical sense Original sense
I'm not an angel, but I wouldn't behave like that.
exemplary person a spiritual being believed to be a messenger of God
America is a melting pot. place where different peoples, styles and cultures are mixed together
a container in which metals or other materials are melted and mixed
John is a real pig when he eats.
greedy person a four-legged animal kept for meat (pork)
My father is a rock. very strong or reliable person a hard, mineral material made of stone
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How could she marry a snake like that!
traitor a long, limbless reptile (eg: cobra, python, viper)
The policeman let him off with a yellow card.
warning (in soccer) a yellow card that the referee shows to players when cautioning them
All the above metaphors (the simplest form) are nouns. But there are other ways of making metaphors, for example with verbs or adjectives. Here are some examples:
Metaphor example Original sense of the word (example)
The committee shot her ideas down one by one. Anti-aircraft guns shoot down planes.
The private detective dug up enough evidence to convince the police to act.
Dogs like to bury bones and dig them up later.
He broke into her conversation. Burglars break into buildings.
The new movie was very popular. People flocked to see it.
Birds flock together before they migrate.
His head was spinning with ideas. Some computer hard drives spin at over 10,000 revolutions per minute.
Reading that book kindled my interest in politics.
You need to start with twigs and small branches when you kindle a camp fire.
Tim lost his job after a heated argument with his boss.
We have a heated swimming pool.
The new car's sexy design increased sales for the company.
Some women think that lipstick makes them look sexy.
He was dressed rather vulgarly in a loud checked suit.
I can't hear you because the radio is too loud.
It wasn't long before their relationship turned sour.
Sour food has an acid taste like lemon or vinegar.
Difference between Metaphor and Simile
Both similes and metaphors link one thing to another. A simile usually uses "as" or "like". A metaphor is a condensed simile, a shortcut to meaning, which omits "as" or "like." A metaphor creates a relationship directly and leaves more to the imagination. With simile A is like B. With metaphor A is B.
simile metaphor
Your eyes are like the sun. You are my sunshine.
He eats like a pig. He lives like a pig.
He is a pig.
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Dead Metaphors
In the phrase "to grasp the concept" the physical action "to grasp" is used as a metaphor for "to understand" (which is non-physical). But this phrase has been used so often that most English speakers do not have an image of the physical action in their mind. This metaphor has died; it is a "dead metaphor".
Mixed Metaphors
The awkward use of two or more different metaphors at the same time is normally best avoided. It creates conflicting images in the reader or listener's mind, reduces each metaphor's impact, and generally causes confusion. Look at this example:
America is a melting pot where new ideas are kindled.
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Hyperbole
Give me a thousand kisses, then a hundred, Then another thousand, then a second hundred, Then still another thousand, then a hundred
Catullus
Hyperbole is a figure of speech that uses an exaggerated or extravagant statement to create a strong emotional response. As a figure of speech it is not intended to be taken literally. Hyperbole is frequently used for humor. Examples of hyperbole are:
They ran like greased lightning.
He's got tons of money.
Her brain is the size of a pea.
He is older than the hills.
I will die if she asks me to dance.
She is as big as an elephant!
I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.
I have told you a million times not to lie!
The media and the advertising industry often use hyperbole (which may then be described as hype or media hype).
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Euphemism
A euphemism is a substitution of an agreeable or less offensive expression in place of one that
may offend or suggest something unpleasant to the listener, or to make it less troublesome for the
speaker, as in the case of doublespeak. (Doublespeak is language constructed to disguise or distort
its actual meaning, often resulting in a communication bypass. Doublespeak may take the form
of euphemisms (e.g., "downsizing" for layoffs) or deliberate ambiguity.)The deployment of
euphemisms is a central aspect within the public application of political correctness.
It may also substitute a description of something or someone to avoid revealing secret, holy, or
sacred names to the uninitiated, or to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from
potential eavesdroppers. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse.
When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is
dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal
term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in public
relations and politics, where it is sometimes called doublespeak. Sometimes, using euphemisms is
equated to politeness. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or
subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not
speaking the word "autism", and there are religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some
words are holy, or that some words are spiritually imperiling.
