grower’s guide to pacific island agroforestry …...food-producing agroforestry landscapes of the...

Food-Producing Agroforestry Landscapes of the Pacific (Series)

Grower’s Guide to Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems,

Information Resources, and Public Assistance Programs

By Craig Elevitch, Garien Behling, Michael Constantinides, and James B. Friday

Agroforestry Net (http://agroforestry.org)Food-Producing Agroforestry Landscapes of the Pacific



Authors: Craig Elevitch1, Garien Behling1, Michael Constantinides2, and James B. Friday3. 1. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Email:

[email protected]; Web: http://www.agroforestry.org2. State Forester, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, 300 Ala Moana Blvd. Suite 4-118, Honolulu, Hawai‘i

96850 USA; Tel: 808-541-2600; Email: [email protected]. Extension Forester, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa,

Komohana Agricultural Complex, 875 Komohana St., Hilo, Hawai‘i 96720 USA; Tel: 808-969-8254; Fax: 808-981-5211; Email: [email protected]; http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/forestry

Illustrator: Christi Sobel, http://www.christisobel.comRecommended citation: Elevitch, Craig R., Garien Behling, Michael Constantinides, and James B. Friday. 2014.

Grower’s Guide to Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems, Information Resources, and Public Assistance Programs. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Food-Producing Agroforestry Landscapes of the Pacific. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Holualoa, Hawai‘i. http://www.agroforestry.org

Version history: November 2014Series editor: Craig R. ElevitchPublisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427;

Email: [email protected]; Web: http://www.agroforestry.org. This institution is an equal opportunity provider.Acknowledgments: We are greatly indebted to a number of resource professionals who provided valuable insight

and feedback for this publication including Karl Dalla Rosa, Tony Ingersoll, Bart Lawrence, Orlo Steele, Richard Straight, and Robert Wescom.

Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from http://agroforestry.org. With exception of electronic archiving with public access (that is, no electronic posting on web sites, library databases, etc.), reproduction and dissemination of this publication in its entire, unaltered form (including this page) for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holder. Use of photographs or reproduction of material in this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is permitted only with written permission of the publisher. © 2014 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All rights reserved.

Sponsors: This publication was produced by Hawai‘i Homegrown Food Network. Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program. This material is based upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2011-47001-30398.

Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in this article are the authors’ own and do not reflect the view of the United States Department of Agriculture, the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, or the United States government.

Food-Producing Agroforestry Landscapes of the Pacific (Series)



By Craig Elevitch, Garien Behling, Michael Constantinides, and James B. Friday

4 Grower’s Guide to Pacific Island Agroforestry Systems, Information Resources, and Public Assistance Programs Craig Elevitch, Garien Behling, Michael Constantinides, and James B. Friday http://www.agroforestry.org 5

CONTENTS

Introduction ..................................................... 5

Alley Cropping ................................................. 7

Coastal Strand Forest Buffer ......................... 10

Contour Hedgerow ........................................ 12

Forest Farming .............................................. 15

Homegarden Agroforestry ............................. 18

Living Fence .................................................. 21

Multistory Agroforestry .................................. 24

Riparian Forest Buffer .................................. 27

Silvopasture ................................................... 30

Windbreak/Shelterbelt ................................... 34

Business Development and Value-added Opportunities .............................................37

NRCS Assistance .......................................... 40

Agroforestry Information Resources.............. 46

References .................................................... 49

Appendix: NRCS Ecological Conservation Practice Standards Cited in this Document .. 55


INTRODUCTIONMany of us were raised to believe that trees have to be cleared away in order to grow food crops or raise livestock. While it is true that trees can compete with crops for light, water, and nutrients, there are many ways to combine trees with crops, other useful plants, and animals in mutually beneficial ways. Pacific Islanders have successfully integrated trees into their food production systems for thousands of years. Even in temperate regions such as North America and Europe, trees have been an integral part of farming systems for millennia. Despite a modern-day aversion to mixing crops with trees, we all have a picture of the Garden of Eden as an abundant, diverse tree garden, rather than a large open field of grain and vegetables. This guide introduces many ways to establish or improve crop production systems by including trees. In the late 1970s the English language term “agroforestry” was coined to describe farming systems that integrate trees with crops and livestock for environmental, economic, and social benefits. In addition to a new way of thinking about modern agriculture, agroforestry also became a new scientific field to describe and improve upon agroforestry systems that have existed since ancient times. Today, agroforestry has the attention of many as not only a better production system in many situations, but also a way to address challenges that accompany climate changes, such as an increase in the frequency of severe weather events.The many types of modern agroforestry systems include trees to protect from wind (windbreaks and shelterbelts), trees growing over crops (for-est farming, multistory agroforestry, etc.), trees growing with livestock and poultry (silvopasture), and many more. There exist endless varia-tions in how agroforestry practices are implemented depending upon farmer choices, growing environment, crop selection, and economic and ecological risk factors. In practice, there are no fixed boundaries between these practices. This publication describes ten commonly recognized types of agroforest-ry systems (Figure 1). Many of these systems are closely related to each other in structure and functionality and some recognized agroforestry systems are left out (e.g., living trellis). However, the practices presented here offer an introduction to a broad assortment of modern and tradi-tional systems for the reader to adapt to their unique conditions. Every agroforestry system is as individual as its human caretakers and local environment, so this introduction can be seen as a just a starting point for designing and implementing agroforestry systems on a particular site. Each system description includes illustrations, example species, further reading suggestions, and a list of associated USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) Conservation Practices. Following the agroforestry descriptions, there is an extensive resources section for more in-depth research on agroforestry practices, species selection, or-ganizations, and assistance programs. A special section for NRCS Con-servation Practices help growers navigate federal and state programs to access technical and financial assistance for their agroforestry project.


Figure 1: The ten agroforestry system types covered in this chapter represent some of the most import-ant agroforestry systems in the Pacific Islands. All of these systems integrate trees with crops and/or livestock for environmental, economic, and social benefits. Arrows in this diagram join closely related systems. In practice, elements from multiple types of systems may be combined and implemented to customize a system to suit the site characteristics, production goals, and human preferences.


ALLEY CROPPING[See also similar practices: Contour Hedgerow, Forest Farming]Alley cropping is an agroforestry system where trees are planted in wide-ly spaced rows, creating “alleys” in which agricultural or horticultural crops are grown. A closely related practice called contour hedgerows is more commonly used in tropical regions and on sloping lands (see Contour Hedgerows). When livestock is allowed to graze in the alleys, this practice is usually called silvopasture (see Silvopasture). Both the trees and alley crops can potentially provide food, timber, mulch, fodder, firewood and other products. Including crops in the alleys diversifies commercial tree crop enter-prises. Combining trees with short-term crops can provide short-term returns from the alley crops while awaiting longer-term returns from the trees. Short-term returns can spread out production and risk to improve overall profitability of the operation, particularly when growing timber trees and other trees that take several years before harvesting a product, such as many fruits and nuts. Although the trees are usually harvested for products, nitrogen-fixing trees can be grown to produce mulch or animal feed, thereby reducing purchases and lowering the cost of production (see Contour Hedgerow).Row orientation to the sun, crop selection, and row spacing are all important design considerations. In certain circumstances, tree row

Figure 2: On this North Kohala, Hawai‘i, farm the tree crops are mango (right) and gliricidia (left). The gliricidia trees provide shade (cooler temperatures) and wind protection (reduced transpiration). Gliricidia leaf litter and small branches may be used for mulching. In the alleys between tree rows, pineapple is growing with a ground cover of the perennial leaf vegetable sissoo spinach (Alternanthera sissoo).

http://nac.unl.edu/alleycropping.htm


orientation can create windbreak/shelter, while in others the tree rows may accelerate wind speed, in which case wind-protective cross rows of trees may be advisable. The potential competitive impacts of trees/shrubs on adjacent crop plants for light, water, and nutrients should be considered when selecting plant species and spacing.Integrating tree rows into an agricultural system can attract beneficial insects and pollinators through habitat diversity. Soil health and pro-ductivity may be improved via increased plant diversity, soil microbial activity, and soil nutrient cycling. Also, plant-insect relationships can be positively affected by increasing plant diversity and creating physical obstacles to hinder pest movement.

Economic benefits• Alley cropping provides short- and long-term returns on investment.

Examples of short-term crops include annual vegetables, fruits, grains, forage grasses, and legumes. Tree crops include fruits, nuts, spices, timber, and medicinals. Alley cropping can be customized to specialty crops with local or distant niche markets.

• Alleys are a unique place where diverse spatial and temporal com-binations of crop plants can be grown to increase production and reduce risk to the farmer.

• Tree crops are long-term investments and replacing them can be costly. However, the crops in the alleys are usually annuals or short-term perennials and can be rotated as desired to suit soil, climate, and market opportunities.

Figure 3: Row spacing, tree size and canopy density determine the quantity and quality of light reaching the alleys. If the canopy is relatively open, the tree row can provide a favorable microclimate for most types of crop production. Often, the trees are regularly pruned (branches and/or roots) to manage light levels in the alleys (Garrett, McGraw, and Walter 2009). Canopy and root pruning is necessary for sustained production in the alleys and to facilitate harvesting for many tropical fruits and nuts. When the trees are grown for wood products only, pruning may not be practical or desired, and as a result the alleys will become increasingly shaded, limiting the types of crops that can be grown until the trees are harvested.


Ecosystem benefits• Row orientation, spacing, and species diversity can provide shelter-

ing benefits from damaging winds (see Windbreak/Shelterbelt).• Birds and insects benefit from increased plant and habitat diversity. • Plant-insect relationships often benefit because increased plant

diversity can provide habitat to beneficial organisms while reducing the chances of a pest outbreak.

Additional considerations• Competition from trees for light, water, and nutrients may reduce

crop yield to uneconomic levels without proper tree management. • Increased spatial complexity may hamper crop management and

limit options for mechanical operations. • Trees may be injured when the crops are planted or harvested and

vice versa.• Farmers will often have to use their best judgment for species and

spacing, as specific recommendations are usually unavailable.

Example alley cropping species Tree crop rows Crops in alleys between tree rowsFruit treesbreadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)citrus (Citrus spp.)ice cream bean (Inga edulis)mango (Mangifera indica)moringa (Moringa oleifera)mulberry (Morus alba) pili nut (Canarium sp.)

Other treesbeach hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus)gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)*mahogany (Swietenia spp.)poumuli (Flueggea flexuosa)

Annual cropscassava (Manihot esculenta)eggplant (Solanum melongena)maize (Zea mays)soybean (Glycine max)squash (Cucurbita spp.)sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas)taro (Colocasia esculenta)

Perennial cropsbetel nut (Areca catechu)coffee (Coffea arabica, C. robusta)noni (Morinda citrifolia)pineapple (Ananas comosus)

(Elevitch and Wilkinson 2000, Kang and Wilson 1987)* Depending on location and use, these species may not be advised due to their invasive potential

To learn more about alley cropping An introductory video by the University of Missouri Center for Agrofor-estry provides a well-organized overview of alley cropping. The images are from temperate areas but most of the practices covered can be ap-plied to tropical environments.Can Vegetables Be More Productive Under Tree-Based Systems (Pow-erPoint Presentation) by The World Vegetable Center describes how vegetables can be more productive under a tree-based multistory system like alley cropping.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Alley CroppingPrimaryAlley Cropping (311)SecondaryConservation Crop Rotation (328)Cover Crop (340) FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Conservation Cover (327)Critical Area Planting (342) Deep Tillage (324)Mulching (484)Integrated Pest Management (595)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b8Kwb5yInPM


COASTAL STRAND FOREST BUFFER[See also similar practices: Windbreak/Shelterbelt, Riparian Forest Buffer]

Coastal strand forest buffers are edge habitats and typically consist of dense stands of trees, shrubs, and vines that function as a windbreak along the shoreline. Species with tolerance to wind and salt spray, as well as tough root systems that can withstand the highly erosive effects of ocean waves during storm events should be planted. A mixed inter-planting of adapted species can reinforce the strand buffer’s ability to hold and protect the soil. Planting of strand agroforestry buffers can help address the NRCS Special Environmental Resource Concern for Coastal Zone Management Areas (USDA NRCS 2012b). These buffers are an increasingly important adaptation strategy to mitigate predicted climate change impacts from weather events such as “king” tides, storm surge, and other extreme weather events (USDA NRCS In press).

