ground water quality evaluation with special reference to fluoride … · ground water quality...

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES Volume 5 No 1, 2014

© Copyright by the authors - Licensee IPA- Under Creative Commons license 3.0

Research article ISSN 0976 – 4402

Received on May 2014 Published on July 2014 67

Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate

contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India

Umesh Saxena1 and Swati saxena2

1- Principal & Professor, Chanakya Technical Campus, Jaipur (Raj.)-302022 (India)

2- Research Scholar, Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur (Raj.) India

[email protected]

doi: 10.6088/ijes.2014050100007

ABSTRACT

Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life and environment but over the last few decades

the water quality is deteriorating due to it’s over exploitation. Water quality is essential parameter to

be studied when the overall focus is sustainable development keeping mankind at focal point.

Groundwater is the major source of drinking water in rural as well as in urban areas and over

94% of the drinking water demand is met by groundwater. The study was carried out to assess the

ground water quality and its suitability for drinking purpose with special reference to fluoride and nitrate

contamination in most rural habitations of Bassi tehsil of district Jaipur, Rajasthan, India. For this

purpose, 50 water samples collected from hand pumps, open wells and bore wells of villages of study

area were analysed for different physico-chemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity, total

alkalinity, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, chloride, nitrate, fluoride and total

dissolved solids.

pH value in the study area found from 6.3 to 8.7. EC ranges from 1100-16000 µmhos/cm and total

alkalinity between 70 to 990 mg/L. Total hardness ranged from 30 to 980 mg/L and calcium

hardness from 10 to 480 mg/L. Magnesium hardness varied from 20 to 500 mg/L and

chloride from 20 to 3620 mg/L. Values of nitrate concentration varied from 9 to 224 mg/L

and fluoride from 0.28 to 11.5 mg/L while value of TDS ranges from 770 to 11200 mg/L.

The study reveals that almost all parameters were exceeding the permissible limits. As per the

desirable and maximum permissible limit for fluoride and nitrate in drinking water,

determined by WHO, BIS and ICMR standards, 62% and 42% of groundwater sources are

unfit for drinking purposes respectively. Due to the higher fluoride and nitrate levels in

drinking water several cases of dental, skeletal fluorosis and methaemoglobinaemia have

appeared at alarming rate in this region. After evaluating the data of this study it is concluded

that drinking water of Bassi tehsil is not potable and there is an instant need to take

ameliorative steps in this region to prevent the population from adverse health effects.

Keywords: Groundwater quality, Fluoride, Nitrate, Bassi Tehsil and Rajasthan.

1. Introduction

“Water is life's matter and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water.” In now days,

the modern civilization, urbanization and expanded population with resulting industrial

operation has intensified the old problem of polluting our life, mother and medium. At

present our life, mother and medium is being polluted and even worse situation is that we

encounter with scarcity of this degraded quality of water too. It has raised certain basic

challenges in our environment and we are suffering both the problems of quality and quantity

Ground water quality evaluation with special reference to Fluoride and Nitrate contamination in Bassi Tehsil of district Jaipur,

Rajasthan, India

Umesh Saxena, Swati Saxena

International Journal of Environmental Sciences Volume 5 No.1, 2014 68

of water. In India groundwater is the major source of drinking water and over 94% of the

drinking water demand is met by groundwater. Water quality is essential parameter to be

studied when the overall focus is sustainable development keeping mankind at focal point,

since it is directly linked with human welfare.

Major problems are being faced by the country due to the presence of excess fluoride, arsenic

and nitrate in groundwater in certain parts of country. Fluorine is the most electronegative of

all chemical elements and is therefore never found in nature in elemental form. Combined

chemically in the form of fluorides, it ranks 17th in abundance of elements in the earth’s crust

representing about 0.06–0.09% of the earth’s crust (WHO, 1994), Fluoride is one of

important life elements to human health. It is essential for normal mineralization of bones and

formation of dental enamel with presence in small quantity (Chouhan and Flora, 2010), But

Excess fluoride concentration in drinking water has deleterious effects on human health. It

causes a dreadful disease known as fluorosis. Fluoride more than permissible limit, become

toxic and causes clinical and metabolic disturbance in animals and human being such as

dental, skeletal and non-skeletal Fluorosis (Hussain et al., 2002, 2004a, 2010, 2011, 2012;