Euphemisms Used to Soften Language
Fat = overweight, full-figured, big boned, chubby, plump, voluptuous, portly, etc.
Poor = working class, of modest means, of humble origins, low-income, unable to make ends meet, in debt, etc.
Handicapped = disabled, differently abled, physically challenged, disadvantaged, etc.
Remedial = developmental, special needs, etc.
Homeless = without a roof over one’s head, on the streets, destitute, dispossessed, displaced, etc.
Euphemisms Used to Inflate or Mislead
Garbage collector = waste disposal worker, sanitation worker, waste management, etc.
Secretary = administrative assistant, clerical assistant, executive assistant, personal assistant, etc.
Janitor = custodian, caretaker, superintendent, maintenance worker, etc.
Boss = supervisor, executive, director, manager, etc.
School = institute, academy, university, conservatory, etc.
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Example Sentences Using Euphemisms
The caretaker was accused by the executive administrator of contributing to the misappropriation of office supplies.
The clerical assistant had an inappropriate relationship with the office building’s superintendent.
Jenny’s dog Bowser went to the great doggy park in the sky.
The executive in charge of increasing the company’s workforce requested proof that the applicant had never been detained for possessing controlled substances.
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Oxymoron
So fair and foul a day I have not seen!
William Shakespeare
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that deliberately uses two contradictory ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in the reader or listener's mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole. Some typical oxymorons are:
a living death sometimes you have to be cruel to be kind a deafening silence bitter-sweet The Sounds of Silence (song title) make haste slowly he was conspicuous by his absence
Pseudo Oxymorons
In the standard meaning of oxymoron the contradiction is deliberate. However, in popular usage oxymoron is sometimes used to mean "contradiction in terms", where the contradiction is unintentional. Such expressions, unlike real oxymorons, are commonly used without any sense of paradox in everyday language, for example:
anecdotal evidence friendly fire pretty ugly
A common attempt at humour is to describe a certain phrase as an oxymoron, implying that the two parts of the phrase are mutually exclusive and that consequently the phrase as a whole must be nonsensical:
airline food American culture Microsoft security Microsoft Works military intelligence
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Noun and Verb Phrases
A verb phrase is a phrase (a group of related words lacking a subject or a verb) that consists of a main verb plus one or more helping verbs. Some common helping verbs are: to be (am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been) to have (has, have, had) to do (do, does, did) others: may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would Helping verbs add meaning to other verbs. Some helping verbs change the time expressed by the key verb. Others, such as should and might, are used to indicate obligation, possibility, ability, or permission: The student is going to Florida for Spring Break. The firm will probably not hire an accountant today. You should edit your own compositions. A noun phrase is a made up of a noun and all its modifiers. It can function in a sentence as a subject, an object, or a complement. Some noun phrases begin with an infinitive (to go) or a gerund (going); this type of noun phrase is always singular: To sail the seven seas was her lifelong dream. (Subject) Dieters prefer green salad. (Object) A ham sandwich is a popular lunch. (Complement)
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Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase is a group of words including a preposition and a noun, pronoun, or group of words used as a noun. They are fragments that usually do not stand alone, except in commands like "At once!" or "On your feet!" Kinds of Phrases There are two kinds of prepositional phrases: adjective phrases and adverb phrases. An adjective phrase modifies a noun or pronoun. It always comes immediately after the noun or pronoun it modifies: Joe is the student with the highest grade. ("with the highest grade" modifies student.) An adverb phrase modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb. It is used to tell when, where, how, or to what extent about the word it modifies: Megan put her bird in its cage. ("in its cage" tells where about the verb put.) Two or More Phrases When two or more prepositional phrases follow each other, they may modify the same word, or one phrase may modify the object in the preceding phrase: They arrived at the airport on time. (Both phrases modify arrived; "at the airport" tells where and "on time" tells when.) Chicago is on the northeast tip of Illinois. ("on the northeast tip" modifies "is"; "of Illinois" modifies "tip.") Preposition or Adverb? Many words can be either prepositions or adverbs; you can distinguish prepositions by their objects. Preposition: The bird flew out the window. ("window" is the object of "out.") Adverb: We went out last night. ("out" has no object.) Prepositional Phrase or Infinitive Phrase? Prepositional phrases can be confused with infinitive phrases. "To" followed by a verb is an infinitive, but "to" followed by a noun or pronoun is a prepositional phrase.