Economic benefits• Can reduce damage by wind, waves, salt and storms to crops, live-

stock, and structures, saving money and labor and increasing yield consistency.

• The plants used can be selected to produce commercial yields of fruit, nuts, fodder, and timber.

Figure 4: In this image of a typical Samoan coastal environment, coconut, tropical almond, milo, and many other coastal species are growing in the strand buffer. Healthy coastal strand forests can help to guard against soil erosion and mitigate the impacts of salt spray and ocean water inundation on crops, livestock, and structures immediately inland.


Ecosystem benefits• Root systems can help to secure coastal soil and sand, reducing ero-

sion caused by storm water over-land flow, waves and tidal surges.• As a natural barrier, coastal buffers can help limit salt spray from

reaching and accumulating in interior areas that may be home to sensitive flora and fauna or agricultural fields.

• Coastal strand forest buffers can mitigate the impact of typhoons.

Example multipurpose coastal strand buffer species Ground covers Shrubsbeach morning glory (Ipomoea spp.)beach pea, nanea (Vigna marina) beach vitex (Vitex parviflora) Pacific Island thintail (Lepturus

repens)seashore paspalum (Paspalum

vaginatum)

beach heliotrope (Tournefortia argentea)

beach naupaka (Scaevola taccada)‘ilima (Sida fallax)noni (Morinda citrifolia)pandanus (Pandanus spp.)

Treesbeach hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus)breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia) coconut (Cocos nucifera)fish poison tree (Barringtonia

asiatica)gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)

kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum)kou (Cordia subcordata)milo (Thespesia populnea)pandanus (Pandanus spp.)tropical almond (Terminalia catappa)

To learn more about coastal strand forest buffersAgroforestry in Coping with Meteorological and Climatological Risks by Stigter (2011) explains the role of agroforestry and coastal buffers in coping with natural disasters and extreme weather events.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Coastal Strand Forest BufferPrimaryWindbreak/Shelterbelt

Establishment (380)SecondaryConservation Cover (327)Critical Area Planting (342)Windbreak/Shelterbelt

Renovation (650)FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Brush Management (314)Herbaceous Weed Control (315)Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

Figure 5: A variety of adapted and native trees, shrubs, and vines are found in strand coastal buffer habitats.


CONTOUR HEDGEROW[See also similar practice: Alley Cropping]A type of alley cropping that is common in the tropics, contour hedge-rows produce large quantities of mulch or animal fodder, while serving the additional functions of slowing surface water runoff and reducing sedimentation to water bodies. The hedgerows serve as a vegetative barrier to rainwater flowing across the soil surface. Planting hedgerows along the contour, or level line, slows down rain water, which can then soak into the soil rather than run off. When the energy in rainwater runoff is reduced, it is less likely to erode soil and surface organic matter. Over time, contour hedgerows have been known to create mini terraces as sediments accumulate on the uphill side of hedgerows.When designing contour hedgerows, plant spacing guidelines between and within hedgerows must be followed. Spacing of hedgerows depends upon slope and hydrology (e.g., site rainfall and runoff characteristics). Species are selected based on ability to grow close together, growth form, and rooting characteristics. Usually nitrogen-fixing trees or shrubs are grown for mulch production or fodder because they are very productive and regrow quickly after cutting. Herbaceous barriers typically use a bunch grass (e.g., vetiver) due to their ease of planting (sprigging), fibrous root systems, and growth form (basal stem clusters). If site characteris-tics are suitable, certain fruit crops may be used for the hedgerow species (e.g., mulberry). The economic benefits of hedgerows are generally from

Figure 6a (left): Hedgerows of the fast growing nitrogen-fixing tree Acacia angustissima are grown for nutrient-rich mulch production in a jackfruit orchard in Kona, Hawai‘i. Figure 6b (right): Vetiver grass, which has a very strong root system, planted in a newly established Vatia hillside agroforest in Tutuila, American Samoa. Agriculture on moderate and steep sloping lands often comes at the price of higher management and labor costs and greater potential for soil erosion. Contour hedgerows are usually planted with fast-growing nitrogen-fixing trees or bunch grasses that function as a partial barrier to slow down rainwater. This in turn helps to build the soil and retain organic material to keep the soil covered and protected from sun and rain. Crops grown between hedgerows can be annual or perennial shrubs or trees, as long as they do not cast dense shade over the hedgerow plants.


cost savings by not having to purchase fertilizer, conducting multiple weeding operations, as well as enhancing the ability to farm on slopes.

Economic benefits• The direct financial yields of the contour hedgerow system generally

come from the crops grown between hedgerows.• The ability of hedgerows to slow rain runoff and encourage water to

soak into the soil can reduce the need for irrigation.• Increasing water infiltration into the soil can reduce the risk of crop

loss from drought. • Preventing damage from water moving quickly downhill, contour

hedgerows may also increase crop productivity on hilly terrain by reducing soil erosion, and increasing soil health.

• If the trees are fast-growing nitrogen fixers, they can be pruned to provide nitrogen rich organic matter that can be used as mulch to reduce the need for purchased fertilizers from off-site (Elevitch and Wilkinson 2000).

Ecosystem benefits• Beyond reduction of soil erosion, contour hedgerow systems can

also restore soil fertility (Noordwijk and Verbist 2004).• Contour hedgerow systems minimize soil erosion by slowing down

rainwater and reducing soil runoff into streams and ponds lower in the watershed.

Figure 7: Hedgerows are planted on the contour on sloping lands to form a dense barrier. Reducing the energy in storm run-off is critical to preventing heavy erosion and the formation of rills and gullies. Careful planning is recommended to ensure selecting the most appropriate and adapted plant species and to establish appropriate spacing between hedgerow barriers for optimal benefits.


Example contour hedgerow speciesNitrogen fixing trees for soil improvement

Herbaceous plants

ice cream bean (Inga edulis)leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)flemingia (Flemingia macrophylla)angustissima (Acacia angustissima)calliandra (Calliandra calothyrsus)

citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus)dwarf Napier grass (Cenchrus

purpureus)vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)

(Young 2004)

Additional considerations• Hedgerows may compete heavily with crops for light, water, and

nutrients. Hedgerow systems have proven especially unworkable in dry areas.

• Hedgerows must be regularly trimmed or they will grow tall and shade the crops. Trimming requires significant inputs of hand labor or inventive mechanization.

• Increased spatial complexity may make field operations difficult (e.g., use of tractors).

To learn more about contour hedgerows (also called alley cropping in many of these references)The technical guide “Sloping Agricultural Land Technology” (ECHO Technical Note #72) presents contour hedgerows for farming hilly land. It includes a 10-step “how to” guide for installing and maintaining con-tour hedgerows.

“A Guide to Orchard Alley Cropping” by Elevitch and Wilkinson (1999) provides detailed and illustrated guide to planning, implementation and management of contour hedgerows.

“Forage Tree Legumes in Alley Cropping Systems” by Kang and Gutter-idge (1994) describes the benefits, crop performance, and management of contour hedgerow systems as well as the effects on soil and weed suppression.Resource Management for Upland Areas in Southeast Asia—An Informa-tion Kit (IIRR 1995) provides general resource management strategies for upland areas, including contour hedgerows.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Contour HedgerowsPrimaryAlley Cropping (311)Hedgerow Planting (422)SecondaryConservation Crop Rotation (328)Cover Crop (340) FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Conservation Cover (327)Contour Orchard and Other

Perennial Crops (331)Critical Area Planting (342)Integrated Pest Management (595) Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://agroforestry.org/images/pdfs/oachbk.pdf

http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/publicat/gutt-shel/x5556e0q.htm

http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0cdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-10&a=d&c=cdl&cl=CL1.6&d=HASH01ae9feddff06d4c5c25e7ba.5.7



FOREST FARMING[See also similar practices: Homegarden agroforestry, Multistory Agroforestry]

Forest farming is defined as “the cultivation of high-value specialty crops under a forest canopy that is intentionally modified or maintained to provide shade levels and habitat that favor growth and enhance produc-tion levels” (Chamberlain et al. 2009). Adopters of this system include new landowners who want to preserve or improve upon ecosystem health and diversity, land inheritors who want to improve their land pro-ductivity through innovative business techniques, and long-time forest landowners who want to expand their lands earning potential beyond timber.Timber represents a long-term investment and many growers may not see returns during their lifetime. Similarly, in native forest conservation, harvesting trees for timber may never take place. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs)—crops grown in the understory of larger trees—give growers income prospects apart from the tree harvest for timber. NTFPs are part of a growing market that farmers can take advantage of worldwide.Incorporating a productive understory into a timber system can provide several ecosystem benefits as well: Safeguarding and remediating soil erosion and water quality issues; enhancing carbon and nutrient storage and cycling, and enhancing habitat for beneficial insects or pollinators.

Figure 8a (left): Coffee is growing as an understory crop in a native ‘ōhi‘a lehua forest in South Kona, Hawai‘i. Figure 8b (right): Coffee and black pepper (vine trellised on trees) growing under native forest trees in Kodagu, Karnataka, India. Many landowners would like to generate income from timber plots while waiting to harvest the trees for timber, which may require many years or decades. Others would like to establish new timber plots but need short-term income from the area to help offset the initial investment. Forest farming is a type of multistory agroforestry that allows new and established timber growers to generate income from understory crops while addressing resource conservation issues. Forest farming may also be suitable for income generation in native forest conservation efforts where the trees will never be harvested for timber.


Economic benefits• Timber stands often take decades to provide a farmer with returns

on their initial investment. The incorporation of NTFPs into an understory can supplement and diversify a farmer’s income while they wait for the long-term returns on an investment in timber.

• Edible, craft, floral, and medicinal products including mushrooms, flowers, fruits, nuts, spices, essential oils, and resins are some exam-ples of NTFPs that a farmer turn into profitable crops (Wilkinson and Elevitch 2000a).

• 80% of the developing world’s population and millions of house-holds use NTFPs to meet subsistence and income needs in a market that trades over a billion dollars of goods each year (Wilkinson and Elevitch 2004).

Ecosystem benefits• Forest farming can reduce soil erosion caused by rainfall and wind,

while increasing efficient use of ground and surface water.• Filling in the understory of a timber system with a productive range

of plants helps to buffer unwanted noise, dust, and odor.• Agroforestry systems that merge timber and NTFPs have more

biodiversity (Chamberlain et al. 2009).

Additional considerations• Because market values are unknown or fluctuate widely for many

specialty products, there are economic risks that should be carefully evaluated.