Singh et al., 2007),

The permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water is 1.5mg/L by WHO, 1.0 mg/L by ICMR

and 0.6 to 1.2 mg/L by BIS. (BIS1991; WHO 1994) The problem of fluorosis is worldwide

and almost 25 nations of the world are under its dreadful fate. In Asia, India and China, the

most populous countries are worst affected. In India problem is most pronounced in Andhra

Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh

(Godfrey et al. 2006; Ayoob and Gupta 2006; Sharma et al. 2007; Khaiwal and Garg 2007;

SIHFW 2008; Hussain et al. 2012),

Rajasthan is the largest state in the country in terms of geographic spread. It has an area of

342,239 lakh Sq kms being largest state of the country having 10.41 % of the country’s area

and 5.5% of nation’s population but has low water resources i.e. 1% of the country’s

resources. The state has extreme climatic and geographical condition and it suffers both the

problems of quantity and quality of water. All the 32 districts of Rajasthan have been

declared as fluorososis prone areas. The worst are- Nagaur, Jaipur, Sikar, Jodhpur, Barmer,

Ajmer, Sirohi, Jhunjhunu, Churu, Bikaner, Ganganagar etc. (SIHFW,2008; Singh P et al

2011; Hussain et al, 2012),

Nitrate (NO3-) contamination of the groundwater, due to the intensive use of fertilizers has

also become a serious ecological problem in many rural areas of India and in many

developing nations worldwide. The level of nitrate in groundwater has been increasing over

the past three decades (Mueller et al., 1995,1996), Producing an adequate quantity of healthy

food without polluting the environment is a formidable challenge for future agriculture in the

world. The global mean nitrogen use efficiency is estimated to be about 50%

(Mosier.,2002) .The remaining quantity of nitrogen is lost into the environment. A large

population of this nitrogen gets converted into nitrate which, being soluble in water and not

retained by soils, gets leached into water bodies. Leaching of nitrate from agricultural land

and from other sources to groundwater is a global phenomenon. The nitrate concentration in

groundwater is influenced by rainfall. Where the amounts of rainfall are low, the

concentration tends to be high because the diluting effect is reduced. A number of workers

from India and abroad have reported the presence of high concentration (3800 ppm) of nitrate

in groundwater (Malik et al., 1981; Hamilton et al., 1992) and identified their probable

sources. In India, as high 530 mg/l of nitrate has been reported in Churu district of Rajasthan


Rajasthan, India



(Sunitha and Rajeswara Reddy, 2006), Consumption of drinking water with nitrate, at

concentrations greater than 45 mg/l can be detrimental to human health (Canter, 1987),

The permissible limit of nitrate in drinking water is 45mg/L by WHO, 50 mg/L by ICMR and

100 mg/L by BIS. (BIS1999; WHO 2006) Infants under one year old are particularly at risk

from excessive amounts as it cause methaemoglobinaemia, commonly called blue baby

syndrome, by blocking the oxygen-carrying capacity of haemoglobin, when approximately

70% of the total haemoglobin have been converted to methaemoglobin (WHO, 1983), Infants

are most prone to nitrate contamination because they have under developed metallic enzyme,

relatively small blood volume and greater reactivity of fetal haemoglobin. A further concern

is that nitrate can be converted by bacteria in the digestive tract into nitrosamines which are

potentially carcinogenic. However, whereas low levels of nitrate are harmful is often

contested (Sunitha and Rajeswara Reddy, 2006),

Review on the literature showed that no studies have been undertaken in the study area with

regard to physico-chemical characteristics of water yet. So the objective of this study was to

investigate the quality of drinking water (underground water) with special reference to the

concentration of fluoride and nitrate in most rural habitations of Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

2. Material and methods

2.1 Study Area

Jaipur district with geographical area of 11,151 sq. km forms East-central part of the

Rajasthan which is administered by 13 tehsils and 13 blocks. The district covers about 3.3%

of total area of the State. Jaipur, the capital city is also popularly known as Pink city and is

situated towards central part of the district. The semi-arid district receives normal annual

rainfall of 527mm (1901-71) while average annual rainfall for the last 30 years (1977-2006)

is 565mm. Over 90% of total annual rainfall is received during monsoon. (CGWB, 2007;

JDA,2012)

Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur district is almost 29 KM far away from the main city having the area of

654.69 sq.km. It is located at 26096’ N latitude and 75062’E longitude. In Bassi Tehsil there are

210 villages (famous for their leather footwear and Embroidery beading), There are no major

surface water sources in the study area however, main sources of drinking water are open

wells, hand pumps and bore wells.