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Verbals and Verbal Phrases
Verbals are verb forms which act as another part of speech in a sentence (i.e. as adjectives, nouns and adverbs). Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, objects or complements. The three types of verbal phrases are participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases. Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles and any modifiers, objects or complements. Participial phrases contain verbs which act as adjectives in a sentence. Examples: Singing very softly, the boy lulled his baby brother to sleep. (Participial phrase as adjective modifying boy) The girls, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly came down from the school's roof. (Participial phrase as adjective modifying "girls") Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Gerund phrases act as nouns in a sentence. They can act as the subject or object of a verb, as a predicate nominative, and as the object of a preposition. Examples: Waiting for his grades drove him crazy. (Gerund phrase as subject of verb) The woman denied knowing her own husband. (Gerund phrase as object of verb) He thought he could escape from his problems by running away. (Gerund phrase as object of preposition) Making many acquaintances is cultivating future friendships. (Gerund phrases as subject and as predicate nominative) Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of to followed by a verb and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Infinitive phrases usually act as nouns, but they can also act as adjectives and adverbs.
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Examples: To live in Boston eventually is his main goal in life. (Infinitive phrase as subject) Quentin Tarentino loves to babble during interviews. (Infinitive phrase as object of verb) Do you have any clothes to donate at the homeless shelter? (Infinitive phrase as adjective modifying clothes) She went home to visit her family. (Infinitive phrase as adverb modifying went)
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Independent and Dependent Clauses
A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, while a dependent clause must be accompanied by an independent clause. Independent Clauses Two independent clauses can be connected by:
a coordinating conjunction: Today is Tuesday and our papers are due Wednesday.
a conjunctive adverb or another transitional expression: I need to study for my test; in fact I am going to the library now. (In this case, use a semicolon to separate the two clauses.)
correlative conjunction: George not only finished his paper on time, but he also got an A+.
semicolon: This is one of English classes; Shakespeare is my other.
colon (sometimes): He received the assignment: it is to be turned in next Friday.
Dependent Clauses Dependent clauses can be either adjective, adverb, or noun clauses based on how they are used in a sentence.
Adjective, or relative, clauses modify nouns or pronouns and, in order to make the relationship clear, follow the noun or pronoun they modify. Example: Our class, which meets at 9:00 in the morning, discusses the importance and use of grammar in our schools. (An adjective clause modifies the noun class.)
Adverb clauses modify single words (verbs, adjectives, or adverbs) or entire phrases or clauses. They always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Adverb clauses answer the questions how? where? when? why? and to what extent? Adverb clauses appear in any of several places in the sentence as long as the relationship is clear and its position conveys the intended purpose. Example: Confused, after class was over, Susan decided to meet with her group to discuss the paper. (An adverb clause modifies the participle confused.)
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Noun clauses act as nouns in sentences (subjects, direct objects, indirect objects, or compliments). They may begin with a relative pronoun or by, whether, when, where, why, or how. Examples: Whoever wins the race will receive the trophy. (A noun clause serves as the subject of the sentence.) This grade is what I deserve. (A noun clause serves as the subject complement.)
