Forest Research Information tT:: 120

Guide to the Group ShelterwoodCutting Method for

Regenerating Northern Red Oak

@Ontario

Ministry ofNaturalResources

OntarioForestResearchInstitute

Forest Research Information Paper No. 120

Guide to the Group Sheltenvood CuttingMethod for Regenerating Northern Red Oak

by

George Stroempl(formerly with the Ontario Forest Research Institute, Ontario Ministry of NaturalResources, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario)

and

Paul Winston Secker(formerly with the Niagara District, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Fonthill,Ontario)

March 1995

Cqer Phdo: A group of residualtrees in an opening following a shelterwood cut in a red oak-sugarmaple-white pine stand, 90 to 115 years old. lf a denser stand border had beenretained to the south and west (left part of photo) to exclude direct sunlight and wind, itcould have provided ideal conditions in a small shelterwood nucleus for underplantingred oak nursery stock, and possibly sheltering some red oak natural reproduction.(Parry Sound District, Ontario, 1989. Photo by P. Secker)

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Stroempl, G. (George)Guide to the group shelterwood cutting method for regenerating northern red oak.

(Forest research information paper, ISSN 0319-9118 ; 120)lssued by Ontario Forest Research lnstitute.Includes bibliographical references.lsBN 0-7778-3927-X

1. Red oak.2. Reforestation - Ontario.l . Secker, PaulWinston.ll. Ontario, Ministry of Natural Resourceslll. Ontario Forest Research Institute.lV. Title.V. Series.

sD397.012S7 1995 634.9',071'56

CI 1995. Queen's Printer for OntarioPrinted in Ontario, Canada

Single copies of this publicationare available at no charge fromthe address noted below. Bulkorders may involve charges.

Ministry of Natural ResourcesOntario Forest Research InstituteP.O. Box 9691235 Queen St. EastSault Ste. Marie, OntarioP6A 5N5

Telephone: (705) 946-2981Fax: (705) 946-2030

Cette publication scientifique n'estdisponible qu'en anglais.

c95-964037-1

ABSTRACT

Shelterwood cutt ing in thenorthern hardwood forests of NorthAmerica is the s i lv icul tural methodrecommended to regenerate heavy-seeded hardwood species such asnorthern red oak (Auercus rubra L.l.The group shel terwood cutt ing method,appl ied on a smal l scale as opposed tousing large-scale uni form shel terwoodcutt ing, is part icular ly at t ract ivebecause of the smal ler r isk of fa i luretaken dur ing the cr i t ical stages ofestabl ishment and ear ly growth of redoak regenerat ion.

Th is repor t descr ibes andi l lustrates a step-by-step f ie ld procedurefor a three-phase group shel terwoodcutt ing method that can be used toregenerate red oak natural ly orar t i f i c ia l l y .

This report a lso includes pract icalappendices on soi l -s i te requirements ofred oak , t ree-mark ing gu ide l inesspeci f ic to the group shel terwoodcut t ing method, regenera t ing red oak inthe presence o f deer b rows ing , nurserymeasures to maximize Plant ingsuccess, and the assessment ofplant ing stock qual i ty and seed tree andoffspr ing character ist ics.

1 l _

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

lNTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND FOR THE GROUP SHELTERWOOD CUTTING METHODThe ObjectiveBurningPlant ingDirect Seeding

A THREE-PHASE GROUP SHELTERWOOD CUTTING METHOD TOREGENERATE RED OAK

Oak Regenerat ion Present, Phase 1Oak Regenerat ion Present, Phase 2Oak Regenerat ion Present, Phase 3

Oak Regenerat ion Absent, Phase 1Oak Regenerat ion Absent, Phase 2Oak Regenerat ion Absent, Phase 3

APPENDIX 1. Soi l Si te Relat ionships and Synecological Character ist icsof Red Oak .

APPENDIX 2. Tree-Marking Guidel ines for Preparatory Cuts

APPENDIX 3. Regenerat ing Red Oak Under Deer Compet i t ion

APPENDIX 4, Nursery Pract ices to Maximize the Plantabi l i ty and Plant ingSuccess of Red Oak Nursery Stock

APPENDIX 5. Red Oak Oual i ty Classes and Field Assessment ofPlanted Stock 33

APPENDIX 6. Seed Tree and Offspr ing Character ist ics

LITERATURE CITED

i i i

13455

61013

151720

27

21

25

35

40

31

r 1 l _

INTRODUCTION

Northern red oak (Ouercus rubraL.) is a major species in the northernmixedwood and hardwood cover typesof Ontar io (Rowe 1972] ' , and overmuch of the northern part of theeastern deciduous forest of the UnitedStates (Braun 1950). The once largesuppl ies of h igh-qual i ty hardwoodt imber, including red oak, have beenseverely reduced through repeatedhighgrading, which has lef t behindstands that are understocked anddecadent (Arend and Scho lz 1 969) .Good growth, h igh market value(pr inc ipa l l y fo r veneer and lumber ) , andthe use of i ts acorns as food by manywi ld l i fe species make red oak adesirable species for regenerat ion andmanagement. Jarvis (1956) pointedout that stand cultural treatments areneeded to encourage the reproduct ionand growth of hardwood species forsawlog and veneer product ion inOntar io .

There are many reports thatdescr ibe the regenera t ion o fhardwoods, including red oak, bymeans of shel terwood cutt ing methods(Coder et a l . 1987, Hannah 1988,Jacob and Wray 1992, Johnson et a l .1989 , Johnson & Jacobs 1981 ,Johnson 1993, Leak ef a l . 1987, Loft is

1990, Marqu is e t a l . 1984, Mi l l s e r a / .1987, Sander 1977, Sander 1979,Watt et a l . 1973). Al though theseau thors p rov ided genera lrecommendat ions, none descr ibed step-by-step f ie ld procedures to guide forestplact i t ioners and woodlot ownersthrough the var ious phases of thegroup shel terwood cutt ing method ofregenerat ion. This report demonstratesa theory that the use of groupshel terwoods, on a smal l scale, asopposed to la rge-sca le un i f o rmshelterwood cutt ing, may be a goodway to learn about the requirements forthe establ ishment and growth of redoak regenera t ion . The same pr inc ip lesmodified to account for differences insi lv ics, could be used for other specieswith the intermediate shade-toleranceof red oak.

Append ix 1 p rov ides somesi lv ical character ist ics and synecologicalrequirements of red oak, and acomparison with those of some of i tsf requen t assoc ia te sPec ies inmixedwood stands such as whi te pine(Pinus strobus L.), red Pine (Pinusresinosa Ait.) and sugar maple (499Isaccharum Marsh.) . Tree-markinggu ide l ines spec i f i c to the grouPshel terwood cutt ing methods aredescr ibed in Append ix 2 .

BACKGROUND FOR THE GROUP SHELTERWOOD CUTTING METHOD

For species that regenerate undera shel terwood, release of theregenerat ion must occur for the youngtrees to at ta in dominance. GrouPshelterwood cutting may be used tomeet this need. The concept ofg roup she l te rwood cu t t ing(Gruppenschirmschlag), or "groupshelterwood to create regenerationnuclei" (Koest ler 1950), was credi tedto Gayer (1886) and introduced tothe English forestry l i terature byAnderson's (1956) t ranslat ion ofKoest le r ' s Waldbau (S i l v icu l tu re) .Gayer's concept stressed a re-generation process that does notspread uni formly and simultaneouslyover the whole stand, but which has al lthe regeneration phases existing besideone another in the stand. This process,extending over 20 to 40 Years,includes:

(a) preparation of the stand throughintensified stand tending toaccelerate exPansion of thecrowns of potent ia lseed bearers,

(b) seeding fel l ings dur ing seedyears to create regenerationnuclei ,

(c) th innings or f inal harvest ing torelease advanced reproduct ion orart i f ic ia l regenerat ion and

(d) per ipheral fe l l ings to exPandexist ing regenerat ion nuclei andini t iate new ones. This s lowerregeneration process Provides asmal ler dependence on goodseed years and thus a smal ler

r isk of the t reatments fa i l ing. l tis the favorable condi t ionsprevai l ing wi th in the nuclei( in i t ia l ly , c lusters of potent ia lseed trees) and the stand size tobe regenerated that witt mostoften dictate the sPeed ofprogression of the regeneration.The concept of regeneration inphases was further elaborated bYMayer (19771, who emphasizedlong-term preparatory th inningsto maximize stand stabi l i ty andmin imize w ind th row.

ln North America, there has beena fai lure to recognize that:

a species' regenerat ion re-quirements are the consequenceo f a long deve lopmenta l"process" (e.9. , basswood, Ti l iaamericana L., mainly due to itsinfrequent seed years anddi f f icul ty in seed germinat ion)and not of a s ingle "act" such ascut t ing (e .9 . , sugar map le ,mainly due to i ts f requent seedyears and ease in seedgerminat ion) ; and,

there are di f ferences in aspecies' growth response fromearly youth to the at ta inment ofdominance in the stand. Thishas made success fu lregenerat ion di f f icul t for

(1 )

t2 l

secondary but commercial ly importantspecies in mixture with more aggressivepr imary species (Stroempl 1983).