2.2 Water Sampling

Ground water samples of a total of 50 villages in Bassi Tehsil of Jaipur district were collected

in pre-cleaned and rinsed polythene bottles of two litre capacity with necessary precautions.

(Brown et al. 1974) The samples were collected, during April 2012 to March 2013 from

manually operated hand pumps, open wells and bore wells.

2.3 Physico-chemical Analysis

All the samples were analyzed for the following Physico-chemical parameters; pH, Electrical

Conductivity (EC), Total Alkalinity (TA), Total Hardness (TH), Calcium hardness (Ca H),

Magnesium hardness (Mg H), Chloride, Nitrate, Fluoride and Total Dissolved Solid (TDS),

The analysis of water samples were carried out in accordance to standard analytical methods


Rajasthan, India



(APHA, 2005), All the chemicals used were of AR grade and double distilled water used for

preparation of solutions. Details of the analysis methods are summarized in Table-1.

Table-1: Parameters and methods employed in the physicochemical examination of water

samples

S.No

. Parameters Unit Method Employed

1. pH - Digital pH-meter

2. Electrical Conductivity µmhos/c

m Digital Conductivity-meter

3. Total Alkalinity Mg/L Titrimetric method (With HCl)

4. Total Hardness (as CaCO3) Mg/L Titrimetric method (with

EDTA)

5. Calcium Hardness (as CaCO3) Mg/L Titrimetric method

6. Magnesium Hardness (as

CaCO3) Mg/L Titrimetric method

7. Chloride (as Cl-) Mg/L Titrimetric method (With

AgNO3)

8. Nitrate (as NO3-) Mg/L Spectrophotometric method

9. Fluoride (as F-) Mg/L Ion Selective Electrode

10. Total Dissolved Solids Mg/L Digital Conductivity-meter

3. Result and conclusion

The respective values of all water quality parameters in the groundwater samples are

illustrated in Table-2. All the results are compared with standard permissible limit

recommended by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Indian Council of Medical Research

(ICMR) and World Health Organization (WHO), depicted in Table-3. Statistical Parameters

of groundwater samples of study area are summarized in Table-4.

3.1 pH

pH is measure of intensity of acidity or alkalinity of water. All chemical and biological

reactions are directly dependent upon the pH of water system (Rao, 2006), In our findings pH

varied between 6.3-8.7. Maximum pH was recorded at S41 in village Dhani Baba ki and

minimum pH was recorded at S20 in village Ateri, which are not within the permissible limit

prescribed by BIS, ICMR and WHO. The variation of pH in ground water samples of study

area is depicted in Figure – 1, which shows that most of the samples are alkaline in nature.

The pH of water is very important indication of its quality and provides information in many

types of geochemical equilibrium or solubility calculations (Mitharwal et al., 2009),

3.2 Electrical conductivity

The electrical conductivity of water depends upon the concentration of ions and its nutrient

status. Based on electrical conductivity values the water quality can be classified as poor,

medium or good (Gulta, Sunita, & Saharan, 2009), In the present investigation maximum

conductivity 16000 µmhos/cm was observed at S20 in village Ateri and minimum 1100


Rajasthan, India



µmhos/cm at S30 in village Todabhata. The maximum limit of EC in drinking water is

prescribed as 1400 µmhos/cm (WHO: 2006), Samples are exceeding the permissible limit

extremely as shown in Figure- 2.

3.3 Total alkalinity

Total Alkalinity ranges from 70 mg/L to 990 mg/L, the maximum value was recorded in

village Moondli (S5) and minimum in village Naya Bagrana (S4), Variation in total alkalinity

of ground water samples is represented in Figure- 3 which clearly depicts that these values

are more than the permissible limits of BIS, ICMR and WHO. In ground water, most of the

alkalinity is caused due to carbonates and bicarbonates.

3.4 Total hardness

Hardness is the property of water which prevents lather formation with soap and increases the

boiling point of water. Hardness of water mainly depends upon the amount of calcium or

magnesium salt or both (Singh et al., 2012), It is an important criterion for determining the

usability of water for domestic, drinking and many industrial supplies (Mitharwal et al.,

2009), In our findings the value of hardness fluctuates from 30 mg/L to 980 mg/L (Figure-4),

which are beyond the permissible limit as prescribed by BIS, ICMR and WHO. The

minimum value was found in S32 (Village- Ramrakhpura) and maximum value was found in

samples S10 and S12 (village- Hardhyanpura and Ramratanpura),

3.5 Calcium hardness

Calcium Hardness varies from 10 mg/L to 480 mg/L as illustrated in Figure-5. It may be due

to the presence of high amounts of calcium salts in ground water samples.