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Adjective, Adverb, and Noun Clauses
A clause is a group of related words which has both a subject and a predicate. A clause is different from a phrase because a phrase is a group of related words which lacks either a subject or a predicate or both. Adjective clauses modify nouns or pronouns. An adjective clause nearly always appears immediately following the noun or pronoun. To test for adjective clauses there are a couple questions that you can ask. Which one? What kind of? Most adjective clauses begin with who, whom, which or that. Sometimes the word may be understood. In other words, the words that or who, for example, would not specifically be in the sentence, but they would be implied. To determine the subject of a clause ask who? or what? and then insert the verb. Example: The book that is on the floor should be returned to the library. Occasionally, an adjective clause is introduced by a relative adverb, usually when, where or why. Example: Home is the place where you relax. Adverb clauses usually modify verbs, in which case they may appear anywhere in a sentence. They tell why, where, under what conditions, or to what degree the action occurred or situation existed. Unlike adjective clauses, they are frequently movable within the sentence. Example: When the timer rings, we know the cake is done. OR We know the cake is done when the timer rings. Adverb clauses always begin with a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions introduce clauses and express their relation to the rest of the sentence. Noun clauses are not modifiers, so they are not subordinators like adjectives and adverbs and they cannot stand alone. They must function within another sentence pattern, always as nouns. A noun clause functions basically as a subject, subject complement, direct object or object of a preposition. A noun clause usually begins with a relative pronoun like that, which, who, whoever, whomever, whose, what, and whatsoever. It can also begin with the subordinating conjunctions how, when, where, whether, why. Example: Whoever wins the game will play in the tournament.
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Relative Clauses
A relative clause acts as a clause that modifies a noun or pronoun. Relative clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whom, which, that, whose). Relative clauses can either be restrictive or nonrestrictive. Restrictive Relative Clauses A restrictive relative clause is essential in order to complete the meaning of the main clause. Examples: Where is the girl who is going? That's the one which I like best. Is he the one whose house is on fire? Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses A nonrestrictive relative clause adds definition to the main clause, but is not necessary for meaning. Nonrestrictive relative clauses are set off by commas. Examples: That girl, who is going to the concert, has a green dress. The orange car, which is my favorite, has seating for six. The tuba player, whose house is on fire, just went to band practice. Common Usage Problems Beware of sentence fragments when trying to use a relative clause: He was a loser. Who never thought he would win. [incorrect] He was a loser who never thought he would win. [revised] The relative pronoun should immediately follow the antecedent in a relative clause. Violating this rule leads to confusion: She saw the guy who dated Sheila who has a red mohawk. [unclear] Does Sheila or the guy have a red mohawk? [confusing] Revised: She saw the guy, who has a red Mohawk, who dated Sheila.
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Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses A modifying clause can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. A restrictive modifying clause (or essential clause) is an adjective clause that is essential to the meaning of a sentence because it limits the thing it refers to. The meaning of the sentence would change if the clause were deleted. Because restrictive clauses are essential, they are not set off by commas. A few examples are: All students who do their work should pass easily. The car that I want is out of my price range. The gas company will discontinue our service unless we pay our bills by Friday. A nonrestrictive modifying clause (or nonessential clause) is an adjective clause that adds extra or nonessential information to a sentence. The meaning of the sentence would not change were the clause omitted. Nonrestrictive modifying clauses are usually set off by commas. Two examples are: Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote "The Raven", is a great American poet. Puerto Rico was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was ceded to the United States.
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Homophones
Homophones are words that sound alike but have different spellings and meanings. As a result, these words are often confused in writing. Examples: Accept (to receive): "I accept your apology." Except (excluded from): "I like everyone except her." Capital (economic resources OR the city where lawmakers meet) Capitol (the building where lawmakers meet) Principal (head of a school): "The principal is your pal." Principle (a moral or fundamental truth): "That is against my principles." There (meaning "in that place"): "The book is over there." Their (possessive pronoun "belonging to them"): "Their book" They're (contraction for "they are"): "They're coming soon." Its (possessive pronoun): "The dog lost its bone." It's (contraction for "it is"): "It's a shame you can't come."
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Parallelism
Parallelism occurs when compound verbs or verbals express an action taking place at the same time or in the same tense. When such is the case, the verb and/or verbals must be in the same, or parallel, form. Example: Gail sings and dances. ("Sings" and "dances" are parallel forms of the verb.) Types of Parallel Structure 1. Coordinated ideas of equal rank, connected by and, but, or, or nor Correct: Earl loves bicycling and climbing. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.) Earl loves to bicycle and to climb. (An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.) Incorrect: Earl loves bicycling and to climb. (Here, a gerund is paired with an infinitive.) 2. Compared ideas Correct: I like officiating basketball more than playing basketball. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.) I like to officiate basketball more than I like to play basketball. (An infinitive is paired with an infinitive.) Incorrect: I like to officiate basketball more than I like playing basketball. (An infinitive is paired with a gerund.) 3. Correlative ideas are linked with the correlative conjunctions both...and, either...or, neither...nor, and not only...but also. Correct: Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also as a tennis player. (A noun is paired with a noun.) Josh is talented not only at playing basketball, but also at playing tennis. (A gerund is paired with a gerund.)