Since stands that have or ig inatedexclusively f rom natural reproduct ionfollowing cutting are relatively rare, acombinat ion of natural and art i f ic ia lregenerat ion is therefore the rule,Mayer (1977l ' recommended plant ing of2-to 3-year-old oak stock for fasterestabl ishment. ln North America,Johnson (1985) independent l ydeveloped a prescr ipt ion for p lant ingla rge red oak s tock under ashel terwood to maximize establ ishmentsuccess.

The term "group select ionmethod", the one most of ten used inthe North American forestry l i terature,is somewhat misleading. The phraseappears to descr ibe the c lassical"group shel terwood" or "shel terwoodcutt ing by groups", but does notemphasize the shel ter provided by theresidual t rees as the main ingredient ina successful stand. The groupshel terwood method rel ies on a groupof t rees opt imal ly distr ibuted so as toprovide a uni form canopy shel ter , orsuch a distr ibut ion created by th inning,and not a ser ies of patches (c learcuts)that may not contain any planned ornatural ly occurr ing shel ter . Except ionsarc open patches resul t ing f romblowdowns, firewood cuts from below(with or wi thout residuals) , uni formsalvat ion cuts wi th occasional c learpatches, and others, which maycontain advanced natural reproduct ionor openings that are sui table forplant ing oak nursery stock. Large-scaleuniform shelterwood cuts often leave

behind many smal l c learcut patches,which quickly f i l l in wi th dense,compet ing vegetat ion (much of i tunwanted) , mak ing na tura l o r a r t i f i c ia lregenera t ion p rob lemat i c . con-sequent ly, in "group select ion" theemphasis is actual ly on the shel terprovided by the method rather than onthe select ion process; i t would be moreappropr iately cal led "group select ionshe l te rwood" , o r s imp ly "g roupshel terwood" (cut t ing method) as insmi th (1986) , and Codet e t a l . (1987)who created a var iant of what Johnson(1 994) ca l led a g roup se lec t ion method.

The Obiective

The objective of the groupshel terwood method is to open the treecanopy over smal l areas to increase theamount of d i f f use l ight wi thoutincreas ing the amount o f d i rec t sun l igh ton the forest f loor. The method thusencourages the establ ishment ofadvanced reproduct ion but discouragesthe growth of competing vegetation,which general ly requires more intensel igh t . The idea l resu l t wou ld be amixture pr imari ly composed of specieswith intermediate shade-tolerance,developing in a "staged mosaic of even-aged patches regenerated per iodical ly invar ious cutt ing cycles" (Anderson efa/ . 1 990).

The best locat ions to in i t iatestand openings (groups or patches) forred oak regenerat ion are in mature,dense stands with evenly distr ibutedoaks or potent ia l seed trees of otheracceptable species. Within theopenings and on the per iphery of theopenings, the crowns of residual seed

t rees expand, encouraging seedproduct ion and volume growth. Asthese openings enlarge as a resul t ofsubsequent per ipheral th innings, theyeventua l l y merge in to comPactregenerat ion areas. l f the th inningsfol low a l inear pattern, these areasoften, convenient ly, form long str ips.The treatment that is applied toul t imately produce high-qual i ty veneerwi l l be s ingle-tree select ion. The forestmanager is not predisposed to sel l inglarge tracts of t imber, but rather veneertrees, auct ioned indiv idual ly.

This is not to say that largeuni form shel terwood cuts cannot besuccessful over a good "ketch" ofacorns. Success is part icular ly l ikely i fp lant ing of super ior oak fol lows soonafter th inning to assure uni formstocking, and nei ther animal browsingnor compet i t ion is a ser ious problem.However, the manager wi l l more l ikelysucceed in smal l -scale regenerat ionareas, spread over longer t ime per iods,and this success wi l l encourage othermanagers to adopt a s imi lar approach.

ln the next two sect ions we wi l lpresent a three-phase technique formanag ing red oak under a g roupshel terwood method. The f i rst sect ionwi l l d iscuss management where red oakreoenerat ion alreadv exists under thecanopy (ei ther natural ly, or as a resul tof p lant ing or seeding). Here, theprocedure is to remove the overstoryabove and around the opening to admitl ight and thus favor the growth of theadvanced oak reproduct ion. Thesecond sec t ion w i l l d i scussmanagement where there is l i t t le or noregenerat ion present. Here, the

procedure is to reduce overstorydensi ty by creat ing one or more smal lopenings under or near the part ia lshade of seed trees. l f obtainingadequate naturaJ regenerat ion isunl ikely, burn the ground vegetat ion orsuppress i t wi th herbic ides to faci l i tateplant ing of nursery stock or directseeding of acorns.

Burnino

Fire intensi ty, the durat ion of theexposure to heat, bark th ickness andconf igurat ion, and the amount of s lashand i ts f lammabi l i ty a l l have a strongeffect on the survival of dormant budsunder the bark. Thus, they af fect theresprout ing capaci ty of the hardwoodspecies dur ing the f i rst and secondseason fo l low ing a burn (Rouse 1986) .A single burn can be expected toprovide condi t ions favorable for l ight-seeded species (Li t t le 1974l . , such asyellow birch (Betula alleqhaniensisBr i t ton), and for species that undergornul t ip le resprout ing f rom burned stems(Arend and Scho lz 1969, Godman andTubbs 1973, Nyland et a l . 1 983, White1986) , such as basswood, b lack cher ry(Prunus serotina Ehrh.), white ashlFraxinus americana L.), red maple(Acer rubrum L.), red oak and others.Cutt ing of stems dur ing the dormancyper iod also st imulates resprout ing toproduce dense clumps of sprouts(St roempl 1983) . App ly ing anappropr iate herbic ide to the cut stubscan thus be used to reduce compet i t ionas a resul t of resprout ing (Johnson efal. 19841. A second burn 2 to 3 yearslater (Nyland et a l . 1983) may be thekey to promoting oak over itsassociates (Li t t le 19741, because doing

so wi l l k i l l unwanted root suckers ors tem sprouts (Hannah 1988) . As we l l ,prescr ibed burning has the potent ia l toreduce the amount of rodent habitatand controlthe acorn weevil (Balaninusolandium Marsh.) (Godman and Tubbs1973). However, a burn that fo l lows athinning cut, wi th broken tops ordowned trees near residual t rees, wi l lincrease the incidence of scorching andki l l ing (Godman and Tubbs 1973,Hannah 1988, Whi te 1980) ,

Planting

Plant ing nursery stock may bethe only opt ion where pi l ferage ofacorns by rodents is a problem, butwhere browsing by deer is l ikely to betolerable (Marquis et a l . 1976), Whereoak stocking is inadequate or of poorform as a result of extreme deerbrowsing, tree shelters may be a goodopt ion to secure es tab l i shment(Append ix 3 ) .

Measures to maximize plant-abi l i ty and the plant ing success ofgraded red oak nursery stock are

descr ibed in Appendix 4. Cr i ter ia forassessing the stem qual i ty of seedl ingsand sapl ings af ter p lant ing aredescr ibed in Appendix 5.

Direct Seeding

There is very l itt le information ondirect seeding of red oak avai lable thatcould be securely appl ied in pract ice.The success of seedl ing establ ishmentby direct seeding of ten depends on theamount of p i l ferage of acorns byrodents (Marqu is e t a | .1976) . Sowingacorns at a depth of 5 cm in theminera l so i l and cover ing them wi thl i t ter has been recommended forbottomland oaks in the southern Uni tedSta tes (Johnson and Kr inard 1985) ;under d roughty cond i t ions (e ,9 . ,fo l low ing a burn under an opencanopy), 10 cm may be safer. Johnsonand Kr inard sowed 37OO acorns/haunder forest condi t ions and obtained1235 seedl ings in the f i rst year and37O free-to-grow seedlings after 10years.

Seed t ree and o f f sp r ingcharacter ist ics that can be used toguide acorn col lect ions are descr ibed inAppend ix 6 .

A THREE.PHASE GROUP SHELTERWOOD CUTTING METHOD

TO REGENERATE RED OAK

OAK REGENERATION PRESENT

PHASE ONE

Figure 1 i l lustrates the threesteps required in the f i rst of the threephases of the group shelterwoodcu t t ing method where na tu ra lreproduction is present in a standopen ing :

(1) Remove the stand overstory inthe open ing ;

(21 Remove the overstory around theopen ing ; and

(3) Cut skid t ra i ls or stand exi ts.

Step One

Cut al l residual overstory t rees toincrease the amount of l ight thatreaches the understory and thus to helpthe reproduct ion already present in theopening achieve free-to-grow status.This understory somet imes includesreproduct ion in openings creatednatural ly or art i f ic ia l ly by the causesdescr ibed on page 3.

Step Two

Enlarge the stand opening byremoving al l overstory t rees in thesurrounding stand to a distance of hal fthe average height of the stand, thusal lowing the reproduct ion to developunder uni form microcl imat ic condi t ions.

Step Three

Cut skid t ra i ls on the easternedge of the stand to provide channelsfo r co ld a i r to b low out o f the open ingand thus minimize the frost pocketef fect . r l f sk id t ra i ls are not required,cut exi ts in the eastern edge of thestand; these should be wider on levelterrain and narrower on slopes tochanne l ou t co ld a i r read i l y .

Note: l f sk id t ra i ls are needed in thewestern or southern edges of thestand, keep them as narrow as possibleto minimize wind and sunl ight ef fects.(This assumes a prevai l ing west wind.)