3.6 Magnesium hardness

Magnesium Hardness of groundwater is varying from 20 mg/L to 500 mg/L as shown in

Figure-6. High values of magnesium hardness can be attributed to the large amounts of

magnesium salts in ground water.

3.7 Chloride

Chloride contents in fresh water are largely influenced by evaporation and precipitation.

Chloride ions are generally more toxic than sulphate to most of the plants and are best

indicator of pollution (Rao, 2006), Chloride found high during the study ranged from 20

mg/l to 3620 mg/l (Figure-7), Minimum value was observed at samples S38, S39 and S40

and maximum value was observed at S20 in village Ateri. These unusual concentrations may

indicate pollution by organic waste. Chloride salts in excess of 100 mg/1 give salty taste to

water and when combined with calcium and magnesium, may increase the corrosive activity

of water (Tatawat and Singh- Chandel, 2007),

3.8 Total dissolved solid

Total dissolved solid is an important parameter for drinking water and water to be used for

other purposes beyond the prescribed limit, it imparts a peculiar taste to water and reduce its


Rajasthan, India



potability (Mitharwal et al., 2009), Total dissolved solids are composed mainly of

carbonates, bicarbonates, chlorides, phosphates and nitrates of Calcium, Magnesium,

Sodium, Potassium, Manganese, organic matter salt and other particles (Siebert et al., 2010),

In the present finding TDS value varied from 770 to 11200 mg/L (Figure-8), which is also

not within the prescribed permissible limits. Maximum TDS recorded at S20 in village Ateri

and minimum at S30 in village Todabhata.

Table-2: Analysis of ground water quality parameters in villages of Bassi Tehsil (Jaipur,

Rajasthan, India)

S.N

O.

Sampling

Site

Cod

e

p

H

EC

Al

k.

mg

/l

T

H

mg

/l

Ca

H

mg/

l

Mg

H

mg/

l

Cl-

mg

/l

NO3

-

mg/

l

F-

mg

/l

TDS

mg/l

1. Kanota S1 7.

4

310

0

65

0

10

0

70 30 28

0

20 1.7

8

2170

2. Dyarampur

a

S2 8.

5

410

0

71

0

25

0

110 140 54

0

84 1.2 2870

3. Bassi S3 8.

5

210

0

56

0

12

0

40 80 15

0

109 1.8 1470

4. Naya

Bagrana

S4 8.

4

370

0

70 59

0

250 340 47

0

186 1.0

2

2590

5. Moondli S5 8.

4

340

0

99

0

90 30 60 29

0

10 3.8

9

2380

6. Bishanpura S6 8.

0

310

0

70

0

18

0

70 110 41

0

15 2.4 2170

7. Roopura S7 8.

4

330

0

80 77

0

370 400 60 27 11.

5

2310

8. Hardi S8 8.

2

330

0

35

0

97

0

470 500 11

0

13 4.6 2310

9. Ralawata S9 8.

2

320

0

80 76

0

360 400 60 25 11.

0

2240

10. Hardhyanp

ura

S10 8.

0

320

0

35

0

98

0

480 500 11

0

11 4.4 2240

11. Heerawala S11 8.

2

320

0

34

0

96

0

460 500 10

0

10 4.2 2240

12. Ramratanp

ura

S12 8.

4

330

0

28

0

98

0

480 500 12

0

10 4.1 2310

13. Biharipura S13 8.

2

330

0

88

0

10

0

40 60 30

0

16 4.0 2310

14. Handi S14 8.

1

274

3

78

0

15

0

60 90 21

0

75 10.

0

1920

15. Akhepura S15 8.

0

350

0

52

0

22

0

100 120 46

0

76 0.6

9

2450

16. Banskhoh S16 7.

7

190

0

40

0

36

0

120 240 10

0

48 2.6 1330

17. Peipura S17 7.

8

330

0

26

0

95

0

450 500 40

0

12 1.7 2310

18. Jhajhawad S18 7. 600 64 28 130 150 13 68 0.4 4200


Rajasthan, India



2 0 0 0 20 8

19. Sankh S19 6.

5

450

0

38

0

87

0

410 460 72

0

142 1.1 3150

20. Ateri S20 6.

3

160

00

90 66

0

280 380 36

20

146 0.3

6

1120

0

21. Barala S21 7.

3

520

0

48

0

12

0

40 80 72

0

206 4.3 3640

22. Hanumanp

ura

S22 6.