Figure 9: As with all multistory systems, in forest farming it is important to investigate species char-acteristics before planting. Understory crops should be able to cope with the expected levels of shade cast by the overstory trees. Both understory and overstory species should compatible in terms of space needs above and below ground, as well as not host pests and diseases that significantly affect the other crops in the system. Fortunately, many combinations of understory and overstory trees have been tested for centuries by Pacific Island farmers, and can serve as models for new plantings.


• Managing shade levels by pruning the overstory trees can be expen-sive and can potentially cause damage to the understory crops.

• Harvesting products from a forest farm may be inefficient compared with other cultivation scenarios, potentially leading to relatively high labor costs.

Example forest farming species Understory Species Tree Speciesblack pepper (Piper nigrum)cacao (Theobroma cacao)cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum)coffee (Coffea arabica)kava (Piper methysticum)maile (Alyxia spp.), on trellis mushrooms on wood substrate

Australian red cedar (Toona ciliata)koa (Acacia koa)large-leaf mahogany (Swietenia

macrophylla)monkeypod (Albizia saman) ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha)rosewood (Dalbergia spp.)teak (Tectona grandis)

To learn more about forest farmingAgroforestry Practices: Forest Farming by the University of Missouri’s Center for Agroforestry and How, When and Why of Forest Farming by Cornell Cooperative Extension present detailed information about farm forestry in temperate environments. Many of the concepts translate well to tropical environments and some of the species and techniques may work well in higher elevation Pacific Island locations.“Design Principles for Farm Forestry: A guide to assist farmers to decide where to place trees and farm plantations on farms” by the Australian Master TreeGrower program is a valuable technical guide. Hawai‘i Coffee Agroforestry Systems by Permanent Agriculture Resourc-es and the University of Hawai‘i presents the results of a study of 12 shade-grown coffee farms in Kona, Hawai‘i.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Forest FarmingPrimaryMulti-Story Cropping (379)SecondaryForest Stand Improvement (666) Tree/Shrub Establishment (612)FacilitatingBrush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Cover Crop (340)Critical Area Planting (342)Herbaceous Weed Control (315)

Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/practices/ff.php

http://hwwff.cce.cornell.edu

http://www.mastertreegrower.org.au/main.asp?_=Resources

http://www.mastertreegrower.org.au/main.asp?_=Resources

http://agroforestry.org/projects/hawaii-coffee-agroforestry-systems


HOMEGARDEN AGROFORESTRY[See also similar practices: Forest Farming, Multistory Agroforestry]Homegarden agroforestry, a small-scale form of multistory agroforestry, are diverse and usually intricate multistory systems planted and main-tained by household members for the primary purpose of household consumption and enjoyment. They usually include a wide variety of plants including trees, vines, shrubs, and herbaceous plants (Nair 2004). They are considered by many agroforestry experts to be “the epitome of sustainability” (Kumar and Nair 2004). Homegarden agroforests primarily provide food for a family and are not focused on commercial production, although surplus produce may be sold in local markets to supplement income. When thoughtfully configured, homegardens can also provide numerous benefits to the environment around a home, such as improving air quality, moderating air temperature, and reducing noise pollution. Furthermore, homegardens can prevent soil erosion and increase biodiversity for the benefit of fauna and the recreational enjoyment of household members.

Economic benefits• Homegardens can provide food year-round when they include

well-planned combinations of crops in tropical and subtropical environments.

Figure 10a (left): This Samoan homegarden includes many fruits and medicinal plants including citrus, payaya, abiu, pineapple, noni, and shampoo ginger. Figure 10b (right): This homegarden in South Kona, Hawai‘i, includes citrus, avocado, lychee, papaya, macadamia, and numerous other fruits and nuts. Homegarden agroforestry systems have been used for countless generations and are still common in tropical and subtropical areas where subsistence farming is a way of life. Because they are grown close to where people live, homegarden agroforests receive daily attention from family members, which al-lows them to be very diverse, complex systems, often with dozens of species intermingled. While food products are most commonly grown in homegardens, plants that provide medicinal, craft material, culinary herbs, and beauty are usually included (Nair 2004). By weaving together people and their subsistence needs, homegarden agroforests are important components of the household social fabric.


• Selling surplus production from a homegarden can provide sup-plementary income and is often the inception of small agricultural enterprises.

Figure 11: Homegarden agroforests are usually densely planted with numerous species, in a multistory, forest-like system. The space allowed for each plant depends upon its anticipated size with regular pruning. Sun, shade, and wind tolerance, all determine the planting configuration. There are usually open areas within homegardens for sun-loving annual crops, such as many types of vegetables.

Example homegarden species Plant size is often determined by pruning, so categories below are general guidelines only. Understory Middle story Overstorycacao (Theobroma cacao)cardamom (Elettaria spp.)cassava (Manihot esculenta)chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius)chili pepper (Capsicum spp.)cocoyam (Xanthosoma spp.)coffee (Coffea arabica)dragon fruit (Hylocereus & other spp.)giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma

chamissonis)giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza)ginger (Zingiber officinale) katuk (Sauropus androgynous) kava (Piper methysticum)maile (Alyxia spp.), on trellisnaranjilla (Solanum quitoense)Pacific spinach (Abelmoschus

manihot) pineapple (Ananas comosus)poha berry (Physalis peruviana)shampoo ginger (awapuhi, Zingiber

zerumbet)sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas)taro (Colocasia esculenta) ti (Cordyline fruticosa)turmeric (Curcuma longa)

acerola (Malpighia glabra)agati (Sesbania grandiflora)banana (Musa spp.) beans (Phaseolus and others), on trellis bilimbi (Averrhoa bilimbi) citrus (Citrus spp.)dwarf coconut (Cocos nucifera)fig (Ficus spp.)guava (Psidium guajava)*jaboticaba (Plinia cauliflora)kukui (Aleurites moluccana)Malabar chestnut (Pachira aquatica)mountain apple (Syzygium malaccense)moringa (Moringa oleifera)“moya” fruits (Annona spp.)mulberry (Morus spp.)noni (Morinda citrifolia)papaya (Carica papaya)passion fruit (Passiflora sp.)*, on trellispigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)sandalwood (Santalum spp.)starfruit (Averrhoa carambola)sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora)water apple (Syzygium spp.)yam (Dioscorea spp.), on trellis

avocado (Persea americana)bamboo (various species)breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)coconut (Cocos nucifera)dugdug (Artocarpus mariannensis)jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)koa (Acacia koa)laurel (Cordia alliodora)longan (Dimocarpus longan)lychee (Litchi chinensis)macadamia nut (Macadamia

integrifolia)mango (Mangifera indica) poumuli (Flueggea flexuosa)Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer)vi apple (Spondias dulcis)

* Depending on location and use, these species may not be advised due to their invasive potential


• Homegardens function well as a testing ground for selecting com-mercial crops or testing new varieties for commercialization.

Ecosystem benefits• Improved air quality in and around homesteads, as the multistory

canopy can collect pollutants such as dust, odors, and vaporous contaminants.

• Homegarden plants regulate temperature extremes near homes by providing shade and increasing local humidity through evapotranspiration.

• Densely planted homegardens with diverse leaf sizes and shapes can reduce noise pollution by absorbing and deflecting unwanted sounds.

• Trees and understory plantings improve soil quality by reducing soil runoff from heavy rains, drains, and gutters while simultaneously creating new healthy soils through the decomposition of leaf litter.

• The inherent increase of biodiversity in an agroforestry homegarden system provides valuable habitat for desirable birds, bats and bene-ficial insects or pollinators.

Additional considerations• Growing successful tropical multistory homegardens requires

knowledge and experience of many different species. Inexperienced growers will need to learn from more experienced growers or be willing to learn from mistakes.

• Due to the complexity of homegardens, mechanization is often impractical, requiring large amounts of hand labor.

• Crops produced are generally for home consumption and usually not available in sufficient quantities for commercial sale.

To learn more about homegarden agroforestryImproving Nutrition Through Home Gardening—A training package for preparing field workers in Southeast Asia by FAO (1996) includes a set of “Homegarden technology leaflets” which present issues from daily nutrition to homegarden nurseries.An Introduction to Agroforestry by Nair (1992) contains a comprehensive chapter about homegardens from around the world.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards applicable to homegarden agroforestryPrimaryMulti-Story Cropping (379)SecondaryTree/Shrub Establishment (612)FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Brush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Cover Crop (340)Critical Area Planting (342)Herbaceous Weed Control (315)Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

Note: NRCS Pacific Islands Area provides technical support for design and implementation of homegarden agroforestry systems. Financial assistance is limited to applications that are determined to be small scale; primarily for personal/subsistence use; high in species diversity; limited in number of plants of any one species, and; inclusive of native plant species.

http://www.fao.org/docrep/v5290e/v5290e00.htm


http://www.worldagroforestry.org/units/library/books/Book%2032/an%20introduction%20to%20agroforestry/html/index.htm?n=0


LIVING FENCE[See also similar practice: Silvopasture]Living fences are composed of trees and/or shrubs and are used to define specific areas or to direct the movement of people and animals. They may be planted in single lines of trees that function as support posts for fencing materials such as barbed wire or grown as dense thickets that form and impenetrable barrier. Many farmers find that living fences are cheaper to install compared to non-living fences and require less fre-quent replacement. Supplemental income can be garnered from living fences designed with fruit and nut trees used as fence posts or integrated into a living barrier. Often living fences are pruned regularly at a height of about 2–3 m (6–10 ft) to provide fodder, mulch, or fuelwood. Living fences create a host of ecosystem benefits when properly planned and planted. Living fences can also serve as a component in a multi-row windbreak or riparian buffer. Along waterways, living fences can help keep animal waste from polluting the water and prevent soil ero-sion caused by animal trails along stream banks. By helping to control livestock movements, living fences can be used for prescribed grazing and to safeguard conservation areas from trampling and other animal interference.

Economic benefits• Living fences can supplement income by producing commercial

crops.

Figure 12a (left): Moringa trees support livestock fencing in Apia, Samoa. Figure 12b (right): Densely planted noni trees serve to support barbed wire for containment suitable for pigs or other livestock in Yap state, Federated States of Micronesian. Degradable fencing materials such as iron or wooden posts are expensive and can require frequent replacement, especially in wet, saline, or voggy (volcanic smog) environments. Living fences are a traditional way of demarcating boundaries, protecting lands, and growing extra fodder, fuel wood, fruits, flowers, and medicinal products (Cherry and Fernandes 2004). Plants grown in living fences can live for decades and usually are those that can readily be propagated by cutting or seed at low cost.


• Fences made of live plants can last for many decades and they are more likely to outlast many traditional fencing materials, saving on materials and rebuilding costs.

• Through pruning, a living fence post can provide fodder, mulch, or fuelwood.

• Livestock can be a very costly investment for many farmers and liv-ing fences can protect that investment by creating a barrier against predators and poachers, providing livestock shelter and preventing animals from wandering off and damaging crops.

Ecosystem benefits• Living fences can serve as a component of a windbreak/shelterbelt

or riparian buffer.• Can increase the number of paddocks for prescribed grazing, which

prevents the buildup of animal waste and allows the farmer to con-trol plant growth with measured animal foraging.

• In many areas where livestock graze along streams, their move-ments destroy the integrity of stream banks. Living fence can be used to keep livestock away from fragile stream banks and prevent advanced soil erosion.

• A living fence offers shade, which can benefit livestock in during warm seasons and hot periods of the day.

Additional considerations• Living fences species may negatively impact adjacent crops or pas-

ture due to competition for light, water, and nutrients.