1. Frost pockets develop in smal l openings wi th in stands because the openings al low cold a i r to pond and the surrounding

stands and ground vegetat ion prevent i t f rom leaving. In contrast , openings in coni ferous plantat ions, especia l ly when t rees are

p r u n e d ( n a t u r a l l y o r a r t i f i c i a l l y ) t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e h e i g h t , a l l o w t h e c o l d a i r t o e x i t r e l a t i v e l y r a p i d l y ( S t r o e m p l 1 9 8 7 ) . S e e G e i g e r(1959 ) f o r add i t i ona l i n f o rma t i on on t h i s t op i c .

6

Leave trees in the exits only ifthey are widefy spaced and free ofobstruct ing branches near the ground;trees suspected of restricting the flowof air should be removed.

Break down high slash so i t isnearer to the ground to improve airmovement and aesthetics (Noyes19701, to encourage decomposi t ion,and to increase the area avai lable i f in-f i l l p lant ing of red oak stock is required(F ig .2 ) .

Cut high stumps of desirablespecies closer to the ground toencourage vigorous sprout ing at groundlevel (as opposed to high on thestump), which wi l l lead to thedevelopment of addi t ional h igh-qual i tyreproduct ion (Stroempl 1 983).

EXit

Noturol rrproductlondcvcloping <l m loll(5 to 5 ycoru old)

Trccr rcmovcd frpmboundory of opcnlng

Uncut old stond'rith corhrord cxitr(r Moy bc lcla dcnscin thc north ond cogtthon ln thc routh ondwcat atond cdgcr)

Figure 1. Phase one of the three-phase group shelterwood cutting method in a standwith pre-exist ing oak regenerat ion: The stand opening with natural reproduct ion(cross-hatched) and the surrounding per iphery wi th no reproduct ion, wi th stand exi ts(arrows) to channel cold air out of the opening.

I

ffitlffi

Figure 2. High slash, when broken down so that i t l ies nearer to the ground, shouldmake addi t ional area avai lable for p lant ing nursery stock. Cut high stumps (such asthose in the foregrounci) of desirable species c loser to the ground to encouragevigorous sprout ing at ground level rather than high on the stump, which wi l lencourage the deve lopment o f add i t iona l h igh-qua l i t y reproduc t ion (S t roempl 1983) .

OAK REGENERATION PRESENT

PHASE TWO

Figure 3 i l lustrates the threerequired steps (6 to 15 years afterPhase One, depending on si te qual i ty,stand structure, development of stemsand stocking, and environmentalinf luences) that comprise the second ofthe three phases of the groupshelterwood cutting method wherenatural reproduction is present in thestand opening:

(1 ) En la rge the open ing tha tcontains the reproduct ion;

(21 Thin the per iphery that has l i t t leor no reproduction; and

(3) Extend the opening into theuncut stand and create exits.

Step One

Enlarge the diameter of the standopening further by about hal f theaverage tree height to maintain thenatural reproduct ion f rom Phase One,both f ree- to -grow sap l ings anddeveloping seedl ings.

Step Two

Thin the old stand to create ashelterwood (leaving 70 to 8O%"canopy cover) and increase theavai lable l ight for exist ing reproduct ion,and/or in advance of anticipated naturalreproduct ion. Conduct the th inning toa distance of twice the average treeheight f rom the edge of the opening.The canopy cover could be potentiallyreduced to 60o/o or less depending onthe size and amount of exist ingreproduct ion of oak and otheracceptable species: the ta l ler thereproduct ion, the less residual canopy

l_0

is required. A visual depict ion of threelevels of residual crown canoPy isil lustrated in Figure 4. The crown areavs. basal area tables for the LakeStates (Godman and Tubbs 1973) orfor the northeastern United States(Leak and Tubbs 1 983) are a useful a id.To produce a desired level of crowncover, use these tables to determinethe required residual basal area af terth inning. So long as forest condi t ionsin your area resemble those in thetables, th inning on the basis of basalarea wi l l produce a c lose approximat ionof the desired crown cover.

Step Three

Regenerate the stand Pro-gressively by proceeding general lysouth-southeast.

Note: Extend the opening to the eastand southwest only i f stand densi ty ishigh, good-qual i ty residuals are evenlydistr ibuted, and the topography isdownhi l l in the direct ion of theprogression of the th inning. (Thedistance acorns fall from the seed treeto the ground downhi l l increasesl inear ly wi th the steepness of theterrain. )

lf the development of stems andstocking is not secured within theexpected t ime per iod, in- f i l l p lant ing ofred oak must occur, fo l lowing possiblecontrol of competing vegetation.

Extend the exi ts made in PhaseOne and create new ones throughuncut stand boundar ies in the direct ionof the cut 's progression.

Access Oo 55""L- J-\/--OOif

OOO=_=S.gtr%aR :Y6o i,Ft

5R -6 t" thrde

Ea .^"3tjur--.O f)r-. O

l_-, \JA\-/^t / / \v t ,

At---'

EX

II

I

O!?a,_ o -=<-%{9--b=

XOTOa),..- Step two .) a)''r''q3sE&gg;.:&N.-

ffiN

Figure 3. Phase two of the three-phase group shelterwood cutting method in a standwith pre-exist ing oak regenerat ion: The stand opening now contains oak reproduct ionin the f ree-to-grow state (cross-hatched), wi th addi t ional natural reproduct iondeveloping (s ingle-hatched). The thinned old stand has had exi ts (arrows) created tochanne l co ld a i r ou t o f the open ing .

oo-d66.66o -o

Nqturql Fproducuonfrcc to qrcw )l m toll(6 !o 15 ycorls otd)

Natuml rcoroductiondcvcloping'<1 m toll

Shcltcrvood cutwith comc rrproduction

rcmovcdboundory

TrccsoronE

Uncr.rt old gtond'witi coshrord cxits(r Moy bc lcec dcnscin thc north ond cogtthon ln thc aouth ondwcrt ctond cdge)

1t_

80% of the conooy remoinsclosed (lo% on iay sites).Stond borders ore closedon the western ondsouthern edges.

60% of the conooy remoinsclosed (SOZ on iqy sites).Stond borders ore closedon the western ondsouthern edges.

p'--w---;ffl

iffi

'W. --,i Stond bbrders ore

-loosen'ed.

, {on-, FSI

b#$s kudY-#--,#--r

conopy

Figure 4. Overhead view of three main levels of residual crown canopy for the three-phase group shel terwood cutt ing method to regenerate red oak.

L2

Shelterwood

ffi ctosea

! op"n

OAK REGENERATION PRESENT

PHASE THREE

Figure 5 i l lustrates the threerequired steps (16 to 25 years af terPhase Two, depending on si te qual i ty,stand structure, development of stemsand stocking, and environmentalinf luences) that comprise the thi rd ofthe three phases of the groupshelterwood cutting method wherenatural reproduct ion and/or art i f ic ia lregeneration is present in the standopening created in the two ear l ierphases:

(1) Weed out potent ia l wol f t reesw i th in the f ree - to -g rowreproduct ion;

(21 Cut the adjoining overstorybetween two merging openingsto c rea te one compac tregenerat ion area; and

(3) Create new open ings .

Step One

Weed out excessively branchypole-size t rees and large sapl ings wi th inthe free-to-grow reproduct ion because,i f these are lef t , they wi l l develop intowo l f t rees (Roach and Gingr ich 1968)and their wood wi l l be unsui table forveneer or lumber.

Step Two

Depending on the stand densi ty,topography, and the locat ion andqual i ty of the residuals, openings may

be convenient ly extended eastward toform a str ip f rom the west to the east(Smi th 1986) .

l f the remaining area betweentwo open ings w i th es tab l i shedreproduct ion is less than 40 x 8O m(the approximate s ize of an in i t ia lopening), cut a l l of the overstorYbetween the openings to merge theminto a s ingle, compact regenerat ionarea. Retain those residuals that aregrowing most v igorously, (checkdiameter of selected sample t rees)usual ly at the stand edges betweenopenings, unt i l the f i rst th inning of thenew stand ( i .e. , the stand created atthe end o f phase 3) .

Step Three

Create new openings and thinthem as in Phase One and Phase Twoto achieve the desired canopy coverand in i t iate the regenerat ion process.

Cont inue to maintain stand exi ts.

Note: Under favorable condi t ionso f s tand s t ruc tu re , s i te andenvironment, certain steps and phasesmay be combined. For examPle, i f anunderp lan t ing opera t ion f o l l owsthinning of a per iphery that has l i t t le orno reproduct ion in Step 2, Phase Two,then you can combine StePs 1 and 2into a s ingle step in both Phase Oneand Phase Two.

1 3

t ! X. - -+g U) SE@ iQt,-,!