9

510

0

16

0

80 30 50 88

0

224 2.1 3570

23. Peepalabai S23 7.

3

430

0

71

0

60 20 40 56

0

50 3.1 3010

24. Basedi S24 7.

2

300

0

16

0

18

0

80 100 48

0

48 1.6 2100

25. Mandurup

ura

S25 7.

7

260

0

68

0

28

0

120 160 12

0

202 0.2

8

1820

26. Ghasipura S26 8.

3

230

0

76

0

70 30 40 50 26 11.

4

1610

27. Ramsinghp

ura

S27 8.

3

220

0

80

0

70 30 40 70 26 10.

9

1540

28. Baseri S28 8.

3

160

0

54

0

70 30 40 60 9 6.4 1120

29. Gangaram

pura

S29 8.

2

220

0

81

0

80 30 50 90 29 11.

4

1540

30. Todabhata S30 7.

1

110

0

32

0

70 20 50 30 68 0.4 770

31. Jagdishpur

a

S31 8.

4

200

0

14

0

50 20 30 50 33 6.2 1400

32. Ramrakhp

ura

S32 8.

1

170

0

52

0

30 10 20 80 60 0.5 1190

33. Nangalkar

na

S33 8.

0

230

0

80

0

70 30 40 80 29 5.9 1610

34. Danau

Khurd

S34 7.

2

130

0

36

0

17

0

60 110 10

0

106 4.5 910

35. Sewapura S35 7.

4

170

0

56

0

40 20 20 30 24 0.5

4

1190

36. Ramsar S36 6.

8

170

0

47

0

90 30 60 18

0

68 0.5

8

1190

37. Dubali S37 8.

0

160

0

52

0

60 20 40 40 48 0.9

9

1120

38. Virajpura S38 7.

6

140

0

42

0

22

0

90 130 20 22 0.9

5

980

39. Kishanpur

a

S39 8.

0

150

0

44

0

16

0

70 90 20 20 1.9 1050

40. Tungi S40 8.

1

120

0

44

0

60 20 40 20 12 0.5

9

840

41. Dhani

Baba ki

S41 8.

7

330

0

73

0

15

0

60 90 35

0

12 2.1

5

2310

42. Bainada S42 8. 230 84 25 110 140 10 59 0.9 1610


Rajasthan, India



Mod 5 0 0 0 0 8

43. Danau

Khurd

S43 8.

2

240

0

45

0

28

0

120 160 14

0

22 2.9 1680

44. Anantpura S44 8.

3

210

0

46

0

15

0

60 90 17

0

18 1.8 1470

45. Ratanpura S45 8.

4

150

0

48

0

90 30 60 70 24 1.5 1050

46. Kaneta S46 8.

4

170

0

56

0

70 30 40 40 14 0.7 1190

47. Nimora S47 8.

2

270

0

52

0

50 20 30 80 11 3.2 1890

48. Kesopura S48 8.

2

220

0

81

0

50 20 30 80 25 5.8 1540

49. Kawarpura S49 7.

4

194

3

11

0

21

0

90 120 34

0

86 1.1 1360

50. Madhogar

h

S50 8.

0

150

0

47

0

80 30 50 50 23 2.2 1050

Figure 1: Variation in pH with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Figure 2: Variation in EC with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil


Rajasthan, India



Figure 3: Variation in Total Alkalinity (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Figure 4: Variation in Total Hardness (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Figure 5: Variation in Ca Hardness (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil


Rajasthan, India



Figure 6: Variation in Mg Hardness (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Figure 7: Variation in Chloride (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Figure 8: Variation in TDS (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil


Rajasthan, India



Table 3: Standards for drinking water quality

S.