Figure 13: Spacing is determined by regular fencing guidelines, although often trees used as live fence posts are placed closer together than non-live fence posts to make a stronger fence. However, with large cuttings (e.g., gliricidia) of 3 m (10 ft) or longer, experienced fence builders can erect a fence soon after planting the cuttings and new vegetative growth will be out of the reach of livestock.


• Some trees may be susceptible to browsing by livestock that were not anticipated to be present when selecting species.

• New pests and/or diseases may appear that threaten the well-being of living fence trees. This risk is increased when propagating from cuttings (clones) of just one or a few individual trees.

Example living fence speciesLive barriers Live fence posts from cuttingheart of flame (Bromelia balansae)Natal plum (Carissa grandiflora)pandanus (Pandanus spp.)salak palm (Salacca zalacca) sisal (Agave americana)

coral bean (Erythrina spp.)gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)hau (Hibiscus tiliaceus) moringa (Moringa oleifera) narra (Pterocarpus indicus)noni (Morinda citrifolia)physic nut (Jatropha curcas)yellow mombin (Spondias mombin)

To learn more about living fences“Living Fence: Its Role on the Small Farm” by Martin (2010) provides many examples of tropical living fence species.

“Living Fences” by Martin (2012) details living fence benefits, establish-ment, and care.

“Live Fences, Isolated Trees, and Windbreaks: Tools for Conserving Bio-diversity” by Harvey, Tucker, and Estrada (2005) describe living fences as tools for conserving biodiversity in this article.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Living FencePrimaryHedgerow Planting (422)SecondaryAccess Control (472) Prescribed Grazing (528)FacilitatingBrush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Critical Area Planting (342)Deep Tillage (324)Fence (382)Herbaceous Weed Control (315)

Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.echocommunity.org/resource/collection/d9d576a1-771a-4d95-a889-4fbd9e75d03d/Living_Fence--Its_Role_on_the_Small_Farm.pdf?hhSearchTerms=%22fence%22

http://agroforestry.org/overstory-back-issues/123-overstory-149-live-fences-isolated-trees-and-windbreaks-tools-for-conserving-biodiversity



MULTISTORY AGROFORESTRY[See also similar practices: Homegarden agroforestry, Forest Farming]

Multistory agroforestry systems are complex, diverse plantings of trees, shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants occupying two or more canopy layers. Often livestock or poultry are integrated into the system on a permanent or intermittent basis. One could say that all other agroforest-ry systems covered here are variations of multistory agroforestry. Pacific Island peoples have cultivated such systems for millennia. Since Euro-pean contact, field crops or single crop orchards have replaced many of these traditional systems. Multistory agroforestry systems have the stability associated with nat-ural forests in terms of efficient nutrient cycling, overall resilience to environmental stress such as drought and storms, and pest and disease resistance. By combining many short, medium, and long-term crops, a farm’s crop portfolio is better able to adapt to variations in weather and market demand than any individual crop. In other words, multistory agroforestry systems are better able to cope with environmental and economic risks. Another advantage is that multiple crops tend to have

Figure 14: A typical Pacific Island multistory agroforest in Kona, Hawai‘i, with understory crops of coffee and kava, middle story crops of mountain apple, starfruit, and banana, and overstory crops of breadfruit and coconut. Many fruit and nut trees can take 2–15 years to become productive and many timber species usually require at least 15 years before harvesting. Because of these long-term time commitments, many agroforesters grow understory crops with their trees to provide early yields. Multistory agroforestry systems include a minimum of two canopy layers: one tree crop and one understory crop, however, they usually include multiple tree, middle story, and understory crops (for plantings where only timber trees are grown with understory crops, see Forest Farming).

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/landuse/forestry/sustain/guidance/?cid=nrcsdev11_009304


multiple harvest seasons, which can spread labor demands more evenly over the year. Multiple varieties of important crops such as breadfruit or yam also allow harvesting over a longer period.

Economic benefits• The nature of multistory agroforestry systems takes advantage of

environmental niches and potentially increases total yield per unit land area as compared with any single crop.

• By filling all environmental niches with crops and other useful plants, weed growth is minimized.

• Varied plant selection means that farmers can generate short-term and long-term income streams.

• Crop yields tend to increase over time due to reduced evapotranspi-ration, buffering from radical weather shifts, reduced wind damage, suppression of invasive weeds, and improved soil composition (Wilkinson and Elevitch 2000), although yields for shade intolerant species can decrease significantly.

• Multistory agroforestry systems create habitat for beneficial species, which may reduce losses from pests and diseases.

Ecosystem benefits• Soil improvement may result due to a variety of factors: enhanced

cycling of soil nutrients; carbon inputs (and potentially nitrogen if N-fixers are planted) from root biomass or litter; enhanced activity in beneficial soil microbe populations; reduction or elimination of

Figure 15: When planning a multistory system, all plants should be carefully selected with consider-ation to canopy, spacing, and light and water competition. Additional design elements include shade tolerance, soil requirements, maintenance and harvesting needs, disease susceptibility, and culti-vation methods (Wilkinson and Elevitch 2000). Because of the complexity of interactions between crops, observing successful plant combinations that other growers have made can be very valuable for the planning process.


soil tillage, and; erosion protection provided by roots or by litter or canopy layers.

• Multistory systems can prevent excessive runoff and erosion.• Ecosystem niches created by multistory agroforestry may improve

habitat for desirable fauna and flora.

Additional considerations• Even more than in homegardens, growing a multistory agroforestry

system requires considerable technical knowledge and skill. Farm-ers must know the requirements and culture of each species and variety. Inexperienced beginners will need to start small or learn from more experienced growers.

• Management of multistory agroforests is often labor intensive. Many agroforestry crops do not lend themselves to mechanical harvesting, particularly in multistory configurations. It is likewise difficult to automate weed or pest control and fertilization.

To learn more about multistory agroforestry systemsCoconut Farm Diversification: Ideas and Considerations by Scheewe (2001) presents detailed information about multistory agroforestry with coconut palms.

“Multipurpose Trees for Agroforestry in the Pacific Islands” by Thaman et al. (2000) describes multistory agroforestry systems and includes extensive species tables.

Example multistory speciesPlant size is often determined by pruning, so categories below are general guidelines only.

Understory Middle story Overstorybetel (Piper betle) black pepper (Piper nigrum)cacao (Theobroma cacao)cardamom (Elettaria spp.)chaya (Cnidoscolus aconitifolius)chili pepper (Capsicum spp.)cocoyam (Xanthosoma spp.)coffee (Coffea arabica)giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhiza)giant swamp taro (Cyrtosperma

chamissonis)maile (Alyxia spp.), on trellispineapple (Ananas comosus)taro (Colocasia esculenta) ti (Cordyline fruticosa)turmeric (Curcuma longa)

banana (Musa spp.) bilimbi (Averrhoa bilimbi) citrus (Citrus spp.)jaboticaba (Plinia cauliflora)kukui (Aleurites moluccana)mountain apple (Syzygium malaccense)moringa (Moringa oleifera)“moya” fruits (Annona spp.)noni (Morinda citrifolia)papaya (Carica papaya)passion fruit (Passiflora spp.)*, on trellispigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)sandalwood (Santalum spp.)soursop (Annona muricata)sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)water apple (Syzygium spp.)yam (Dioscorea spp.), on trellis

avocado (Persea americana)bamboo (various species)breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)coconut (Cocos nucifera)dugdug (A. mariannensis)durian (Durio zibethinus)jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)koa (Acacia koa)laurel (Cordia alliodora)longan (Dimocarpus longan)lychee (Litchi chinensis)macadamia nut (Macadamia

integrifolia)mango (Mangifera indica) poumuli (Flueggea flexuosa)Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer)vi apple (Spondias dulcis)

* Depending on location and use, these species may not be advised due to their invasive potential.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Multistory AgroforestryPrimaryMulti-Story Cropping (379)SecondaryTree/Shrub Establishment (612)FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Brush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Cover Crop (340)Critical Area Planting (342)Deep Tillage (324)Herbaceous Weed Control (315)Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.echocommunity.org/resource/collection/f6ffa3bf-02ef-4fe3-b180-f391c063e31a/Coconut_Farm_Diversification_GASA__engl2.pdf

http://agroforestry.org/free-publications/agroforestry-guides


RIPARIAN FOREST BUFFER [See also similar practices: Windbreak/Shelterbelt, Coastal Strand Forest Buffer]Riparian forest buffers are composed of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants along waterways. They can prevent damage to streams or improve the quality of degraded streams. When properly designed, riparian forest buffers can capture sediment, organic material, nutrients, and pesticides from surface and ground water and keep it from entering waterways and eventually the ocean (Bentrup 2008). Buffers are especially important when adjacent fields are cultivated or grazed and in a condition that in-hibits water infiltration and creates sediment runoff issues. Buffers may also help prevent flood damage, stabilize stream banks and improve fish, bird and other wildlife habitat (Teel and Buck 2004). Implementation of a riparian buffer system can help address NRCS policy (190-GM, Part 411) and the NRCS Special Environmental Resource Concern for ripari-an areas (USDA NRCS 2012b). Economically, riparian buffer systems provide an environment for cultivation of a diverse assortment of fruits, nuts, and other specialty crops. In other words, riparian buffers may serve both a soil and water conservation function as well as crop production.

Economic benefits• Riparian zones are often well suited for fruits and nuts as well as

niche agricultural crops such as aromatic herbs, fuelwood, decora-tive plants, mushrooms, and craft materials (Tjaden 1998).

Figure 16: Riparian vegetation growing along river in Nasinu, Fiji. When properly designed, permanent vegetation growing adjacent to streams and rivers can protect waterways from erosion, filter pollut-ants and sediments from surface water runoff, store nutrients and car-bon, and provide better habitat for fish, bird, and insect populations (Welsch 1991). Removal of such buffers has harmed water resources throughout the Pacific.


Ecosystem benefits• The main goal of riparian buffer systems is to reduce nonpoint

source pollution from agricultural watersheds. Some examples of pollutants include sediment and fertilizer runoff.

• By slowing down rain run-off, riparian areas allow water time to soak into the soil. This leads to protection of stream banks, property, and improved groundwater resources (Schultz et al. 2009).

• Potential to serve important roles in native forest restoration and provision of native wildlife habitat.

Additional considerations• Riparian buffers often decrease the amount of arable land available

for farming.• Extreme rain events can lead to flooding that damages riparian

buffer plantings, putting commercial species used in this practice at risk.

To learn more about riparian forest buffer systemsConservation Buffers: Design Guidelines for Buffers, Corridors, and Green ways by Bentrup (2008) provides over 80 illustrated design guide-lines synthesized and developed from a extensive literature review.

“Protecting Riparian Areas: Farmland Management Strategies” by Bel-lows (2003) covers healthy riparian areas and strategies to create them. Includes tables designed to evaluate riparian protection strategies based

Figure 17: Design is critical to achieving both environmental and eco-nomic goals with a riparian buffer.

http://http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/

http://http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/

https://attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/summary.php?pub=115


on local environment, surrounding land use practices, and land man-agement objectives.

“Riparian Buffers” by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service provides recom-mended riparian practices as well as practices to avoid.