.,\Xoo,Y/;Yo-^\" r I l'l I I lt

c"l/ I I I I I I L

sE - r !- \ d = O d= o : ^ - L -

-

E S F 6 ' - ! - ! = 6

iE -e 5 ; i5sgv 9 v - 2 E : -l a o I ; - t : Ec:8. : :€ ; g- E

!€gi ei3:iiWffi

.9o oo t: o4 9 ,eo ( }L N

- g o

3z oZ,ar

ffi

o g

J ,

x o< oa L >IL 6

Epg ! o

n

Ba /

3/OO essss

Figure 5. Phase three of the three-phase group shel terwood cutt ing method in a standwith pre-exist ing oak regenerat ion: The stand opening with natural reproduct ionand/or art i f ic ia l regenerat ion is complete wi th exi ts on the eastern s ide of the standto channe l co ld a i r ou t o f the open ing .

o'

I

o-oa

%..,outtffi"tllffirltffill38/ooIrffi/ lrrf

L 4

OAK REGENERATION ABSENT

PHASE ONE

Figure 6 i l lustrates the threesteps required in the f i rst of the threephases of the group shel terwoodcu t t ing method where na tu ra lregenerat ion is in i t ia l ly absent in astand opening:

(1) Select locat ions wi th oak seedtrees or seed trees of otherdesirable species;

(21 Mark openings for subsequentcutt ing to sui t regenerat ionrequirements; and

(3) Cut stand exi ts.

Step One

Select locat ions wi th seed treesof high reproduct ive potent ia l (based onage, crown size and form) and/orlocat ions wi th a high stocking ofreproduct ion of acceptable t ree species.Here, the recept iv i ty of the s i te (basedon seedbed condi t ions, topography,exposure) shou ld be h igh .

Step Two

Mark areas for cut t ing toestabl ish openings under shel ter of theseed trees. These openings should begeneral ly el l ipt ical to avoid theexcessive shading that occurs at thecorners o f rec tangu lar open ings ,

The s ize o f an open ing shou ld beapproximately twice the average height

of the seed trees in width (e.9. , 4O m)and doub le tha t in length . Wi th a 4O-mwidth and an 80-m length, an oPeningcomprises 0.25 ha. The recommendedsize of an opening in var ious hardwoodstands general ly ranges from O.2toO.4ha (Barret t 1980, Carvel l 1967, Coderet al . 1987, Sander 1971, Tr imble1 973), Depending on the si te 's aspect,s lope, requirement for protect ion, andother factors, the s ize of an openingcan range up to 0 .8 ha (Dan ie l e t a l .1979, Johnson 1985, Leak e t a l .1987) .

Retain a main canopy cover ofapproximately 70 to 8Oo/" on fresh sitesand 50 to 60% on dry s i tes to delaythe invasion of compet ing vegetat ionand thus to help the naturalreproduc t ion deve lop ; i f thereproduct ion fa i ls to appear the canopywi l l cont inue to keeP compet ingvegetat ion in check and thus al lowplanted stock to develop. The plant ingoperat ion should then be carr ied out inthe same year as the th inn ing o f the o ldstand or in the year fo l lowing theth inn ing in Phase Two.

Step Three

Cut eastward exi ts through thes tand boundar ies to channe l co ld a i r ou tand thus min imize the e f fec t o fpotent ia l f rost pockets.

l_5

Access ,t\

^&)fo 3zr,*rb.

.,o., !. ooob1 oow'.1G'"d'.E$FCo

EX

itS

Shcltcmood cutrithout rcproduction

Uncut old stond'rllh coatword cxitg(r Moy bc lccr dcn!.ln thc north ond cogtthon ln thc couth ondwcst stond cdgcs)

Figure 6. Phase one of the three-phase group shelterwood cutting method in a standwithout pre-exist ing regenerat ion: The in i t ia l shel terwood cut is 4O x 80 m in s ize(not to scale), and or iented in a south-southeast direct ion. Note exi ts on the easternside of the stand (arrows) to channel cold air out of the opening. The 40- and 80- mdistances represent twice and four t imes the average stand height, respect ively.

L 6

OAK REGENERATION ABSENT

PHASE TWO

Figure 7 i l lustrates the threesteps required in the second of thethree phases of the group shelterwoodcu t t ing method where na tu ra lreproduct ion may appear, or p lant ing ofred oak stock or sowing of acorns isant ic ipated in the stand opening. PhaseTwo follows 3 to 5 years after PhaseOne (depending on si te qual i ty, standstructure, development of stems andstocking, and environmental inf luences)i f natural reproduct ion has appeared.Phase Two could also fo l low Phase Onein the same or the fo l lowing year i fnatural reproduct ion has fai led toappear and plant ing wi l l be carr ied out.The three steps are:

(1) Remove the overstory f romabove the reproduct ion and/orthin the old stand for plant ing.

(21 Apply herbic ide to compet ingvegetat ion or burn i t , i fnecessary, before plant ing orsowing ; and

(3) Cut stand exi ts.

Step One

Remove the overstory fromabove developing natural reproduct ion.l f regenerat ion has fai led to appear,retain the overstory in the opening and,instead, th in the old stand. Movemainly south-southeast, to create ashelterwood as in Step Two of PhaseOne (p. 15), and to prepare the s i te forplant ing of stock.

Step Two

Apply herbic ide or conduct aprescr ibed burn to control compet ing

vegetat ion before plant ing nurserystock (Fig. 8) i f ground vegetat ion hasbecome too abundant under theshel terwood ( i .e. , compet ing vegetat ionis as ta l l as or ta l ler than the averageheight of the seedl ings to be planted,bare plant ing spots are di f f icul t torecognize, and other features arepresent that may have contr ibuted top lan t ing fa i lu res a t s im i la r loca t ions) . l tmay also be feasible to underplant redoak without the use of herbic ides i fant ic ipated losses as a resul t ofsuppression by vegetat ive compet i t ioncan be compensated for by modestincreases in the number of Plantedt rees (Johnson 1989, 1992) . Johnsonprovided a table of the number ofplanted trees required with and withoutweed control to obtain one futuredominant or codominant t ree. Thenumber of t rees decreases rapidly wi thincreasing in i t ia l stem diameter ( f rom6.5 mm to 16 mm), whether o r no tstands are t reated with herbic ides. Theb igger the seed l ing (bo th in he igh t anddiameter) , the greater the success rate(Johnson 1992l . .

l f acorns are avai lable andpi l ferage by rodents and loss due tocompet ing vegetat ion are expected tobe tolerable, sow three or more t imesas many acorns as the convent ionalnumber o f p lan ted nursery s tock , i .e . ,3330 or more per ha .

Step Three

Cont inue to maintain stand exi ts 'Establ ish new stand oPenings insui table areas and proceed as in PhaseOne (see p . 15 ) .

L 7

Access nr uo^

1o o o:ooood:*

O_. . ,O\O Av_ O "O^p!'o t--o o "%

on_ \\_ --___.XO -==\

_ = - \.'R3: o oBts^oS

t*.bE$^o \-/ o o o

*r'o o o ro.

ooo

Noturcl,tDrcducdon dorclooino(1 m toll (Whcru rugcncr'otldnla obacnl uac hcrblcidc or bumbcforc undctplontlng atock)

Shcltcmood cutwithout rugroductlon

Uncut old rtond'riti cqstrqrd cxit!(r Moy bc lca dcnscin thc north ond aoctthon in lhc outh ondrcrt stond cdgca)

Figure 7. Phase two of the three-phase group shel terwood cutt ing method in a standwithout pre-existing regeneration: A stand opening with developing naturalreproduct ion or art i f ic ia l regenerat ion (hatched) has been created, surrounded by ashel terwood cut wi thout regenerat ion and including exi ts mainly on the eastern s ideof the stand (arrows) to channel cold air out of the opening.

L 8

SEffi

olq '-

=\l- o."pe $o o q

$$N

Wf$'?.

w\sFigure 8. Red oak 56 cm tal l by mid-growing season of the f i rst year in part of ashel terwood underplant ing operat ion, fo l lowing the use of herbic ide to controlcompet i t ion. The seedl ing is a v igorous candidate to compete wi th the surroundingvegetat ion i f i t remains unbrowsed. (Photo by P.W. Secker, Parry Sound Distr ict ,1989 . )

19

OAK REGENERATION ABSENT

PHASE THREE

There are two situations thatmay face the manager in the th i rdphase of the group shelterwood cuttingmethod where oak regeneration isabsent:

(a ) Na tu ra l rep roduc t ion hasappeared in Phase One and theoverstory above it has beenremoved in Phase Two; or

(b) Planting has been carried out inthe same year or the fo l lowingyear af ter th inning of the oldstand in Phase Two. ln ei thercase, wait 6 to 15 years(depending on si te qual i ty, stand

structure, development of stems andstocking, and environmental inf luences)before apply ing the same three steps asin Phase Three with oak regenerationpresent. That is:

(1) Weeding out wol f t rees wi th inthe free-to-grow regeneration;

(21 Cutt ing the adjoining overstorybetween two merging openingsto c rea te one compac tregenerat ion area; and

(3) Treat ing newly located openingsas in Phase One and Phase Twoto achieve the desired canopycover and start the regenerationprocess anew.

2 0

APPENDIX 1

SOIL.SITE RELATIONSHIPS AND SYNECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

OF RED OAK

There are great s imi lar i t iesbetween the northern red oak in NorthAmerica and the same speciesnatural ized in Europe, and red oak isalso s imi lar to two nat ive Europeanspec ies , peduncu la te oak (4 ,pedunculata Ehrh. : robur L.) andsessile oak (O. sessiliflora Salisb. =getrea lMatt.]]. These species arecal led "soi l -dar ing" because they thr iveon alkal ine or acidic soi ls, l ight or heavysoi ls, and loose or compacted soi ls(Krah l -Urban 1959, Le ibundgut e t a l .1963) . Broadfoo t e f a l . (1971) foundred oak most frequently on soils with asurface soi l pH of 5.0 to 6.5, wi thassociated species such as basswood,birches (Betula spp.) , b lack cherry(Prunus serotina Ehrh.) and sugarmap le .