No. Parameter BIS: 1999 ICMR: 1975 WHO: 2006

1. pH 6.5-8.5 7.0-8.5 6.5-8.5

2. EC (µmhos/cm) - - 1400

3. TA 600 600 120

4. TH 600 600 500

5. Cl- 1000 200 200

6. NO3- 100 50 45

7. F- 1.5 1.5 1.5

8. TDS 2000 1500 500

Table 4: Statistical parameters of the different chemical constituents of ground water of the

study area

S.No. Parameter Minimum Maximum Average Standard

Deviation

1. pH 6.3 8.7 7.89 0.56

2. EC 1100 16000 2957.72 2178.90

3. TA 70 990 492.6 238.06

4. TH 30 980 275 305.58

5. Ca H 10 480 123 148.38

6. Mg H 20 500 152 158.02

7. Cl- 20 3620 298.6 545.76

8. NO3- 9 224 54.14 56.06

9. F- 0.28 11.5 3.39 3.30

10. TDS 770 11200 2070.4 1525.23

3.9 Fluoride distribution

All the villages were categorized according to following concentration range (Table-5),

1. Category I: Fluoride concentration below 1.0 mg/l

2. Category II: Fluoride concentration between 1.0 - 1.5 mg/l

3. Category III: Fluoride concentration between 1.6 - 3.0 mg/l

4. Category IV: Fluoride concentration between 3.1 - 5.0 mg/l

5. Category V: Fluoride concentration above 5.0 mg/l

Table 5: Fluoride Categorisation of villages of Bassi Tehsil

Fluoride

Concentration

(mg/L)

Representing Samples

Category I (<1.0) S15, S18, S20, S25, S30, S32, S35, S36, S37, S38,

S40, S42, S46

Category II (1.0-1.5) S2, S4, S19, S24, S45, S49

Category III (1.6-3.0) S1, S3, S6, S16, S17, S22, S39, S41, S43, S44, S50

Category IV( 3.1- S5, S8, S10, S11, S12, S13, S21, S23, S34, S47


Rajasthan, India



5.0)

Category V (>5.0) S7, S9, S14, S26, S27, S28, S29, S31, S33, S48

The abstract of fluoride distribution is shown in Table-6 . The variation of fluoride

concentration in ground water samples of study area is depicted in Figure -9. Figure –10

shows the no. of villages and their fluoride concentration range as per divided category and

Figure- 11depicts the percentage of villages with respect to above categories.

Table 6: Abstract of fluoride distribution in Bassi Tehsil

No. Of

Villages

Fluoride Concentration in mg/L

Minimum Maximum <1.0 1.0-1.5 1.6-3.0 3.1-5.0 >5.0

50 0.28 11.5 13(26%) 6(12%) 11(22%) 10(20%) 10(20%)

Figure 9: Variation in Fluoride (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Fluoride concentration in sampling sites ranges from 0.28 to 11.5 mg/L in ground water

samples, with lowest value 0.28 mg/L (S25) in village Mandurupura and highest value 11.5

mg/L (S7) in village Roopura. The study reveals that out of 50 villages of Bassi Tehsil 13

villages (26%) have fluoride concentration below 1.0 mg/L. 6 villages (12%) have fluoride

concentration above 1.0 mg/L and below or equal to 1.5 mg/L. Population of these

habitations, fluoride intake through drinking water is more than 4 mg/day in an individual.

Therefore, an incidence of dental fluorosis is possible in local residents of these habitations.

11 villages (22%) have ground water with fluoride concentration equal to 1.6 mg/L and

below or equal to 3.0 mg/L which is above the maximum permissible limit prescribed by BIS

and WHO. At this concentration, teeth lose their shiny appearance and chalky black, gray, or

white patches develop known as mottled enamel. In 10 villages (20%) fluoride concentration

in ground water is equal to 3.1mg/L and below or equal to 5.0 mg/L. The intake of fluoride

per day by population in these habitations is very high and cause dental as well as skeletal

fluorosis. In the entire study 10 villages (20%) falls in category V, in these villages fluoride

concentration is above 5.0 mg/L, which may result in all types of fluorosis among inhabitants.


Rajasthan, India



Figure 10: No. Of Villages as per Fluoride Concentration Ranges

Figure 11: Percentage of Villages as per Fluoride Concentration Ranges

3.9.1 Sources of fluoride

The presence of fluoride in ground water can be attributed to geological reasons. (Ashok

Kumar Yadav et al. 2009) Fluoride exists naturally in water sources. Generally most

groundwater sources have higher fluoride concentrations than surface water. The main source

of fluoride in groundwater is basically from the rocks minerals. These minerals are

commonly associated with the country rocks through which the ground water percolates

under variable temperature conditions. Besides these minerals, alkali rocks, hydrothermal

solutions, phosphate fertilizers, burning of coal, manufacturing process of aluminium, steel

and bricks may also contribute to higher concentration of fluoride in groundwater.