“Riparian Buffer Zone Restoration For Food Security” by Sebastian (2006) describes riparian buffer zone restoration and its relationship to food security.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Riparian BufferPrimaryRiparian Forest Buffer (391)SecondaryRiparian Herbaceous Cover (390) Upland Wildlife Habitat Management

(645)FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Brush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Cover Crop (340)Critical Area Planting (342)Filter Strip (393)Fence (382)

Herbaceous Weed Control (315)Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

Example riparian buffer species Ground cover Shrubs Trees‘ahu‘awa (Cyperus javanicus)desmodium (Desmodium triflorum)‘ilie‘e (Plumbago zeylanica)nanea (Vigna marina)paspalum (Paspalum vaginatum)vetiver (Chrysopogon zizanioides)

beach naupaka (Scaevola taccada)koaia (Acacia koaia)milo (Thespesia populnea)noni (Morinda citrifolia)

casuarina (Casuarina spp.) coconut (Cocos nucifera)fish poison tree (Barringtonia spp.)gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)hau (Hibiscus tiliaceus)kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum)koa (Acacia koa)pandanus (Pandanus tectorius)

http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/wqg/sri/riparian5.pdf

http://agroforestry.org/overstory-back-issues/105-overstory-167-riparian-buffer-zone-restoration-for-food-security


SILVOPASTURE(See also similar practice: Living Fence, Contour Hedgerow)Silvopasture agroforestry systems purposefully integrate forage crops, livestock, and trees to promote mutually supportive planned interac-tions (Sharrow et al. 2009). Perennial grasses and grass-legumes may be provided for livestock to graze on while trees may be selected for timber, forage, or other non-timber products. Silvopasture systems are often configured in three different ways, as illustrated in Figure 19.

1. Growing trees in rows with pasture forage grown underneath and in between the trees, typically for timber production.

2. Growing trees that are pruned regularly for leaf fodder or browsed by livestock. Often fast growing nitrogen-fixing species are em-ployed. If the pasture is on a slope, tree rows are planted along the contour (see Contour Hedgerows).

3. Grove plantings of trees (typically to provide shade or resting areas for livestock) that form shady areas for livestock.

Trees in silvopastures can be managed to provide both short- and long-term economic benefits for farmers including: provision of forage with associated reductions in feeding costs; improved animal health due to temperature moderation, and; serving as a “forage bank” that can be

Figure 18: Sheep and a donkey graze in a pasture shaded by mahogany trees in Kurtistown, Hawai‘i. The donkey protects the sheep from roaming dogs. Given sufficient light (about 40% shade or less), pasture grass species can grow well under the open canopy of trees. The trees may be grown for several purposes: fruit and nut crops, timber, or, in certain cases, native species conservation. Additionally, some trees may contribute nutritionally to livestock through their fruits or leaf prunings. Grazing by livestock may also function as weed control and reduction of fire hazard.


Figure 19: There are several ways to configure silvopastoral systems, as illustrated by these three dia-grams. The top illustration shows a system where trees are planted in a uniform grid throughout the pasture. The middle illustration shows trees planted in hedgerows along the contour (level line). In the bottom illustration, trees are planted in small, dense groves scattered around the pasture. Careful preparation is necessary to effectively incorporate forage, trees, and livestock into a silvopasture sys-tem. Livestock should be kept away from young trees for one to several years to allow for establishment and to avoid damage by livestock.


an extremely important food source during droughts when herbaceous forage species are not productive. The presence of trees in silvopasture systems can enhance watershed function, increasing ground water recharge, reducing erosion, and am-plifying species diversity (USDA NRCS 2004).

Economic benefits• The tree component of a silvopasture system offers long-term mon-

etary benefits to a rancher by producing timber, fruit, nuts, or other non-timber products.

• Trees can also provide short-term benefits by creating livestock forage, sun protection, and shelter from harsh weather.

• When well managed, a tree forage component system decreases expenses for feed and delivers high quality nutrition to increase livestock growth and production.

• Tree growers can save money on chemical and mechanical plant control by including a grazing practice.

• Reduced risk by diversifying operations and revenue streams.

Ecosystem benefits• Increased plant density in a silvopasture system helps to keep

excess soil and livestock manure and urine from entering nearby waterways.

• Enhanced carbon sequestration and cycling.

Additional considerations• Livestock may damage timber trees and cause long-term losses. The

larger the animal the more damage it can cause; thus horses are more damaging than cattle, which are more damaging than goats.

• Trampling by livestock can compact the soil and adversely affect tree growth.

• Excessive tree shade can reduce fodder yield or quality. • Grazing in silvopasture paddocks must be deferred until trees are

of suitable size to withstand impacts from livestock. Alternatively, some form of seedling/sapling protection must be installed.

Characteristics for silvopasture plantsTrees Perennial Forage PlantsMarketableFast growth (especially establishment)Tolerant of animal browseTolerant of mechanical impacts

Suitable for livestockProductive under moderate shadeTolerant of heavy trafficCompatible with site

(Adapted from USDA 2004)


Example silvopasture speciesTimber trees Livestock forage treesCaribbean pine (Pinus caribaea)hoop pine (Araucaria spp.)eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.)laurel (Cordia alliodora)*mahogany (Swietenia, Khaya spp.)monkeypod (Samanea saman)koa (Acacia koa), brief periods of

livestock access only

Tibet tree (Albizia lebbeck)*wild-tantan (Desmanthus virgatus)*gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala, L.

diversifolia, and others)*monkeypod (Samanea saman)sesbania (Sesbania sesban)*

(Gutteridge and Shelton 1998; Elevitch and Wilkinson 2000)* Depending on location and use, these species may not be advised due to their

invasive potential.

To learn more about silvopasture systemsForage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture (Gutteridge and Shelton 1998) is a comprehensive reference for the use of tree legumes in grazing systems.

“What Social Factors ‘Sell’ Landowners on Agroforestry Practices” webinar by Jones and Barlow (2013) presented by the USDA NRCS East National Technology Support Center discusses increased interest in silvopasture agroforestry systems and social factors related to the adop-tion of agroforestry systems

“Silvopasture: 30 Years of Applying Research and Innovation,” a video by Alabama Cooperative Extension System, covers rotational silvopasture alley cropping.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: SilvopasturePrimarySilvopasture Establishment (381)SecondaryForage and Biomass Planting (512)Prescribed Grazing (528)

Range Planting (550)

FacilitatingBrush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Cover Crop (340)Critical Area Planting (342)Deep Tillage (324)Fence (382)Heavy Use Area Protection (561)Herbaceous Weed Control (315)

Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Pipeline (516)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Watering Facility (614)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://www.forestrywebinars.net/webinars/outreach-what-social-factors-sell-landowners-on-agroforestry-practices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJsKmBbtw7Q&list=PL569926FE57B83E70


WINDBREAK/SHELTERBELT[See also similar practices: Coastal Strand Forest Buffer, Coastal Strand Forest Buffer]

Windbreak/Shelterbelt agroforestry systems are specifically designed to create barriers or sheltered areas by re-directing, filtering and slowing wind, and limiting damage caused by storms. Plans for an effective windbreak/shelterbelt system should always consider orientation to pre-vailing and/or damaging winds; number of tree or shrub rows needed; within-row and between-row plant spacing; canopy shape and density characteristics of selected species; height and distance of desired pro-tection; length and profile of the windbreak, and; continuity to minimize gaps (Straight and Brandle 2007; Wilkinson and Elevitch 2000b). When planned appropriately windbreaks and shelterbelts can provide important conservation benefits such as reduced soil erosion, increased water use efficiency, dust control, increased livestock health and weight gain (Burke 2004). Multipurpose windbreaks and shelterbelts can also provide a landowner with fruit, timber, fodder, and other products while often raising property values and/or serving as visual screens.

Figure 20: Windbreaks of gliricidia and ironwood protect tomato and banana in northern Guam. Windbreaks and shelterbelts entail a long-term investment for the purposes of protecting soil, livestock, infrastructure, forages and crops from damaging effects of wind. They also improve water use efficiency in both irrigated and non-irrigated systems or as a means to capture and reduce dust, pesticide drift, ocean salt spray, odors, and noise. The use of species that yield valuable products can ease some of the financial burden and justify allocating valuable land to this conservation purpose.


While providing the benefits discussed above, windbreak and shelterbelt systems also provide the usual ecosystem benefits associated with trees by improving soil-quality, water quality, animal and insect habitat, car-bon sequestration and enhancing microclimate.

Economic benefits• The primary benefits are improved growing conditions and reduced

damage to agricultural crops.

Example windbreak/shelterbelt speciesShort (under 7.5 m [25 ft]) Medium (7.5–12 m [25–40 ft]) Tall (12 m [40 ft] or more)beach naupaka (Scaevola sericea)clove (Syzygium aromaticum)croton (Codium variegatum)gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium)koaia (Acacia koaia)kou (Cordia subcordata)mango (Mangifera indica), prunedmulberry (Morus nigra)noni (Morinda citrifolia)panax (Polyscias guilfoylei)sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera)soursop (Annona muricata)starfruit (Averrhoa carambola)sudax (sorghum × sudangrass

sterile hybrid)sugarcane (Saccharum officinale)Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora)ti (Cordyline terminalis)

avocado (Persea americana)breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis)dwarf Brazilian banana (Musa balbisiana)dwarf coconut palm (Cocos nucifera)hala, screwpine (Pandanus spp.)hedge bamboo (Bambusa multiplex

Alphonso-Karr)jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus)kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum)kukui, candlenut (Aleurites moluccana)milo (Thespesia populnea)monastery bamboo (Thyrostachys

siamensis)mountain apple (Syzygium malaccense)neem (Azadirachta indica)‘ōhi‘a-lehua (Meterosideros polymorpha)oldhamii bamboo (Bambusa oldhamii)tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

cadagi (Corymbia torelliana, syn. Eucalyptus torelliana)

coconut (Cocos nucifera)giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper)ironwood (small cone) (Casuarina

cunninghamiana)mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla)Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria

heterophylla)tallow wood (Eucalyptus microcorys) tropical almond (Terminalia catappa)

(Wilkinson and Elevitch 2000b; USDA NRCS 2012a)

Figure 21: Design is especially crucial, as windbreaks and shelterbelts that are installed without proper planning may cause wind damage instead of preventing it. Other planning considerations include tree and crop root zone interaction, space availability, and man-made features of the landscape like power lines and borders.


• Shelterbelts reduce stress on livestock species by protecting them from extreme heat, cold, wind, and rain. They also result in lower feeding costs and mortality rates for animals.

• Trees in a shelterbelt system can be multipurpose. While providing benefits for animals, they can also be put to use by farmers as pro-ducers of goods ranging from timber to animal fodder.

• Because of the many benefits of shelterbelt systems, property values may be improved by 6–12% through their implementation (Wight and Townsend 1995).

Ecosystem benefits• Incorporation of shelterbelt trees into an agriculture fields helps

to decrease erosion and runoff, thereby increasing infiltration of rainwater and leading to an overall healthier soil system.

• Shelterbelts help to conserve moisture by reducing evaporation and transpiration.

Additional considerations• Windbreaks occupy space that would usually be available for crops

or pasture. • Shelterbelts may compete with adjacent crops for light, water, and

nutrients. • Windbreak trees can grow too large for the situation and may re-

quire costly maintenance, so careful selection of tree/shrub species is advised.

To learn more about windbreak/shelterbelt systemsWindbreak publications by the USDA National Agroforestry Center are comprehensive resources for design and maintenance.

“Multipurpose windbreaks: design and species for Pacific Islands” by Wilkinson and Elevitch (2000) covers design and species selection for Pacific Islands.