General ly, good oak soi ls aremedium to coarse in texture, have ahigh water permeabi l i ty and arerelat ively low in calc ium content. Thereare three soil groups favorable for oaks:

(1 ) loamy sands , pH 7 ;(21 loamy clays, pH 6-7; and(3) c lay loams, pH 4-5. The lowest

calc ium content usual ly occurs inthe clay loams.

General ly, the roots of oaks areknown as "so i l -adaptab le" , i .e , , the taproo t o f ten d isappears as so i lcompact ion increases, and is replaced .

by dense laterals that form a wide "rootplate". In Parry Sound Distr ict andthroughout the Muskoka region ofOntar io, red oak with heights of 25 mor more and with spreading lateral rootplates c lose to the surface usual ly growon shal low-soi l s i tes (30 to 90 cm tobedrock) with a fresh to dry moistureregime; these are usual ly f ine tomedium sands with pockets of f resh si l tor c lay (Secker 1 986). These si tes maybe seasonal ly water logged and poor lydrained, or very dry. Some lateral rootsdevelop "s inker" roots for stabi l i ty . Inl ight soi ls, the tap root of oaks cangeneral ly be long, but i t stops as soonas i t reaches a nutr ient-r ich, moisture-holding layer; a l ternat ively, i t changesinto heart roots with numerous lateralsthat extend vert ical ly as wel l ashor izontal ly. Older oaks general ly donot have a pronounced tap rootregardless of the soi l condi t ions(Koest ler et a l . 1968).

Al though relat ively drought-hardy, juveni le oaks general ly require aready supply of moisture and thereforedevelop a strong taP root. However,the genet ical ly pre-disposed juveni le taproot wi l l not redevelop once i t has beensevered, e.g. , af ter undercutt ing in thenursery . Ins tead , numerousadvent i t ious roots form hor izontal lyrather than vert ical ly (Carpenter andGuard 1954, Leontovyc and CaPek1987 , Woessner 1972]'.

2 I

Due to red oak's rapid root-regenerat ing capaci ty (Farmer 1975),plant ing of nursery stock should bescheduled to al low root growth-promot ing substances in buds to betranslocated to the roots before thetrees begin to develop the moisturestress that is associated with oak'srapid leaf development (Johnson et al.1984). Therefore, fa l l underplant ing inforest stands may be advantageous topromote new root growth before frostpenetrates the soil and/or to achievethe benefit of early root activity soonafter soi l thawing in the spr ing. Sincenorthern red oak is rated as onlymoderately sensitive to heavy top- androot- pruning (compared with otherhardwoods), pruning of nursery stock isrecommended to faci l i tate handl ing(Larson 1975, Lindstrom 1963).Johnson e t a l . (1986) and Johnson(1988) recommended 1 + 1 or undercut2+O s tock o f a t leas t 1O mm in basa ldiameter that is top-pruned 15 to 20cm above the root col lar wi th in twoweeks of planting. The practice ofusing red oak stock larger than 1 + 0 forplant ing in forest stands is alsosupported by Labrecque and Popovich(1988) .

Figure 9 shows the dai ly shootand root growth of pedunculate oakcompared with grey alder (Alnus incanaWifld.), Norway spruce lPicea abies L.lKarst.l) and silver f ir (Abies alba Mill. l .The root growth of this oak occurs over73o/o of the total growth period and is

most act ive in March, Apr i l and Mayand again in August (or later, dependingon the locat ion and environmentalinf luences). Simi lar data for northernred oak are not avai lable, but th isspecies is s imi lar to pedunculate oak inmany ways.

Points to Consider:

* ldentify red oak sites on thebas is o f ex is t ing spec iesassociat ions, stand history, andthe form and position of oaktrees in the stand.

x The moisture-seeking tap root ofjuveni le oaks is a forceful ,genet ical ly predisposed feature,but one that is lost when theroot is severed.

* Root in i t iat ion precedes shootelongat ion and cont inues af tershoot dormancy occurs. Fal lp lant ing of nursery stock wi l ll ikely in i t iate ear ly root growth.

The tap root wi l l be deep in less-dense soi ls but not where anutr ient-r ich, moisture-holdinglayer occurs near the soi l -surface. The tap root is replacedby numerous lateral roots inshal low and/or compacted clayeysoi ls, which are of ten r ich innutr ients and moisture near thesurface, Older oaks eventual lyhave their tap root replaced by anetwork of lateral roots.

22

DAILYINCREMENT

I

E 4E

;oF(,Z ' +IJ

Io

I

4

o

4

8

GROWTH PERIOD%

42

58

PEDUNCULATEOAK 27E

E

FozUJJ

73

I

l l

MAR. APR. MAY JUN. JUL. AUG. SEPT OCT.

Figure 9. Dai ly shoot and root growth increment of juveni le t rees of four species f romMarch to October (Leibundgut er a/ . 1963).

3l

69

E5F(9zlrJ

t3

87

EsT

(9ztrjJ

47 SILVER FIR

23

* The absence of a tap root mayinf luence oak's physical stabi l i tythus, shorter rotations arerecommended on shal low soi ls.

Table 1 shows red oak'smoisture, nutr ient , l ight and heatrequirements in relation to those of redpine, whi te pine and sugar maple.

Points to Consider:

* Red oak vs. red pine: Red oakneeds almost three times asmuch nutrients as red pine,almost twice the amount of heatand just over hal f the l ight . Themoisture requirements of bothspecies are qui te s imi lar .

* Red oak vs. whi te pine: Red oakneeds twice as much nutrientsas white pine, and almost twice

Table 1 . Syneco log ica lrequirements of red oak compared withthose of red pine, whi te pine and sugarmaple. Values range from 1 ( lowest) to5 (highest) . Data f rom Bakuzis andHansen (1959) .

the amount of heat, but the l ightrequirements of both species are equal .The moisture requirements of bothspecies are also qui te s imi lar .

* Red oak vs. sugar maple: Redoak needs less than hal f as muchmoisture as sugar maple, butalmost three t imes as much l ight .The other requirements of bothspecies are qui te s imi lar .

SpeciesRed oakRed pineWhite pineSugar maple

Moisture1 .51 .11 .73 .2

Requirement

Nutr ient4 .21 .62 .15 .0

L iqh t2.84.52,81.0

Heat3.52.12.O3.5

24

APPENDIX 2

TREE-MARKING GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATORY CUTS

Regardless of the number ofpreparatory cuts ( th innings) before theregenerat ion cut, the fo l lowing tree-marking guidel ines speci f ic to the groupshelterwood cutting method arerecommended beginning with a pole-size stand and thereafter:

Mark accord ing to theoverstory's canopy density andthe l ight requirements of thespecies selected rather thanaccording to a predeterminedoverstory basal area. However,basal area versus crown covertables such as those in Godmanand Tubbs (1973) o r Leak andTubbs (1983) can he lp you topredict crown areas on the basisof more easi ly measured stembasal areas.

Mark compet i tors for cut t ingwhere they obs t ruc t themaximum growth potential ofgood-qua l i t y t rees in thedominant canopy.

Mark t rees for cut t ing in thelower canopy using the sameguidel ines as for the dominantcanopy.

Mark unwanted trees on thebasis of v is ib le infect ions (e.9. ,cankers) rather than based onphys ica l de fo rmi t ies (e .9 . ,excessive branchiness).

Do not mark al l the "unwanted"intermediate and suppressedtrees, as these may be all thereis to offset excessive gaps in themain canopy. As wel l asdiscouraging rapid invasion andgrowth of undesirable com-pet i t ion, they are part icular lyimportant when underplant ing isnecessary to supplement naturalstocking. This is of ten the casewhen insuff ic ient numbers ofpotent ia l acorn producers arepresent, or when seed crops fai l .

Locate log- landing areas in thenorthern or eastern part of thestand, where the exposure ofstand edges to direct sunl ightand consequent invasion ofground vegetat ion wi l l bereduced compared with landingsin the southern and westernstand edges.

25

Refrain f rom disturbing thesouthern and western standedges soas to preclude excessivesunl ight and wind from enter ingthe stand.

Retain about 1O to 2Oo/o of themost v igorous residuals atdesirable locat ions to providecrown cover after a harvest cut.These trees wil l most l ikely befound in areas such as standedges, p rov id ing cont inuedshel ter and increased log valueunt i l the f i rst th inning of a newlyregenerated stand.

* Rehabi l i tate log- landing areas byseeding of legumes and cerealspecies and/or plant ing ofnursery stock.

Note: Tree marking guidel ines beyondthe scope of the present report arediscussed by Anderson and Rice(1993) .