Rajasthan, India



The concentration of fluoride in water sources depends upon various factors like source of

water, solvent action of water on the rocks and soil of earth’s crust, porosity of the rocks or

soil through which water passes, the speed with which water flows, the temperature of the

interaction of the rock and water, the hydrogen and calcium ion concentration, amount of

annual rainfall etc. (Ashok Kumar Yadav et al. 2009; Tailor & Chandel 2010; Singh P et al.

2011; Hussian et al. 2012;)

3.9.2 Effects of fluoride on human health

Fluoride in drinking water has both positive and negative effects on human health. Low

levels of fluoride in drinking water results in incorporation of fluoride in to teeth during the

formative years of children, which makes the teeth resistant to decay and development of

dental caries.(Tailor and Chandel, 2010) But, high intake of fluoride causes both short term

and long term effects. Acute high level exposure to fluoride causes immediate abdominal

pain, excessive salivation, nausea and vomiting. Seizures muscle spasms, muscle fibrillation

and numbness of mouth may also occur.(Singh P et al. 2011) Long term effect of excess

fluoride through water, appear to create fluorosis which manifests itself as dental, skeletal

and non- skeletal fluorosis.

In dental fluorosis, excessive fluoride usually causes yellowing of teeth, white spots, and

pitting or mottling of enamel. The natural shine or lustre of the teeth disappears. In the early

stage, the teeth appear chalky white and then gradually become yellow, brown or black. The

discoloration will be horizontally aligned on the tooth surface as “lines” away from the gums.

Dental fluorosis affects both the inner and outer surface of the teeth. The disease has mostly

cosmetic implications and has no treatment.

Excessive fluoride intake may also result in slow, progressive crippling scourge known as

skeletal fluorosis. It causes pain and damage to bones and joints. Skeletal fluorosis affects the

bones/skeleton of the body. Skeletal fluorosis can affect both young and old alike. One can

have aches and pain in the joints. The joints which are normally affected by skeletal fluorosis

are neck, hip, shoulder and knee, fluoride mainly gets deposited in these joints and makes it

difficult to walk and movements are painful. Rigidity or stiffness of joints also sets in. (Beg,

2009) At advanced stage vertebrae may fuse together and a victim may be crippled.

(Meenakshi and Maheshwari, 2006),

Apart from bones and teeth an excess intake of fluoride can damage or impart ill effects on

other soft tissues, organs and systems also, categorised as non-skeletal fluorosis. A review by

earlier workers reveals that almost all systems of body including muscle, liver, kidney, blood,

cardiovascular and even reproductive, are affected. The symptoms include gastro-intestinal

complaints, loss of appetite, pain in stomach, constipation followed by intermittent diarrhoea.

Muscular weakness and neurological manifestations leading to excessive thirst tendency to

urinate more frequently are common among the afflicted individuals. Cardiac problems may

arise due to cholesterol production. Repeated abortions or still birth, male infertility due to

sperm abnormalities are also some of the complications. (Tailor and Chandel, 2010; Singh P

et al, 2011)

3.10 Nitrate Distribution

All the villages were categorized according to following concentration range (Table-7),

1. Category I: Nitrate concentration below 45 mg/l


Rajasthan, India



2. Category II: Nitrate concentration between 45-50 mg/l

3. Category III: Nitrate concentration between 51-100 mg/l

4. Category IV: Nitrate concentration between 101-150 mg/l

5. Category V: Nitrate concentration above 150 mg/l

Table 7: Nitrate Categorisation of villages of Bassi Tehsil

Nitrate

Concentration

(mg/L)

Representing Samples

Category I (<45)

S1, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S10, S11, S12, S13, S17, S26,

S27, S28, S29, S31, S33, S35, S38, S39, S40, S41,

S43, S44, S45, S46, S47, S48, S50

Category II (45-50) S16, S18, S23, S24, S37

Category III (51-100) S2, S14, S15, S30, S32, S36, S42, S49

Category IV( 101-

150) S3, S19, S20, S34

Category V (>150) S4, S21, S22, S25

The abstract of nitrate distribution is shown in Table-8.The variation of nitrate concentration

in ground water samples of study area is depicted in Figure -12. Figure –13 shows the no. of

villages and their nitrate concentration range as per divided category and Figure-14 depicts

the percentage of villages with respect to above categories.