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Incorrect: Josh is talented not only as a basketball player, but also at playing tennis. (A noun is paired with a gerund.) Tip Place correlative conjunctions immediately before the parallel terms: Incorrect: Brad has both experienced the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat Revised: Brad has experienced both the sweet taste of success and the bitterness of defeat
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Misplaced Modifiers
Misplaced modifiers are single words, phrases, or clauses that do not point clearly to the word or words they modify. As a rule, related words usually should be kept together. Six Helpful Tips for Placing Modifiers Correctly 1. Limiting modifiers (only, even, almost, nearly, just) should be placed in front of the words they modify. Unclear: You will only need to plant one package of seeds. Revised: You will need to plant only one package of seeds. ("Only" modifies "one," not "need.") 2. Place modifying phrases and clauses so that readers can see at a glance what they modify. Unclear: The robber was described as a tall man with a black moustache weighing 150 pounds. Revised: The robber was described as a six-foot-tall man weighing 150 pounds with a black moustache. ("150 pounds" describes the man, not the moustache.) 3. Sentences should flow from subject to verb to object without lengthy detours along the way. When adverbs separate subject from verb, verb from object, or helping-verb from main-verb, the result can be awkward. Unclear: John, after trying to reach the ball, decided to get a ladder. Revised: After trying to reach the ball, John decided to get a ladder. (Subject and verb are no longer separated.) 4. Infinitives ("to" + verb, such as: "to go," "to catch," "to shout") usually should not be split unless necessary, especially in formal writing. Unclear: The patient should try to, if possible, avoid going up and down stairs.
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Revised: If possible, the patient should try to avoid going up and down stairs. 5. Dangling modifiers are word groups (usually introductory) that may seem confusing to some people if they fail to refer logically to any word in a sentence. Rewording a sentence may help to clarify the meaning. Unclear: Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand. (The recruiter is not deciding to join the navy; Joe is.) Revised: The recruiter happily pumped Joe's hand after learning that Joe had decided to join the navy. Unclear: Though only sixteen, UCLA accepted Martha's application. (UCLA is not sixteen; Martha is.) Revised: Though Martha was only sixteen, UCLA accepted her application. 6. Dangling modifiers can be repaired by restructuring the sentence, but this restructuring may vary according to the writer's stylistic preferences. Possibly unclear: When watching films, commercials are especially irritating.
a) One option would be to change the subject so that it names the actor that the modifier implies:
When watching films, I find commercials especially irritating.
b) Another option would be to turn the modifier into a word group that includes the actor:
When I am watching films, commercials are especially irritating.
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Dangling Modifiers
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that does not connect grammatically with what it is intended to modify. The problem is most common with adjective participial phrases, especially when they open the sentence. Such open participial phrases can be taken to modify the noun, but when the noun is not present in the sentence, and then the phrase becomes nonsensical. Problems with Dangling Modifiers There are two kinds of problems with dangling modifiers:
1) A word (often a pronoun) has been left out, so that the introductory phrase does not complement what follows.
Unclear: Running across the street, the bus left.
2) A phrase or word in a sentence is too far from the idea that it modifies.
Unclear: A dependable car, the family decided to buy the mini-van.
Correcting the Problem There are two ways to correct dangling modifiers.
1) The main clause can be left alone and the participial construction altered, usually to an adverbial phrase.
Unclear: Running down the street, the house was on fire.
Revised: When the man ran down the street, the house was on fire.
2) The participial construction can be allowed to stand and the main clause modified so that the modified object is in the subject position.
Revised: Running down the street, the man saw the house was on fire.