APPENDIX 3

REGENERATING RED OAK UNDER DEER COMPETITION

Forest managers strive to securered oak seed to help reproduce oakstands. Wildlife managers strive toimprove red oak seed production as animportant source of food for deer andother an ima ls . However , theconsumption of large quant i t ies ofyoung oak leaves and shoots by deerimposes another obstacle to thesuccess of regenerat ing oaks.

ln the Horse Lake tract nearDorset, Ontar io, where red oakreproduct ion is adequate but of verypoor form due to extreme deer

browsing, sapl ings 2 m in height varybetween 12 and 31 years of age (withan average of 1 8). The sapl ings wouldnormal ly reach 2 m at age 13 withoutbrowsing, or perhaps a greater height inas l itt le as 7 years with release of thestand canopy and Protect ion f rombrows ing . F igure 10 shows thepredicted increase in height growth ofoak in th is t ract wi th the exclusion ofdeer browsing combined with ear lYcanopy release to imProve l ightcondi t ions and subsequent growth ofthe t rees (Stroempl and Zakrzewski1 988) .

2 7

PotenUol growthwithout browse ondwith conopy roleqseof oge 5 yoors

Loss of vigorunder conopy

. tor 7 veorgI

, , , , ,

r Presentgrowth

Subtroct . '/:----=--=- -+-I yeara/,

./# Releoae

reproduction

Potentiof growthwithout browee ondwithout releose

Browse period scvore

68101214

AGE (years)

Figure 1O. Predicted growth of red oak reproduct ion wi thout deer browsing and withcanopy release at age 5 years, in the Horse Lake tract near Dorset, Ontar io.

18t6

The value of t imber product ionlost as a resul t of browsing dur ing aregeneration period was estimated toaverage $2656 U.S . /ha innorthwestern Pennsylvania (Marquisand Brenneman 1981) . Regenera t ion ismore l ikely to be successful if effectivemeasures are introduced to divert deerfrom browsing on the oak. Oneeffective measure is to ignore the deerpopulat ion and plant a maximum of125 super ior qual i ty red oak nurserystock per hectare under 60% or lesscanopy cover and protect each with aTubex (St. George Co. Ltd. , St . George,Ont . ) t ree she l te r 1 .5 o r 1 .8 m ta l l tominimize or exclude possible browsing;tree shelters wil l also keep away thetall vegetative competit ion that oftenovertops the usual ly smal ler t r :ansplantswithout t ree shel ters. Another opt ion isto decapi tate young oak already presentin the stand and to protect the stubswith tree shelters to promote vigorous

growth of the resprouts. Tree sheltershave improved the survival and ear lyheight growth of p lanted red oak(Lantagne and Ramm 199O) . F igure 11shows a Tubex tree shel ter around ared oak sapl ing in the fourth growingseason a f te r p lan t ing under ashel terwood.

Ol iver (1978) reported that thebest board-foot volume of red oak inmixed New England stands wasobtained with not more than 1 1 1upper-canopy stems per ha (45/acre) atage 60, provided that this componenthad remained at th is densi ty s ince age30, in stands containing 3672 stems/ha( lSOOiacre) of other sPecies andsubordinate to the oaks. Furthermore,Ol iver noted that a large number ofoaks close together may not onlY beunnecessary, but a lso undesirable i f onewishes to avoid the need for th inningamong compet ing oaks.

29

Figure 11 . Red oak 1+O nursery s tock in a she l te rwood underp lan t ing opera t ion . A1.s-m-tal l Tubex tree shel ter was placed over the oak at p lant ing to prevent ear lybrowsing by rodents and deer. Note that the oak's crown is 25 cm above the shel terin August of the fourth growing season. (Photo by Bruce Fleck, management forester,Bancrof t Distr ict , 1992.)

30

APPENDIX 4

NURSERY PRACTICES TO MAXIMIZE THE PLANTABILITY

AND PLANTING SUCCESS OF RED OAK NURSERY STOCK

E n viro nme ntal Co nd itio ns

2.

3 .

1. To prevent winter drying, waterheeled- in stock dur ing the warm,dry snow-f ree months ofOc tober lNovember andMarch/Apr i l .

Cover heeled-in stock to excludel ight , heat and wind, butmaintain constant air c i rculat ion.

Bundle heeled- in stock forshipping as wel l as short- termstorage before shipping so as toexclude l ight , heat and wind.(Do not sacr i f ice biological lyfavorable condi t ions for the sakeof eas ie r hand l ing . )

Water bundled stock dur ingshort- term storage, and also pr iorto shipping, to ensure that theroo ts a re f resh a t thedest inat ion.

Transport bundled stock in amanner that excludes l ight , heatand w ind .

6. Red oak stock in kraft bags orbur lap sacks with their topsexposed a re somet imestransported in a refrigerated vanwhere air c i rculat ion contr ibutesto desiccat ion. These condi t ionsare favorable for spruce and Pinestock in kraf t bags total ly sealed.

Morphological Quality and Gradino

The fol lowing are character ist icsof high-qual i ty stock:

Buds: A cluster of consPicuousbuds at the aPex (ensure stockdormancy to prevent f lushing ofbuds before plant ing),

Stem length and form: The mainshoot is sturdy, wel l def ined andstraight, and branches areusual ly absent.

Roo t -co l la r d iamete r : Aminimum diameter of 6 to 8 mmat about 2 cm above the rootco l la r .

4 .

1 .

2.

3 .5.

3 t

4. Root lenqth and volume: Severalstrong primary lateral roots (notjust f ibrous roots) extend fromthe main (central) root . Rootsare pruned to about 2O to 25 cmin 2+O s tock and 10 to 15 cmin 1 + O stock to facil i tate "deep"plant ing and to ensure thatdormant buds wi l l resprout i f themain stem is severely damaged.For more informat ion on deepp lan t ing , see St roempl (199O) .

Ph vsiolo g ica I Co nd itio ns

1. Use stock that or ig inates f romsources based on a phenotypicselect ion; e.9. , late-f lushing oak{from northern locations) is lesslikely to be damaged by latefrosts, and caterpil lars that hatchfrom eggs deposi ted on late-f lushing oak may die ofstarvation before leaves areproduced.

2. Consider the use of nurserystock for fa l l p lant ing underforest condi t ions. Using stockunder open-f ie ld condi t ions,where f rost heaving can be aser ious p rob lem, may beunsuccessful . Some nurseryprac t i ces , such as la te(Aug/September ) fe r t i l i za t ionpr ior to l i f t ing can ser iouslyjeopardize the sui tabi l i ty of thestock for fa l l p lant ing by delayinghardening of f in the fa l l .

ln the Field

Long-term storage (3 days andlonger) : Every distr ict shouldhave a storehouse with a moundof snow and a fan to providecondi t ions s imi lar to an ice houseand thus delay f lushing of stock,which has usual ly begun in thenursery pr ior to f ie ld del ivery.

Mid-term storage (3 days andshorter) : Use "s i lver cool t reetarps", so as to exclude l ight ,heat and wind, but provideconstant air c i rculat ion. waterthe bu nd led stock bef ores to rage , as necessary .Alternatively, store bundledstock under shel ter in a runningstream or body of water stirredoccasional ly by wind or rain toprovide aerat ion and minimizeexposure to l ight , heat anddrying wind, and to keep rootsmoist .

Short-term storage (a fewhours): Store bundled stock in apool at the plant ing s i te dur ing orshort ly af ter a rain, which mixesair wi th water. Al ternat ively,

' store the stock in buckets off resh water. Avoid exposingroots to l ight , heat and windduring short-term storage beforeand dur ing p lan t ing .

For more informat ion on stock grading,with i l lustrat ions, see Stroempl(1985) .

1 .

2.

3 .

32

APPENDIX 5

CLASSES AND FIELD ASSESSMENT OF PLANTED STOCKRED OAK OUALITY

Seedling Stage

Qual i ty Class

Excellent

**

Oual i ty Descr iot ion

Terminal shoot ( leader) present, wi th a c luster ofprominent buds at i ts apexTerminal shoot unobstructed and free to growBrowse damage absent

Terminal shoot present, wi th a c luster of prominentbuds at i ts apexTerminal shoots may be unevenly forked or somewhatobstructedBrowse damage only on previous year 's growth orminor at stem base

Top may be bushy or forked, but the tree remainscompet i t ive wi th surrounding vegetat ionBrowse damage conspicuousRecovery possible

Terminal shoot ( leader) absentTop bushy or severely forkedRecovery questionable

Good

Fair

**

Poor ***

Note: A "poor" seedl ing may also be heal thy- and free of the above damage butirrecoverably overtopped by vegetation (unless release and/or correctivetreatment fo l lows).

Sapling Stage

Qual i tv Class

Excel lent

Good

Fa i r

Poor

Oual i ty Descr ipt ion

Terminal shoot ( leader) above the reach of deer browsingCluster of prominent buds at the apexDominant, narrow crown; leader unobstructed and free togrow

Terminal shoot above the reach of deer browsingCluster of prominent buds at the apexDominant or codominant narrow crown; may be unevenlyforked or somewhat obstructed

Ap ica l dominance no t es tab l i shedBrowsing damage evidentIntermediate crown may be bushy or forked; competeswith the surrounding vegetat ionRecovery possible

Termina l shoot ( leader ) absentCrown development bushyBrowsing damage severeRecovery quest ionable

red oak qua l i t y c lasses can be found in Tab le 2 in

****

Note: A simi larStroempl

descr ipt ion( 1 987) .

for

3 4

APPENDIX 6

SEED TREE AND OFFSPRING CHARACTERISTICS

Seed Tree

The accompanying photographs(F ig . 1 2 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16) i l l us t ra te thequal i ty character ist ics of seed treesdeemed sui table for acorn col lect ion.The basic factors to consider are:

" branch arrangement* crown form* stem form" i f in doubt as to the source of

acorns on the ground, mix acornscollected from around several treesthat are close together

la te - f lush ing oaks a re lesssuscep t ib le to la te f ros ts ;conversely, those from mi ldercl imates are less hardy whentransferred to colder c l imatesmost offspring wil l carry thecharacteristics of the parent seedtree (Table 2)

Form ofSeed Trees

Broomlike ( test area 1)Broomlike ( test area 2)ForkedStraight stem

Proport ion of Offspr ing (o/olthat Share the Seed Tree's Form

Same100

747385

Othero

262715

Table 2. Comparison of the character ist ics of seed trees and their of fspr ing (Krahl-Urban 1 959) .