NRCS Conservation Practice Standards: Windbreak/ShelterbeltPrimaryWindbreak/Shelterbelt Establishment (380)SecondaryWindbreak/Shelterbelt Renovation (650)FacilitatingAccess Control (472)Brush Management (314)Conservation Cover (327)Cover Crop (340)Critical Area Planting (342)Deep Tillage (324)

Herbaceous Weed Control (315)Integrated Pest Management (595)Mulching (484)Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Woody Residue Treatment (384)

http://nac.unl.edu/windbreaks.htm

http://agroforestry.org/images/pdfs/multwind.pdf


BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT AND VALUE-ADDED OPPORTUNITIES (after Elevitch and Love 2013)Running a commercial business requires a different set of skills from running family or commercial farm and livestock operations. For the Pa-cific region, there are numerous excellent training resources available for general planning and operating of farm businesses. Rather than covering general business skills, this section focuses on potential commercial opportunities and characteristics offered by agroforestry systems that are often not available from conventional broad scale agriculture.

Crop portfolioBecause agroforestry systems include a diversity of crops, they lend themselves to enterprises that seek to develop a portfolio of products to meet anticipated demand in their target markets. Diverse crops and crop varieties can have several advantages for a farm enterprise. First, weather variations and normal yield fluctuations mean that some crops will perform well certain years, while others do not. Diversity tends to even out total farm yield from year to year, helping to manage the risks of yield variations of any one crop. Second, similar to resilience to environmental variations, market demand and prices can vary widely over time, so having a range of crops can help reduce market risks as compared with a single crop. Third, a carefully selected diversity of crops can be leveraged to develop a product line, particularly of processed and value-added products. For example, a number of spices and flavoring crops can be grown in a multistory agroforest to form a unique product line. Fourth, a diversity of crops can balance a farm enterprise’s seasonal demands for labor, harvesting, processing, marketing, and distribution. This can moderate seasonal extremes that can tax a farm enterprise’s resources and drive up costs.

Potential products and advantages of agroforestry systems as compared with conventional single crop agriculture.

Potential productsStaple Food

Fruit/NutLeaf Vegetable

Beverage/Drink/TeaFragrant/Beautiful Flowers

Flavoring/SpiceMedicinal

Animal FodderBee Forage

Organic Matter/MulchWood/Timber

Fuel WoodBody Ornamentation/Garlands

Resin/Gum/Glue/LatexTannin/Dye

Toxin/Insecticide/Fish PoisonCosmetic/Soap/Perfume

Oil/LubricantCeremonial/Religious/Cultural

Potential advantagesExpanded crop portfolioNiche products and marketsBrandingCertifications


On the other hand, having too many different crops may mean some crop yields may be below a marketable level. It is crucial to assess the market and make sure sufficient quantities are produced to enter the market.

Niche markets and products Just as agroforestry systems are customized for the local environment, so too can agroforestry products be customized for local market and personal preferences of the producer. A niche market is a segment of a product market. Usually niche markets are opportunities to sell products that are not widely available. A niche product fills a niche market. For example, grass-fed local beef is a niche product in Hawai‘i, differentiated from feedlot beef from the mainland U.S. and commanding higher pric-es. Within the grass-fed local beef market, there are even smaller niche markets for organic and “Kobe-style” beef. One could imagine a range of niche opportunities for beef raised in agroforestry systems, including

“watershed friendly” (silvopasture) and “100% local feed” (hedgerow intercropping with forage grasses and nitrogen fixing trees). In other words, commercial operations focusing on niche markets and products are a natural fit for agroforestry operations. In many cases, the environmental niches provided by an agroforestry system can literally lead to niche products that could otherwise not be grown in the open. For example, crops that thrive in the shady, moist and cool understory of trees such as medicinal and culinary plants and mushrooms, can be cultivated in forest farming and many other agroforestry systems. Trees can provide an ideal environment for black pepper, vanilla, and other vines, in addition to providing a living trellis to support them. When the canopy of a woodlot is managed to provide 40–50% shade, both cattle and forage grasses can thrive. All of these exam-ples can give rise to high value products that can fill niche markets.

BrandingBranding identifies a producer’s goods and ser-vices through names, design, graphics and other features of labeling, packaging, and advertising. In many cases, an agroforestry approach opens opportunities for branding that is directly related to the practices. “Forest grown,” “rain forest,”

“soil and water conserving,” “locally grown,” and “grown without imported fertilizer” are all possi-ble ways to stand out in the marketplace by using

Figure 22: Culinary and medicinal herbs cultivated in the understory of fruit trees in Chanthaburi, Thailand. The certified organic understory crops of this agroforest are responsible for more than 50% of the farmer’s income from this orchard.


one’s agroforestry practices. Regional associations to traditional Pacific Island practices can make a compelling case for customers to choose products over generic sources. Assertions such as these are conveyed to customers by telling the story of the products and how they were grown in text, pictures, and video. By building a unique identity for the producer, appealing branding potentially adds value to the producer’s entire product line, including innovative products that are unfamiliar to customers. As with many aspects of running a business, it is often a good investment to hire a professional to help develop a brand identity.

CertificationsIndependent certifications can go a long way in differentiating locally produced, niche products from mainstream counterparts and in many cases increase the price customers are willing to pay. Certifications require compliance with a specific set of standards, documentation and record keeping, and usually regular site inspections. Each certification has its own costs in terms of resources and fees, and its own benefits in terms of the value customers place on certification. Studies comparing certified organic with non-organic food show that the price premium for organic is usually below 30%, although in certain cases it can be much more, even exceeding 100% (USDA ERS 2012). For unique products with no competition, the price premium one can expect can be difficult to estimate. Small enterprises that sell directly to customers often see the extra work of independent certification as a burden with questionable value. Instead, they educate their customers directly through product descriptions, advertising, and one-on-one conversations. For many customers, the trust built through direct customer interactions with producers exceeds the value any third-party certification could add.

Specialty cropsThe U.S. government defines specialty crops as, “fruits and vegeta-bles, tree nuts, dried fruits, horticulture, and nursery crops (includ-ing floriculture)” (USDA ARS 2014). This legal definition includes a wide range of crops that may be included in agroforestry systems. It excludes large-scale commodity crops such as grains (wheat, rice, etc.), grain legumes (soy, peanut), hay, and so on. Although this defi-nition is useful at the policy level, small farm enterprises may find it unnecessarily restrictive. Therefore, we prefer the use of the term niche product, which can be used to describe any product that has a “specialty” or niche market.

Figure 23: Certifications appli-cable to agroforestry practices are currently limited. Rainfor-est Alliance and Bird Friendly (Smithsonian Institute) are two examples to consider.


NRCS ASSISTANCEThe Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) is an agency of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provides technical assistance to farmers and other private landowners and managers. The NRCS is a primary provider of technical and financial assistance for agroforestry planning and implementation. The NRCS uses a conservation plan, conservation practice standards, and associated specifications to link agroforestry systems to the environmental resource problems they prevent or mitigate. These documents play an integral role in technical and financial assistance opportunities for interested cooperators by providing guidance in technically sound design, installation and management of their agroforestry systems. Each of the ten agroforestry systems covered above lists relevant NRCS Practice Standards for the Pacific Islands. Some of the practice standards listed above may not apply to all U.S. states and territories.

NRCS Resource ConcernsAmong the first steps NRCS planners take when working with landown-ers is site assessment and associated planning work. Such assessments include evaluation of site-specific environmental conditions or issues in categories specified by NRCS as “Resource Concerns.” Resource Concerns are applicable to specific land use categories of Crop, Forest, Pasture, Range, Farmstead (enclosed animal operations) and Other Land Uses, and include three optional land modifiers that may be ap-plicable to any of the land uses: Grazing, Irrigation and Wildlife. A list of NRCS Resource Concerns and their accompanying definitions and explanations may be found in the NRCS National Planning Procedures Handbook, and searching for “List of Resource Concerns.” How these Resource Concerns relate to agroforestry systems is conveyed in the table below.Once one or more potential Resource Concerns are identified for a site, planners take additional steps to determine whether each concern constitutes a significant problem. It is only when one or more resource problems are deemed to exist that NRCS can move forward with the development of a Conservation Plan to address and perhaps resolve problems on the site. A Resource Concern may be considered a problem simply because the landowner says it is, for example, “There are no fruit bearing understory species in my timber plantation.” Other resource concerns require further evaluation using an assessment tool to confirm that it is in fact a resource problem, such as soil erosion exceeding sus-tainable levels as determined by NRCS.

NRCS Conservation Practice StandardsWhen developing a Conservation Plan for a particular project and site, NRCS uses a “toolbox” containing over 160 best management practices called Conservation Practice Standards (CPS). These are designed to address or resolve natural resource concerns or problems identified by

This section provides informed guidance regarding USDA NRCS assistance. USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.

http://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=33244.wba

http://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=33244.wba


planners and land managers. These CPS (often accompanied by Practice Specifications) provide both broad and detailed guidance regarding the applicability of various conservation objectives or methods to address identified problems. Each Standard defines the specific con-servation objective of the practice, summarizes some of the purposes and eligible settings to which the practice applies, and provides criteria, specifications and recommendations to help resource managers ensure successful implementation of the practice. Several applicable CPS are

NRCS Resource Concerns that are potentially addressed by the ten agroforestry practices.X = Agroforestry system has potential to address indicated Resource Concern.

NRCS Resource Concerns

Agroforestry practices

Alle

y C

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ing

Coa

stal

Str

and

Fore

st B

uffer

Con

tour

H

edge

row

Fore

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arm

ing

Hom

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Agr

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y

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Agr

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Inadequate Habitat for Fish & Wildlife: Habitat degradation X X X X X X

Air Quality Impacts: Emissions of particulate matter & PM precursors X X X X X X X

Air Quality Impacts: Objectionable odors X XSoil Erosion: Sheet, rill & wind erosion X X X X X X X X X XSoil Erosion: Excessive bank erosion from streams,

shorelines or water conveyance channels X X

Soil Quality Degradation: Organic matter depletion X X X X X X X X X XInsufficient Water: Inefficient use of irrigation water X X XWater Quality Degradation: Excessive sediment in

surface water X X X X X X X X X X

Insufficient Water: Inefficient moisture management X XWater Quality: Excess nutrients in surface & ground

waters X X X X X X X X X

Water Quality Degradation: Pesticides transported to surface & ground waters X X X X X X X X

Water Quality Degradation: Excess pathogens & chemicals from manure, biosolids or compost applications

X X X X X X X

Water Quality Degradation: Elevated water temperature X

Degraded Plant Condition: Inadequate structure & composition X X X X X

Degraded Plant Condition: Excessive plant pest pressure X X X X X

Degraded Plant Condition: Undesirable plant productivity & health X X X X X X X

Livestock Production Limitation: Inadequate feed and forage X X X X X

Livestock production Limitation: Inadequate livestock shelter X X X


recommended for each of the ten agroforestry systems discussed above. Depending on site-specific natural resource concerns, practices may be implemented either individually or in groups to fully address a particular concern or problem. In some cases, facilitating engineering practices may also be applicable to address resource concerns for planned agro-forestry systems, particularly:

NRCS Conservation Practices likely to be associated with various agroforestry systems. Not all Conservation Practices may be applicable to a particular project, while other Practices not listed could potentially be applicable. 1 = Primary Practice; 2 = Secondary Practice; 3 = Facilitating Practice.