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Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is a part of a sentence punctuated as if it were a complete sentence. It is a group of words that begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, exclamation point, or a question mark, but does not express a complete thought Phrases as Sentence Fragments A word group is a sentence fragment if it lacks a subject. Example: Swam into the ocean. NOTE: Sentences in the imperative mood (e.g., "Swim into the ocean!") have, by convention, an understood "you" for a subject and are not considered fragments. A word group is also a sentence fragment if it lacks a verb. Example: The white plastic chair. A word group missing both a subject and a predicate is a sentence fragment. Example: As in the lives of many. Clauses as Sentence Fragments (Warning: These are only guidelines for spotting a sentence fragment, not hard and fast rules.) Another clue that a group of words may be a sentence fragment is that it begins with a subordinator. Often, when a group of words begins with a subordinator, it is a dependent clause, a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. Some common subordinators are: when, until, after, before, however, while, because, since, though, although, if, so that, so, and where. Example: Until the day is over. Another clue is that the word group begins with a relative pronoun. Some common relative pronouns are: that, who, whose, whom, which, and when. Example: Whom Kelly had known since the third grade. Using and Misusing Sentence Fragments Students should understand that sentence fragments can be used in writing, but that they should be used rarely and cautiously. Pointing out these structures in literature read and written in class
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might be a good way to identify the difference between strong use of sentence fragments and weak sentence fragments. Example: Every life is many days, day after day. We walk through ourselves, meeting robbers, ghosts, giants, old men, young men, wives, widows, brothers-in-love. But always meeting ourselves. The last word group is a sentence fragment. A sentence fragment is used here for emphasis. In this example, the meaning of the fragment is clear. It is very easy to misuse sentence fragments. The following piece of writing shows how this misuse can make writing unclear and disorganized. Example: It is my opinion that the baseball strike should end. A salary cap is not a bad idea. After all, the players receive huge salaries. More money than the president. The last word group is a sentence fragment.
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Fused Sentences, Run-Ons, and Comma Splices A fused sentence (also known as a run-on sentence) occurs when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation or connecting word between them. For example: It was close to fall the trees were losing their leaves. A comma splice occurs when two independent clauses are joined by only a comma. For example: It was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves. Six Ways to Eliminate Fused Sentences and Comma Splices 1) Separate the clause into two sentences: It was close to fall. The trees were losing their leaves. 2) Link the clauses with a semicolon: It was close to fall; the trees were losing their leaves. 3) Link the clauses with a comma and a coordinating conjunction: It was close to fall, so the trees were beginning to lose their leaves. 4) Recast the two independent clauses as one independent clause: It was the time of year when trees begin to lose their leaves. 5) Recast one of the independent clauses as a dependent clause: Because it was close to fall, the trees were losing their leaves. 6) Use a semicolon before a conjunctive adverb (also, anyway, besides, furthermore, incidentally, moreover, otherwise, and thus) or a transitional expression (after all, by the way, for example, in other words, and on the other hand) placed between independent clauses: It was close to fall; consequently, the trees were losing their leaves.
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Sentence Types
Sentences can be either simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. The Simple Sentence Simple sentences have only one independent clause. There are no dependent clauses, and the sentence must be limited to one subject and one predicate. The sentence may contain modifying words or phrases: Grammar class is boring. "Magma" is a French progressive rock band. The Compound Sentence Compound sentences are composed of two or more independent clauses, which are joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon. One should always use a comma before any coordinating conjunction that connects two independent clauses: Sissy likes "Magma," but she thinks grammar class is boring. Timmy likes grammar class, so he does not like "Magma." The Complex Sentence Complex sentences use one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. One must use a comma only after a dependent clause that occurs before an independent clause: When Sissy is in grammar class, she often dreams of the next Magma show. ("When Sissy..." is a dependent clause, "she often..." is an independent clause.) Timmy thinks of grammar when he is at a Magma concert. ("Timmy thinks..." is an independent clause, "when he..." is a dependent clause.) The Compound-Complex Sentence The compound-complex sentence joins a compound and a complex sentence together. It should contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause. One must always use a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins the two independent clauses. One must also use a comma after an adverb clause that comes before an independent clause, and to set off any non-restrictive clauses: Magma sings in a language they created, and they feel that proper grammar has no place at their shows, which are often quite obnoxious. ("Magma sings..." is an independent clause, "they feel..." is an independent clause, "which are..." is a dependent clause and also a non-restrictive modifier.) After he left the show, Timmy decided he really liked Magma, but the band did not like him because he always insists on proper grammar. ("After he..." is a dependent clause, "Timmy decided..." is an independent clause, "the band..." is an independent clause, "he always..." is a dependent clause.)