3 5

Figure 12. Open-grown red oak of stocky form with widespread, repeatedly fork ingbranches should not be accepted because they are unl ikely to be producers of h igh-qual i ty of fspr ing. (Photo by the authors, Huronia Distr ict , 1989.)

of h igh qual i ty. (Photo by the authors, Huronia Distr ict , 1989.)

lrr' , .'.l:,, '

li,. -, ''* - - " - iH'ii'

!F,.* ,il'ii'

36

Figure 14. Redcrown structureto young oaks.

oaks with low forks are acceptable as long aS the stem form andare of h igh qual i ty. Such forking is usual ly a resul t of apical damage(Photo by the au thors , Huron ia D is t r i c t , 1989. )

Figure 15. An open-grown oak that developed with twoforking ( lef t ) . The of fspr ing (r ight) a lso developed stemsto the mother t ree at the lef t (Krahl-Urban 1959).

main stems, both repeatedlYwith repeated forking, s imi lar

3 7

Figure 16. The most common forms of oak t ransplants. From lef t to r ight : straight,forked and broomlike (Krahl-Urban 1959).

3 8

Offspring

Note whether the stem form of theoffspring is straight, forked orbroomlike.

Straiqht

The most important feature for goodqual i ty nursery grown stock, besidesstem form and crown structure, is thepresence of a prominent bud or c lusterof buds on the leading shoot; wi thoutthis, oak tends to develoP long,hor izontal branches, somet imes evenunder dense vegetat ive cover.

Forked Stem

Forked stems are very common.However, genet ical ly induced forkingmust be dist inguished from a forkedstem of other or ig in, such as one dueto f rost , insect, browsing damage orbreakage.

Broomlike

Look for mult iPle fork ing and/ordense, i r regular branching, whichresults from a cluster of three or moreterminal buds of equal s ize on theleading shoot.

Flat-topoed Stem (not illustrated)

Do not el iminate a f lat- toppedseedl ing i f i t has a s ingle stem that maygradual ly re-establ ish a leader andresume an upr ight posi t ion' This wi l ldepend on the amount of l ight uponrelease and the amount of competingwoody vegetat ion Present.

39

LITERATURE CITED

Anderson, H. \ ry . , B .D. Batche lo r , C .M. Corbet t , A .S. Cor le t t , D .T . Deugo, C.F . Huskand W.R. Wi lson , 1990. A s i l v icu l tu ra l gu ide fo r the to le ran t hardwoodsworking group in Ontar io. Ont. Min. Natur. Resour, , Toronto, Ontar io. Sci . andTech. Ser ies , Vo l . 7 . 178 p .

Anderson, H.W. and J.A. Rice. 1993. A tree-marking guide for the to leranthardwoods working group in Ontar io. Ont. Min. Natur. Resour, , Toronto,Ontar io . Sc i . and Tech. Ser ies , Vo l . 8 . 227 p .

Arend, J.L. and H.F. Scholz. 1969. Oak forests of the Lake States and theirmanagement . usDA For . Serv . , Nor th Cent . For . Exp. S ta . , S t . Pau l , MN. Res.Pap . NC-31 . 36 p . , i l l us .

Bakuz is , E .V. and H.L . Hansen. 1959. A prov is iona l assessment o f spec iessynecologicalrequirements in Minnesota forests, Univ. MN. St. Paul , MN. For.Notes 84. 2 p.

Bar re t t , J .W. 1980. Reg iona l s i l v icu l tu re o f the Un i ted Sta tes . Wi ley , New York , N.Y.551P '

Braun, E.L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Blakiston Co.,Ph i lade lph ia , Pa . . 596 p .

Broadfoot, 8.G., B.G. Blackmon and J.B, Baker, 1971. Soi l management forhardwood produc t ion . pp . 17-29 . ln : Proc . Symp. South . Hardwoods. pp . 17-29.

Carpenter , LW. and A.T . Guard . 1954. Anatomy and morpho logy o f the seed l ingroots of four species of the genus Ouercus. J. For. 52:269-274.

Carvel l , K.L. 1967, The response of understory oak seedl ings to release af ter part ia lcu t t ing . W. V i rg in ia Un iv . Co l l . Agr ic . , Morgantown W.V. Bu l l . 553 . 20 p .

Coder , K .D. , P .H. Wray and D.W. Count ryman. 1987. Group she l te rwood sys tem fo rregenera t ing oak in eas tern lowa. p . 83-89 . ln : R .L . Hay , F .W. Woods and H.DeSelm, Eds., Proc. 6th Central hardwood forest conference; February 24-26,1987; Knoxv i l le , TN. Un iV. Tennessee, Ins t . o f Agr i .

Dan ie l , T .W. , J .A . He lms and F .S. Baker . 1979. Pr inc ip les o f S i l v icu l tu re . McGraw-Hi l l , New York , N.Y. 5OO p .

Farmer, R.E. Jr . 1975. Dormancy and root regenerat ion of northern red oak. Can.J . For . Res .5 :176-185 .

4 0

Gayer, K. 1886. Der gemischte Wald, seine Begruendung und Pf lege, insbesonderedurch Horst- und Gruppenwir tschaft . Parey, Ber l in.

Geiger, R. 1959. The cl imate nearthe ground. Blue Hi l l Meteorological Observatory,Harvard Univ. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA. 494 p.

Godman, R.M. and C.H. Tubbs. 1973. Establ ishing even-aged northern hardwoodregenerat ion by the shel terwood method--a prel iminary guide, USDA For.Serv. , North Cent. For. Exp. Sta. , St . Paul , MN. Res. Pap. NC-99. 9 p.

Hannah, P.R. 1988. The shel terwood method in northeastern forest types: Al i terature review. North. J. Appl . For. 5:7O-77.

Jacobs , R.D. and R.D. Wray . 1992. Manag ing oak in the Dr i f t less a rea . Un iv . M inn . ,St. Paul , MN. Nat. Resour. NR-BU-5900-S. 32 p.

Jarvis, J.M. 1956. An ecological approach to to lerant hardwood si lv icul ture. Can.Dep. Northern Affairs and Nat. Resour. Ottawa, Ont. Tech, Note No. 43. 43 p.

Johnson, P.S. and R.D. Jacobs. 1981 . Northern red oak regenerat ion af terpreherbic ided clearcutt ing and shel terwood removal cut t ing. USDA For. Serv. ,Nor th Cent . For . Exp. S ta . , S t . Pau l , MN. Res. Pap. NC-202. 5 p .

Johnson, P .S. , S .L . Nov inger and W.G. Mares . 1984. Responses o f p lan ted nor thernred oaks to three overstory treatments. Can. J. For. Res. 14:536-542.

Johnson, P.S. 1985. Regenerat ing oak in the Lake States. Presentat ion at the redoak regenerat ion seminar, Bracebr idge, Ont. 9 p. (mimeo).

Johnson, R.L . and R.M. Kr inard . 1985. p ,56-65 In : Proc .3rd Symp. Southeas ternHardwoods; Apr i l 16-17 , 1985; Dothan, AL. USDA For . Serv . , SouthernRegion, At lanta , GA. In cooperat ion wi th: Alabama Forestry Commission, theMississippi Forestry Commission and the Alabama Extension Service.

Johnson, P .S. , C .D. Da le and K.R. Dav idson. 1986. P lan t ing nor thern red oak in theMissour i Ozarks : A prescr ip t ion . Nor th . J . App l . For . 3 :66-68 .

Johnson, P.S. 1988. Undercutt ing al ters root morphology and improves f ie ldperformance of northern red oak. p.316-323. Proc, Tenth North . Am. ForB io l . Workshop, Vancouver , Br i t i sh Co lumbia . Dep. For . Sc i . , Un iv . B . C. ,Vancouver, B.C.

4L

Johnson, P.S. 1989. Growing hardwood nursery stock for p lant ing on forest s i teswith special reference to northern red oak. Proc. Northeast Area Nurserymen'sConf . lL . Dep. Conserv . , D iv . For . Resour . , Peor ia , lL . 18 p .

Johnson, P .S. , R .D. Jacobs , A .J . Mar t in , E .D. Gode l . 1989. Regenera t ing nor thernred oak: three successful case histor ies. North. J. Appl . For. 6:174-178.

Johnson, P.S. 1992. Underplant ing northern red oak in Missour i wi thout herbic ides.USDA For . Ser . Nor th Cent ra l For . Exp. S ta . S t . Pau l , MN. Gen.Tech. NC-152.4p .

Johnson, P.S. 1993. Perspect ives on the ecology and si lv icul ture of oak-dominatedforests in the Central and Eastern States. North Cent. For. Exp. Sta. St . Paul ,MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-153. 28 p .