NRCS Conservation Practice

Agroforestry Systems

Alle

y C

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Str

and

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Silv

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Shel

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Access Control (472) 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3

Alley Cropping (311) 1 1

Brush Management (314) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Conservation Cover (327) 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Conservation Crop Rotation (328) 2 2

Cover Crop (340) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Deep Tillage (324) 3 3 3 3 3

Filter Strip (393) 3

Forage and Biomass Planting (512) 2

Forest Stand Improvement (666) 2

Hedgerow Planting (422) 1 1

Herbaceous Weed Control (315) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Integrated Pest Management (595) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Mulching (484) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Multi-Story Cropping (379) 1 1 1

Prescribed Grazing (528) 2 2

Range Planting (550) 2

Riparian Forest Buffer (391) 1

Riparian Herbaceous Cover (390) 2

Silvopasture Establishment (381) 1

Tree/Shrub Establishment (612) 2 2 2

Tree/Shrub Pruning (660) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Windbreak/Shelterbelt Establishment (380) 1 1

Upland Wildlife Habitat Management (645) 2

Vegetative Barrier (603) 1

Windbreak/Shelterbelt Renovation (650) 2 2

Woody Residue Treatment (384) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

http://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/HI/472_PI_Standard.pdf





























• Clearing and Snagging (326)• Grassed Waterway (412)• Irrigation Pipeline (430)• Irrigation System, Micro-irrigation (441)• Irrigation System, Sprinkler (442)• Stream Crossing (578)• Streambank and Shoreline Protection (580)

Assistance Programs

Technical assistanceBecause agroforestry systems can be designed to mitigate or prevent many resource concerns and problems, interested landowners and land managers may be eligible to apply for or request technical and financial assistance from a variety of sources, including

1. NRCS Conservation Technical Assistance2. Soil and Water Conservation District Conservation Technical

Assistance3. Technical Service Providers (private consultants who have been

vetted by NRCS)4. Cooperative Extension System Offices (primarily educational

services)5. State, Territorial or other local government agencies.

The NRCS can provide technical assistance to any landowner interested in addressing their resource problems. Landowners who review this guide and want to implement agroforestry systems will be better pre-pared to contact NRCS for help by learning which resource concerns their agroforestry system is connected to and what types of Conserva-tion Practices they might be interested in implementing. With the right practice standards, farmers and resource management professionals from various entities can work together to plan an integrated agrofor-estry system for any landscape that addresses resource problems and meets landowners’ short and long term objectives.

Financial assistance Many factors influence availability of financial assistance to implement conservation practices such as Cooperator eligibility, Cooperator objec-tives, land use designation (e.g., crop, range, forest), Resource Concerns to be addressed, and current Program policy.

1. The NRCS and USDA Farm Service Agency—Farm Bill programs such as the following may be available: Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP); Agricultural Management Assistance (AMA), Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP), or Conserva-tion Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP).

2. State or Territorial Governments—Forest Stewardship Program.3. Principal financial assistance opportunities (summarized here) vary

by island location are as follows:








http://www.csrees.usda.gov/Extension/

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/PA_NRCSConsumption/download?cid=stelprdb1261415&ext=pdf


a. Hawai‘i: EQIP, CSP, AMA, CREP, FSP and PFW.b. Guam, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands, and

American Samoa: EQIP, CSP, and FSP.Further information on various programs can also be found on the web:

• NRCS Farm Bill Programs in the Pacific Islands Area• National Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP)

summary • Hawai‘i Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP)• Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of For-

estry and Wildlife (DLNR-DOFAW) Forest Stewardship Program• Guam Forest Stewardship Program• CNMI Forest Stewardship Program (navigate to Programs).

Grant & Easement ProgramsOptions include Farm Bill Programs such as:

• Conservation Innovation Grants: State level (Hawaii), National level• Regional Conservation Partnership Program • Agricultural Conservation Easement Program

Working with USDA NRCSThe following guidelines provide a brief framework for prospective land-owners who are considering engaging NRCS for assistance with their agroforestry or other conservation systems.

1. Establish eligibility for USDA programs by contacting the Farm Services Agency at your local USDA Service Center.

2. Work with the local NRCS Field Office or Conservation District Office to evaluate your site to determine whether development of an NRCS Conservation Plan is warranted. NRCS may accept ap-proved Forest Stewardship Program management plans or Forest Management Plans developed by approved Technical Service Pro-viders, which are two important planning alternatives to consider. The Planner can:

a. Visit the site to conduct resource inventory work, define fields of interest, determine what NRCS Resource Concerns and resource problems may exist and subsequently work with you to select an appropriate agroforestry (or other) system based on your specific objectives.

b. Help you determine what specific conservation practices are needed to address your objectives and identified resource problems.

c. Help you determine which, if any of those practices, may be available for financial assistance for the selected agroforestry system, including consideration of:

i. Project objectives.

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/pia/programs/farmbill/

http://www.fsa.usda.gov/FSA/webapp?area=home&subject=copr&topic=cep

http://www.fsa.usda.gov/FSA/webapp?area=home&subject=copr&topic=cep

http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/forestry/lap/crep/

http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/forestry/lap/fsp/

http://forestry.guam.gov/programs/forest-stewardship/

http://www.cnmiforestry.com/

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/pia/programs/financial/cig/

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/programs/financial/cig/

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/main/national/programs/farmbill/rcpp/

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/pia/programs/easements/

http://offices.sc.egov.usda.gov/locator/app


ii. The NRCS land use classification(s) of the proposed field(s).

iii. NRCS Resource Concerns and associated problems that may exist on the site.

iv. Current Fiscal Year Program policy and guidance.v. Help you determine what USDA Programs may be best

suited to support your objectives, and help you apply should you be interested.

NRCS and Agroforestry—Important Considerations

Wildlife Within NRCS the term “wildlife” specifically means native birds, native mammals, native fish and native insects including pollinators. Wildlife requires and benefits from only high quality native plant habitat. Do-mesticated honeybees are an exception to this and NRCS can recom-mend plantings that include non-native, non-invasive plants to provide honeybee habitat/forage if the “target” bees are actively managed in hives. Few of the agroforestry systems discussed above represent native habitat even if they contain some native species, and thus do not really benefit native wildlife in NRCS’s broad view (maybe one or a few species could benefit, e.g., bats roosting in a eucalyptus windbreak). A possible exception would be Riparian Buffer where a native forest, and therefore native wildlife habitat could potentially be re-established.

Endangered or threatened speciesUse of federally or locally listed (e.g. Endangered, Threatened) plants is permissible under NRCS assistance, however, there are typically sig-nificant regulatory requirements. These include some combination of the following: agency analysis and concurrence to ensure compliance with the Endangered Species Act; state or territorial permitting, and; determination of whether financial assistance is applicable or not. It is often easier to refrain from planting listed plants in fields under NRCS Conservation Plans and/or contracts.

Invasive plantsNRCS evaluates the potential of non-native plant species in proposed project planting lists to behave as invasive species by naturalizing or becoming weedy at a given location. Some plants of common interest that can have weedy behavior in Pacific Island locations include guava, coffee and passion fruit. NRCS refers to the Hawaii Pacific Weed Risk Assessment for an initial evaluation of weed potential each species. Spe-cies that receive a score of 7 or higher are carefully evaluated and may not be approved for use.

https://sites.google.com/site/weedriskassessment/assessments/All_HPWRA.xls?attredirects=0

https://sites.google.com/site/weedriskassessment/assessments/All_HPWRA.xls?attredirects=0


AGROFORESTRY INFORMATION RESOURCESThis section covers technical resources for tropical, and more specifically, Pacific Island agroforestry that are available for free on the internet.

Technical guidesAgro-Forestry in the Pacific Islands: Systems for Sustainability by Clark and Thaman (1993) presents a very thorough treatment of agroforestry practices in the Pacific. Includes tables and descriptions of many tra-ditional agroforestry species. http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unup-books/80824e/80824E00.htmAgroforestry Guides for Pacific Islands edited by Elevitch and Wilkinson (2000) is a series of 22–50 page guides covering eight topics in Pacific Island agroforestry including multipurpose trees, nontimber forest products, understory crops, and windbreaks. http://www.agroforestry.org/free-publications/agroforestry-guidesAmaranth to Zai Holes: Ideas for Growing Food Under Difficult Condi-tions edited by Meitzner and Price (1996) contains many practical and technical tips from extension workers and small farmers from around the world including information on vegetables, fruits, multipurpose trees, urban gardening, and more. http://www.echocommunity.org/resource/resmgr/a_to_z/index.htmConservation Buffers: Design Guidelines for Buffers, Corridors and Greenways by Bentrup (2008) describes specific ways that a vegetative buffer can be applied to protect soil, improve air and water quality, enhance fish and wildlife habitat, produce economic products, provide recreation opportunities, or beautify the landscape. http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html Conservation System Guides for Pacific Basin Beginning and Limited Resource Farmers and Ranchers by Smith and Castro (no date) were chosen with widespread application for underserved farmer/rancher clients in the American Pacific. http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/wq/publi-cations/publications.htmFood-producing agroforestry landscapes in Hawai‘i and other Pacific Islands is a series of publications focusing on low-input and sustainable techniques for food producing landscapes. http://agroforestry.org/projects/food-producing-landscapes An Introduction to Agroforestry by P.K.R. Nair (1993) is a widely used comprehensive textbook on agroforestry that is both practical and theoretical, covering many agroforestry practices and species. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/units/library/books/PDFs/32_An_intro-duction_to_agroforestry.pdf?n=161The USDA National Agroforestry Center’s technical note series provides agroforestry information in a useful “how to” format, primarily for tem-perate North American environments. http://nac.unl.edu/publications/agroforestrynotes.htm

http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80824e/80824E00.htm



http://www.agroforestry.org/free-publications/agroforestry-guides



http://www.echocommunity.org/resource/resmgr/a_to_z/index.htm




http://nac.unl.edu/buffers

http://nac.unl.edu/buffers

http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html

http://nac.unl.edu/buffers/index.html

http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/wq/publications/publications.htm




http://agroforestry.org/projects/food-producing-landscapes



http://www.worldagroforestry.org/units/library/books/PDFs/32_An_introduction_to_agroforestry.pdf?n=161




http://nac.unl.edu/publications/agroforestrynotes.htm




Training Manual for Applied Agroforestry Practices (2013 Edition), Mi-chael Gold, Mihaela Cernusca & Michelle Hall, Eds. Covers a range of agroforestry practices in great detail with examples from temperate en-vironments. http://centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/training/index.php

PeriodicalsAsia-Pacific Agroforestry Newsletter (APANews) published by the Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Network is a newsletter dedicated to the ex-change of information on agroforestry research and development issues in the Asia-Pacific Region. Farming Matters published by ILEIA, the Centre for Learning on Sus-tainable Agriculture, informs readers about sustainable, small-scale farming, focusing on practical examples of how sustainable, small-scale farming contributes to providing food security, social justice, and a healthy environment. http://www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/globalInside Agroforestry by the USDA Forest Service/Natural Resources Con-servation Service is a newsletter for natural resource professionals and growers, mostly with a focus on temperate systems. http://nac.unl.edu/publications/insideagroforestry.htmNon-Wood News is an information-rich newsletter produced by FAO’s Wood and Non-wood Products Utilization Branch, providing readers with current information on nontimber forest products and their con-tribution to the sustainable development of the world’s forest resources. http://www.fao.org/forestry/nwfp/23947/en/The Overstory E-journal published by the non-profit Agroforestry Net, is an e-mail journal covering topics and concepts central to agroforestry practices. Geared towards agroforestry practitioners, extension agents, and researchers. http://www.overstory.org/Transformations Online by the World Agroforestry Centre presents reg-ular and timely reports on topical issues where agroforestry is involved. The newsletter generally includes one feature article and a rundown of agroforestry happenings, initiatives and activities across the globe. http://worldagroforestry.org/transformations-online