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Subjects and Predicates
In English, every sentence has two essential parts: a complete subject and a complete predicate. Subjects The complete subject is the simple subject (a noun or a pronoun) plus any words or group of words modifying the simple subject that tells who or what the sentence is about: The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour. To find the complete subject, ask Who? or What? Insert the verb, and finish the question. The answer is the complete subject: What usually lasts about an hour? The high from my Mountain Dew. The simple subject is the essential noun, pronoun, or group of words acting as a noun that cannot be left out of the complete subject. In order to identify it, remove the complements and modifiers and whatever’s left is the simple subject:
The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour.
(article) (simple subject) (prepositional phrase) (predicate)
TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word ("high") identified as the simple subject? (The) high usually lasts about an hour. Additional Facts About Subjects The "Understood You" Sometimes, as in the case of imperative sentences (see Verb Mood), the subject does not actually appear in the sentence. At such times the invisible subject is called the "understood you": (You) Rent "The Last of the Mohicans" from the video store. Positioning Although the subject most commonly appears before the verb, it can also appear after it:
in sentences that begin with "there is" or "there are." "There" is an expletive or empty word which simply gets the sentence started: There are precious few hills in Illinois. Vs. Precious few hills are in Illinois.
in sentences which are inverted for effect: Happy is the wife of Harrison Ford. Vs. The wife of Harrison Ford is happy.
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Predicates The complete predicate is the verb plus its objects, complements, and adverbial modifiers that tell what the complete subject does or is: The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour. To find the complete predicate, ask what does the subject (the high) do? (It) usually lasts about an hour. The simple predicate is the essential verb or verb phrase that cannot be left out of the complete predicate. Again, remove the modifiers and complements to identify it:
The high from my Mountain Dew usually lasts about an hour
(adverb) (simple predicate) (prepositional phrase)
TIP: Does the sentence make sense with just the word identified as the simple predicate? The high from my Mountain Dew lasts. Compound Subjects and Predicates Although the examples so far have contained only one subject and one verb, a sentence may contain a compound subject, a compound predicate, or both. The compound subject consists of two or more subjects that have the same verb and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or": Spencer and Annie wagged their tails. The compound predicate consists of two or more verbs that have the same subject and are joined by a conjunction such as "and" or "or": I came, saw, and conquered.
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Active and Passive Voice
The voice of a verb tells whether the subject of the sentence performs or receives the action. In English there are two voices, passive and active. Passive Voice In passive voice, the subject receives the action expressed by the verb: A song was written by the student. Forming Tenses of Passive Verbs The passive voice always consists of two parts: a form of the verb "to be" + past participle:
Tense Passive voice form
Present it is cleaned
Past it was cleaned
Future it will be cleaned
Present perfect it has been cleaned
Past perfect it had been cleaned
Future perfect it will have been cleaned
Passive vs. active voice Use the passive voice to:
Call attention to receiver of the action rather than the performer: The professor was hit by three snowballs.
Point out the receiver of the action when performer is unknown or unimportant: A love letter was slipped under the door. The signs will be posted.
Avoid calling attention to the performer of the action (known as the "institutional passive"): The fines will be collected on Monday.
In active voice, on the other hand, the subject performs the action of the verb: The cats climbed the curtains. Grandma and Grandpa raced grocery carts across the parking lot. Active and passive voice in writing The choice between using the active or passive voice in writing is a matter of style, not correctness. However, most handbooks recommend using active voice, which they describe as more natural, direct, lively, and succinct. The passive voice is considered wordy and weak (except when used in cases above). Examine the following examples.