Johnson, P .S. 1994. The s i l v icu l tu re o f nor thern red oak . ln : B io logy and s i l v icu l tu reof northern red oak in the North Central Region: A synopsis. USDA For. Serv.Nor th Cent . For . Expt . S ta . Gen. Techn. Rep. NC-173, (33-68) , 68 p .Compi le rs : J .G. l sebrands and R.E. D ickson.

Koest le r , J . 1950. Waldbau. Parey , Ber l in . 418 p .

Koest le r , J . 1956. S i l v icu l tu re (Trans la ted by Mark L . Anderson, Un iv . Ed inburgh) .O l iver and Boyd, Ed inburgh. 416 p .

Koest le r , J .N. , E . Brueckner and H. B ibe l re i ther . 1968. D ie Wurze ln der Waldbaeume.Parey , Ber l in . 184 p .

Krah l -Urban, J . 1959. D ie E ichen. Parey , Ber l in . 288 p .

Labrecque, M. and S. Popovich. 1988. Use of polyethylene-covered greenhousestoimprove the growth of rubra seedl ings for reforestat ion. For. Chron.64:404-407.

Lantagne, D.O. and C.W. Ramm. 1990. Tree shel ters increase heights of p lantedoaks in a Mich igan c learcu t . Nor th . App l . For .7 :24-26.

Larson, M.M. 1975. Pruning northern red oak nursery seedl ings: Effects on rootregenerat ion and ear ly growth. Can. J. For. Res. 5:381-386.

Leak , W.8 . , D .S. So lomon and P.S. DeBald , 1987. S i l v icu l tu ra l gu ide fo r nor thernhardwood types in the Northeast (revised). USDA For. Serv. , Northeast. For.Exp. S ta . , Broomal l , Pa . Res . Pap, NE-603. 36 p .

42

Leak, W.B. and C.H. Tubbs, 1983. Percent c rown cover tab les fo r app ly ing theshel terwood system in New England. USDA For. Serv. , Northeast. For. Exp.Sta . , Upper Darby , Pa. Res . Note NE-313,

Le ibundgut , H . , S . Daf is and F . R ichard . 1 963. Untersuchungen ueber dasWurzelwachstum verschiedener Baumarten. Schweiz. Zei tschr i f t fuerForstwesen. 1 1 4:621-646, 1 15:444-450.

Leontovyc, R. and M. Capek. 1987. Eichenwelken in der Slowakei . OesterreichischeForstzei tung 98:5 1 -52.

Linstrom, G.A. 1963. Forest p lant ing pract ice in the central states. USDA For. Serv. ,& Wash., D.C. Agr ic. Handb. 247.

Li t t le, S. 1974. Effects of f i res on temperate forests: northeastern Uni ted States.p .225-250. ln : T .T . Koz lowsk i and C.E. Ah lg ren , Eds . F i re and Ecosys tems,Academic Press, New York, N.Y.

Loft is, D.L. 1990. A shel terwood method for regenerat ing red oak in the SouthernAppa lach ians . For . Sc i . 36 :91 7-929.

Marqu is , D .A. and R. Brenneman. 1981. The impact o f deer on fo res t vegeta t ion inPennsy lvan ia . USDA For . Serv . , Nor theas t . For . Exp. S ta . , Broomal l , Pa . Gen.Tech . Rep . NE-65 . 7 p .

Marqu is , D .A. , P .L . Ecker tand B.A. Roach. 1976. Acorn weev i l s , rodents , and deeral lcontr ibuteto oak-regenerat iondi f f icul t ies in Pennsylvania. USDA For. Serv. ,Northeast. For. Exp. Sta. , Broomal l , Pa., Res. Pap. NE-356.

Marqu is , D .A. , R .L . Erns t and S,L . S tou t . 1984. Prescr ib ing s i l v icu l tu ra l t rea tmentsin hardwood stands of the Al leghenies. USDA For. Serv. , Northeast. For. Exp.Sta . , Broomal l , Pa . Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-96. 90 p .

Mayer , H . 1g77. Waldbau. F ischer . New York , ru .Y . 482 p .

Mi l l s , W.L . J r . , B .C. F ischer and T .W. Re is inger . 1987. Up land hardwood s i l v icu l tu re .A rev iew o f the l i te ra tu re . Dep.For . Nat . Resour . , Purdue Un iv . , WestLa fayet te , lN . , S ta . Bu l l . No. 527. 29 p .

Noyes , J .H. 1970. T imber harves t ing and fo res t aes the t ics . Co l l . o f Agr ic . , Un iv 'New Hampsh i re , N.H. Coopera t ive Ex tens ion Bu l l . No. 170. 19 p '

4 3

Nyland, R.D. , L .P . Abrahamson and K.B. Adarns . 1983. Use o f p rescr ibed f i re fo rregenera t ing red and wh i te oak in New York . p , 163-167. ln : Proc . Soc .Amer . For . Conv. , Wash ing ton , D.C,

Ol iver, C.D. 1978. The developmentof northern red oak in mixed stands in centralNew Eng land . Ya le Un iv . , New Haven , CT. Bu l l . No . 91 . 63 p .

Roach, B .A. and S.F . G ingr ich . 1968. Even-aged s i l v icu l tu re fo r up land cent ra lhardwoods. USDA For. Serv. , Northeast. For. Exp. Sta. , Upper Darby, Pa.Agr ic . Handb. No. 355.

Rouse, C. 1986. Fire ef fects in northeastern forests. USDA For. Serv. , North CentralFor . Exp . S ta , , S t , Pau l , MN. Gen. Tech .Rep.NC-105 . 7 p .

Rowe, J .S . 1972. Fores t Reg ions o f Canada. Can. For . Serv . Ot tawa, Ont . Pub l .1300 . 172 p .

Sander , l .L . 1971. Reproduc t ion o f up land hardwood fo res ts in the Lake Sta tes .USDA Agr ic . Wash . , D .C. Handb . No . 405 . 25 p .

Sander, l .L. 1977. Manager 's handbook for oaks in the north central States. USDAFor . Serv . , Nor th Cent . For . Exp, S tn . , S t . Pau l , MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NC-37.35 p .

Sander , l .L . 1979. Regenera t ing oaks w i th the she l te rwood sys tem. p . 54-60 . ln :Proc . Regenera t ing oaks in up land hardwood fo res ts . The 1979 J .S . Wr igh tFor . Conf . Purdue Un iv .

Secker, P.W. 1986. Red oak regenerat ion and management in the Hardwood WorkingGroup, s i te c lass 1 . Ont . M in . Natur . Resour . , Par ry Sound D is t r i c t (m imeo) .

Smith, D.M. 1986. The pract ice of s i lv icul ture. Wi ley New York, N.Y. 527 p.

Stroempl, G. 19834. Growth response of basswood and sugar maple to anin te rmed ia te cu t t ing . Ont . M in . Natur . Resour . , Fores t Res . Rep. No. 107.19 p .

St roempl , G. 19838. Th inn ing c lumps o f nor thern hardwood s tump sprouts toproduce h igh qua l i t y t imber . Ont . M in . Natur . Resour . For . Res . ln f , Pap. No.1O4. 27 p .

S t roempl , G. 1985. Grad ing nor thern red oak p lan t ing s tock . Tree P lan ters 'Notes36 :1 5 -18 .

St roempl , G, 1987. Growth and qua l i t y o f red oak p lan ted in red p ine p lan ta t ionopen ings . Ont . M in . Na tu r . Resour . For . Res . Rep . No . 117 . 6p . No te : Tab le1 , page 2 conta ins p r in t ing er ro r . Cor rec t tab le ava i lab le f rom: Ontar io For .Res. Ins t i tu te . M in is t ry o f Nat . Resours . Sau l t S te . Mar ie , Ontar io , Canada.

4 4

Stroempl, G. and Y. Zakrzewski. 1988. Regeneration survey, Horse Lake, Dorset,Ont. Min. Natur. Resour. Ont. For. Res. lnst i t , Saul t Ste, Marie, Ont. (Fielddata) .

Stroempl, G. 199O. Deeper plant ing of seedl ings and transplants increases plantat ionsurv iva l . T ree P lan ters ' Notes 41 :17-21 .

Tr imble, G.R., Jr . 1973. The regenerat ion of central Appalachian hardwoods withemphasis on the ef fects of s i te qual i ty and harvest ing pract ice. USDA For.Serv. , Northeast. For. Exp. Sta. Upper Darby, Pa. Res. Pap. NE-282. 14 p.

Wat t , R .F . , K .A. Br inkman and B.A. Roach. 1973. Oak-h ickory . p . 66-69 ln :Silvicultural systems for the major forest types of the United States. USDA,

. Wash. , D .C. Agr ic . Handb. No. 445.

White, A.S. 1986. Prescr ibed burning for oak savanna restorat ion in centralMinnesota . USDA For . Serv . , Nor th Cent ra l For . Expt . S ta . , S t . Pau l , MN. Res.Pap . NC-266 . 12 p .

Woessner, R.A. 1972. Four hardwood species di f fer in to lerance to pruning. TreePlanters' Notes 23:28-29.

4 5

50683(1.0 k P.R., 95 03 10)ISBN 0-7778-3927-XrssN 0319-9118