Table 8: Abstract of nitrate distribution in Bassi Tehsil

No. Of

Villages

Nitrate Concentration in mg/L

Minimum Maximum <45 46-50 51-100 101-

150 >150

50 9 224 29(58%) 5(10%) 8(16%) 4(8%) 4(8%)

Figure 12: Variation in Nitrate (mg/L) with sampling sites of Bassi Tehsil

Nitrate concentration in sampling sites ranges from 9 to 224 mg/L in ground water samples,

with lowest value 9 mg/L (S28) in village Baseri and highest value 224 mg/L (S22) in village

Hanumanpura. The study reveals that out of 50 villages of Bassi Tehsil 29 villages (58%)

have nitrate concentration below 45 mg/L. 5 villages (10%) have nitrate concentration above


Rajasthan, India



45 mg/L and below or equal to 50 mg/L which is above the maximum permissible limit

prescribed by WHO.

8 villages (16%) have ground water with nitrate concentration equal to 51 mg/L and

below or equal to 100 mg/L .In 4 villages (8%) nitrate concentration in ground water is equal

to 101mg/L and below or equal to 150 mg/L. In the entire study 4 villages (8%) falls in

category V, in these villages nitrate concentration is above 150 mg/L.

Figure 13: No. Of Villages as per Nitrate Concentration Ranges

Figure 14: Percentage of Villages as per Nitrate Concentration Ranges

3.10.1 Nitrate and human health

Nitrate (NO3-) contamination of the groundwater is mainly due to the intensive use of

fertilizers. Leaching of nitrate to groundwater is due to excessive application of N- fertilizer,


Rajasthan, India



the absence of proper soil and water management practices, septic tanks, improper disposal of

domestic wastes.

Nitrate content in groundwater serves as a basis for detecting pollution. High nitrate levels

found in drinking water have been proven to be the cause for numerous health conditions

across the world such as gastrointestinal cancers, methaemoglobinaemia, alzheimer’s disease,

vascular dementia, multiple sclerosis in human beings. Nitrate contamination leads to

Eutrophication of water bodies (Sunitha et al.,2012),

Ingested nitrites and nitrates also have a potential role in developing cancers of the digestive

tract through their contribution to the formation of nitrosamines. In addition, some scientific

evidences suggest that ingested nitrites and nitrates might result in mutagenicity,

teratogenicity and birth defects, contribute to the risks of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma and

bladder and ovarian concerts, play a role in the etiology of insulin dependent diabetes

mellitus and in the development of thyroid hypertrophy, or cause spontaneous abortions and

respiratory tract infections. Indirect health hazards can occur as a consequence of algal toxins

causing nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pneumonia, gastroenteritis, hepatoenteritis, muscular

cramps and several poisoning syndromes. Other indirect health hazards can also come from

the potential relationship between inorganic nitrogen pollution and human infectious diseases

(malaria, cholera Camargo and Alonso, 2006), Nitrate contamination is a long-term problem

and remedial action is necessary.(Susiladevi et al, 2010)

4. Conclusion

The analysis of ground water samples collected from different villages of Bassi Tehsil in

District Jaipur revealed that, in samples almost all water quality parameters (pH, electrical

conductivity, total alkalinity, total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, chloride,

TDS, nitrate and fluoride) are beyond the permissible limit as per BIS, ICMR and WHO

standards. In comparison to all other parameters there is an acute problem of extremely high

levels of Fluoride, Nitrate, Total Dissolved Solids and Chloride.

As only 38% of ground water samples have fluoride content with in the permissible limit (>

1.5 mg/L, WHO) and remaining 62% of villages are having very high fluoride concentrations.

The favourable factor which contributes to rise of fluoride in ground water is presence of

fluoride rich rock salt system. The nitrate ion concentration of 42% of total

samples was more than 45 mg/L. Some samples contain this concentration up to 224 mg/L.

The prime sources of nitrate enrichment are leaching from the sewage effluents being utilized

extensively for irrigation, leakage from sewerage systems, septic tanks and natural drains

carrying municipal wastes, and application of fertilizers.

The results of current study indicate that the drinking water, used by the people residing in

villages of Bassi Tehsil, is not potable. So, the proper environment management plan must be

adopted to control drinking water pollution immediately. Based on these results and analysis

of water samples, it is also recommended to use water only after boiling and filtering or by

Reverse Osmosis treatment for drinking purpose by the individuals to prevent adverse health

effects.

5. Acknowledgements

Authors are equally very thankful to Mr. H.S. Devenda Suptt. Chemist and Ms. Sunita Yadav

Jr. Chemist Public Health Engineering Engineering Department, Jaipur. Authors are also


Rajasthan, India



grateful to Dr. Yashoda Kumari Verma for her valuable motivational support in this research

work.

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