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weak, passive: The skater was slammed into the wall by Maria. strong, active: Maria slammed the skater into the wall. weak, passive: The book was enjoyed by me because the events of her childhood were described so well by the author. strong, active: I enjoyed the book because the author described the events of her childhood so well. Hints for identifying the passive voice
An active verb may or may not have a direct object, but the passive verb almost never does.
"It is...That" construction (It is clear that... It is noted...)
Use of the verbs To Be, Make, or Have (Passive: Your exits should be made quickly. Active: Leave quickly.)
Endings that turn verbs into abstract nouns: -ion,-ing,-ment:
Passive: When application of force is used, the lid will open.
Active: Apply force to open the lid.
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Complements
A complement is called a complement because it completes the predicate in a sentence. There are two kinds of complements: object complements and subject complements Object Complements An object complement follows the direct object and modifies or refers to the direct object. An object complement can be an adjective, a noun, or a word or word group acting as an adjective or noun:
If you elect me president, I'll keep the unions satisfied.
("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object "me." "Satisfied" is an object complement modifying the direct object "unions.")
The students elected Mary president.
("President" is an object complement referring to the direct object "Mary.")
Wool socks will keep your feet very warm.
("Very warm" is an object complement modifying the direct object "your feet.")
Subject Complements A subject complement follows a linking verb and modifies or refers to the subject. A subject complement can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, or a word or word group acting as an adjective or noun:
I am a teacher, but I am not yet experienced.
("Teacher" and "experienced" are both subject complements that
modify the subject "I.")
Subject complements have two subgroups, predicate adjectives and predicate nouns. A predicate adjective is a subject complement that is an adjective (see Appositives):
I am not yet experienced.
("Experienced" is a predicate adjective that modifies the subject "I.")
A predicate noun (Nominative) is a subject complement that is a noun: I am a teacher. ("Teacher" is a predicate noun that refers to the subject "I.")
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Direct and Indirect Objects
A direct object is the word or words in a sentence designating the person or thing receiving the action of a transitive verb: The boy broke the dish. An indirect object comes before the direct object. It tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is being done: Sing me a song. He feeds the turtle lettuce. Teaching Suggestions Skills practice Locate the indirect object in each sentence: 1. Ellen threw Annie the football. 2. Buy dad a birthday present. 3. The old man gave us a warm smile. 4. I told Dr. Franklin the exact time. 5. I wrote the carpenter a long letter of complaint. Locate the direct object in each sentence: 1. Thick ice covered the trees. 2. A strong wind broke a large branch. 3. The falling branch tore an electrical line. 4. The house suddenly lost its power. 5. The blackout worried mother.
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Appositives
Appositives are two words or word groups which mean the same thing and are placed together. Appositives identify or explain the nouns or pronouns which they modify: Our teacher, Professor Pemberton, loves grammar. We can say that "Professor Pemberton" is an appositive or is in apposition to "our teacher." "Professor Pemberton" identifies or explains "teacher.' An appositive phrase includes an appositive and its modifiers: My favorite place, the English building, is located on the Quad, a grassy square in the middle of the campus. Restrictive Appositives and Nonrestrictive Appositives A restrictive appositive is necessary to maintain the meaning of the sentence and does not require commas. Usually, a restrictive appositive is a single word closely related to the preceding word. It "restricts" or narrows the meaning of the word it modifies: The musician Harry Connick will come to Champaign. ("Harry Connick" restricts the general term "musician.") My sister Mary has four dogs. A nonrestrictive appositive may be omitted without changing the basic meaning of the sentence. A nonrestrictive appositive is separated by commas. Commas are always used when the word which the appositive modifies is a proper noun: Harry Connick, the musician, will come to Champaign. ("Musician" offers additional information about the specific name "Harry Connick") There are many parades for Mardi Gras, a religious festival celebrating the last day before Lent, in New Orleans, a city in Louisiana. Additional note A dash or colon, as well as a comma, can be used to set off appositives: For the prisoner there was only one goal--escape.