Species informationAgroforestree (AFT) database by the World Agroforestry Centre is a tree species reference and selection guide for agroforestry trees covering more than 500 species. Valuable for field workers and researchers who are engaged in activities involving trees suitable for agroforestry systems and technologies. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/resources/databases/agroforestreeThe Native Plant Network is devoted to the sharing of information on how to propagate native plants of North America (Canada, Mexico, and US) and has propagation protocols for US, Hawaii, Canada, Mexico, US Virgin Islands, Hawaii, and other Pacific Islands. http://www.native-plantnetwork.org/

http://centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/training/index.php

http://centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/training/index.php

http://www.fao.org/asiapacific/rap/nre/links/apanews/en/

http://www.agriculturesnetwork.org/magazines/global



http://nac.unl.edu/publications/insideagroforestry.htm



http://www.fao.org/forestry/nwfp/23947/en/

http://www.fao.org/forestry/nwfp/23947/en/

http://www.overstory.org/

http://www.overstory.org/

http://worldagroforestry.org/transformations-online

http://worldagroforestry.org/transformations-online

http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/resources/databases/agroforestree



http://www.nativeplantnetwork.org/




NewCROP by The Center for New Crops & Plant Products at Purdue University provides information about new and specialty crop profiles.Pacific Islands Area (PIA) Vegetative Guide by USDA NRCS contains plant species information that corresponds to Conservation Practice Standards and Specifications in Section IV of the PIA Field Office Tech-nical Guide (FOTG). http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_PLANT-MATERIALS/publications/hipmstn9761.pdfSpecialty Crops For Pacific Island Agroforestry published by Permanent Agriculture Resources includes detailed profiles for 32 crops including their roles in mixed-species agroforestry. http://agroforestry.org/free-publications/specialty-crops-for-pacific-island-agroforestry Traditional Pacific Island Crops by the University of Hawai‘i provides access to quality, free Web resources on twelve important traditional Pacific Island crops. http://libweb.hawaii.edu/libdept/scitech/agnicThe Traditional Tree Initiative—Species profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry published by Permanent Agriculture Resources provides detailed over 50 of the most important Pacific island agroforestry tree species. http://www.traditionaltree.org/The USDA National Plant Germplasm System catalogs species biodiver-sity in the Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/searchgrin.htmlThe USDA PLANTS Database provides standardized information about the vascular plants of the US and its territories. The site also provides excellent links pages such as to invasive plants, links to Floras, Databases, and Nomenclature, and general plant links. http://plants.usda.gov

OrganizationsAgroforestry Net, Inc. is a nonprofit organization dedicated to providing educational resources about agroforestry, trees, and sustainable stew-ardship of land and water. The site contains current project information, publications, and links to other resources on the web. PO Box 428, Holualoa, Hawaii 96725 USA; Email: [email protected]; http://www.agroforestry.org The Agroforestry Research Trust researches temperate agroforestry and all aspects of plant cropping and uses, with a focus on tree, shrub and perennial crops. 46 Hunters Moon, Dartington, Totnes, Devon TQ9 6JT, England, UK; Email: [email protected]; http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/ Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA) provides technical assistance to farmers, Extension agents, market gardeners, agricultural researchers, and other agricultural professionals in the US. P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville, AR 72702, USA; Tel: 1-800-346-9140 (En-glish); 1-800-411-3222 (Español). http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/The Association for Temperate Agroforestry focuses on temperate cli-mates, with an emphasis on North America. 203 ABNR Bldg., University

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html

http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_PLANTMATERIALS/publications/hipmstn9761.pdf

http://agroforestry.org/free-publications/specialty-crops-for-pacific-island-agroforestry



http://libweb.hawaii.edu/libdept/scitech/agnic

http://libweb.hawaii.edu/libdept/scitech/agnic

http://www.traditionaltree.org/



http://www.ars-grin.gov/npgs/searchgrin.html



http://plants.usda.gov/

http://plants.usda.gov

http://www.agroforestry.net/

mailto:[email protected]

http://www.agroforestry.org

http://www.agroforestry.org

http://www.agroforestry.co.uk/




https://attra.ncat.org/

http://www.aftaweb.org/


of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211; Tel: 573-882-9866, Fax: 573-882-1977; Email: [email protected]; http://www.aftaweb.org/Educational Concerns for Hunger Organization (ECHO) has many on-line publications related to agroforestry. 17430 Durrance Rd., N. Ft. My-ers, FL 33917, USA; Tel: 941-543-3246, Fax: 941-543-5317; Email: [email protected]; http://www.echonet.org Forest, Farm, and Community Tree Network is no longer active, howev-er, its publications about Pacific Island agroforestry and nitrogen fixing trees are still available online. http://factnet.winrock.org/factnet.htm The MU Center for Agroforestry is among the global centers in agro-forestry research, education and outreach. Its website contains a wealth of up-to-date information on temperate agroforestry research along with a number of practical “hands on” guides. UMCA, 203 ABNR Bldg., University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211; Tel: 573-882-9866, Fax: 573-882-1977; Email: [email protected]; http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/ The US Department of Agriculture’s National Agroforestry Center (USDA NAC) supports practices that integrate trees and agriculture and publishes numerous very useful references for agroforestry, many with a temperate focus. North 38th St. & East Campus Loop, UNL-East Campus, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0822, USA; Tel: 402-437-5178, Fax: 402-437-5712; http://www.unl.edu/nac/ The World Agroforestry Centre (formerly International Center for Re-search in Agroforestry, ICRAF) has extensive worldwide programs in agroforestry research and training. PO Box 30677, Nairobi, Kenya; Tel: +254-2-521450 or +1-650-833-6645; Fax: +254-2-521001 or +1-650-833-6646, Email: [email protected]; http://www.worldagroforestry.org/

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IIRR. 1995. Resource Management for Upland Areas in Southeast Asia: An information kit. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Philippines. http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?e=d-00000-00---off-0cdl--00-0----0-10-0---0---0direct-10---4-------0-1l--11-en-50---20-about---00-0-1-00-0-0-11-1-0utfZz-8-10&a=d&c=cdl&cl=-CL1.6&d=HASH01ae9feddff06d4c5c25e7ba.5.7. Last accessed: 18 July 2014.

Kang, B.T., and R.C. Gutteridge. 1994 (reprinted 1998). Forage Tree Legumes in Alley Cropping Systems. In Gutteridge, R.C., and H.M. Shelton (eds). Forage Tree Legumes in Tropical Agriculture. Tropical Grassland Society of Australia, St. Lucia, QLD, Australia. http//www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Publicat/Gutt-shel/x5556e00.htm. Last accessed: 20 July 2014.

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http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/n_resource/buffer/cover.htm

http://www.na.fs.fed.us/spfo/pubs/n_resource/buffer/cover.htm


APPENDIX: NRCS ECOLOGICAL CONSERVATION PRACTICE STANDARDS CITED IN THIS DOCUMENT

Access Control (472)The temporary or permanent exclusion of animals, people, vehicles, and/or equipment from an area.

Alley Cropping (311)Trees are planted in sets of single or multiple rows with agronomic, horticultural crops or forages produced in the alleys between the sets of woody plants that produce additional products.

Brush Management (314)The management or removal of woody (non-herbaceous or succulent) plants including those that are invasive and noxious.

Conservation Cover (327)Establishing and maintaining permanent vegetative cover.

Conservation Crop Rotation (328)Growing crops in a planned sequence on the same field.

Contour Orchard and Other Perennial Crops (331)Planting orchards, vineyards, or other perennial crops so that all cultural operations are done on or near the contour.

Cover Crop (340)Crops including grasses, legumes, and forbs for seasonal cover and other conservation purposes.

Critical Area Planting (342)Establishing permanent vegetation on sites that have, or are expected to have, high erosion rates, and on sites that have physical, chemical or biological conditions that prevent the establishment of vegetation with normal practices.

Deep Tillage (324)Performing tillage operations below the normal tillage depth to modify adverse physical or chemical properties of a soil.

Fence (382)A constructed barrier to animals or people.

Filter Strip (393)A strip or area of herbaceous vegetation that removes contaminants from overland flow.













Forage and Biomass Planting (512)Establishing adapted and/or compatible species, varieties, or cultivars of herbaceous species suitable for pasture, hay, or biomass production.

Forest Stand Improvement (666)The manipulation of species composition, stand structure and stocking by cutting or killing selected trees and understory vegetation.

Heavy Use Area Protection (561)The stabilization of areas frequently and intensively used by people, ani-mals or vehicles by establishing vegetative cover, surfacing with suitable materials, and/or installing needed structures.

Hedgerow Planting (422)Establishment of dense vegetation in a linear design to achieve a natural resource conservation purpose.

Herbaceous Weed Control (315)The removal or control of herbaceous weeds including invasive, noxious and prohibited plants.

Integrated Pest Management (595)A site-specific combination of pest prevention, pest avoidance, pest monitoring, and pest suppression strategies.

Mulching (484)Applying plant residues or other suitable materials produced off site, to the land surface.

Pipeline (516)Pipeline having an inside diameter of 8 inches or less.

Multi-story Cropping (379)Existing or planted stands of trees or shrubs that are managed as an overstory with an understory of woody and/or non-woody plants that are grown for a variety of products.

Prescribed Grazing (528)Managing the harvest of vegetation with grazing and/or browsing animals.

Range Planting (550)Establishment of adapted perennial or self-sustaining vegetation such as grasses, forbs, legumes, shrubs and trees.

Riparian Forest Buffer (391)An area predominantly trees and/or shrubs located adjacent to and up-gradient from watercourses or water bodies.














Riparian Herbaceous Cover (390)Grasses, sedges, rushes, ferns, legumes, and forbs tolerant of intermit-tent flooding or saturated soils, established or managed as the dominant vegetation in the transitional zone between upland and aquatic habitats.

Silvopasture Establishment (381)An application establishing a combination of trees or shrubs and com-patible forages on the same acreage.

Tree/Shrub Establishment (612)Establishing woody plants by planting seedlings or cuttings, direct seed-ing, or natural regeneration.

Tree/Shrub Pruning (660)The removal of all or part of selected branches, leaders or roots from trees and shrubs.

Tree/Shrub Site Preparation (490)Treatment of areas to improve site conditions for establishing trees and/or shrubs.

Upland Wildlife Habitat Management (645) Provide and manage upland habitats and connectivity within the land-scape for wildlife.

Vegetative Barrier (603)Permanent strips of stiff, dense vegetation established along the general contour of slopes or across concentrated flow areas.

Watering Facility (614)A permanent or portable device to provide an adequate amount and quality of drinking water for livestock and or wildlife.

Windbreak/Shelterbelt Establishment (380) Windbreaks or shelterbelts are single or multiple rows of trees or shrubs in linear configurations.

Windbreak/Shelterbelt Renovation (650)Replacing, releasing and/or removing selected trees and shrubs or rows within an existing windbreak or shelterbelt, adding rows to the wind-break or shelterbelt or removing selected tree and shrub branches.

Woody Residue Treatment (384)The treatment of residual woody material that is created due to manage-ment activities or natural disturbances.













NOTES

grower’s guide to pacific island agroforestry …...food-producing agroforestry landscapes of the...

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