guidelines for writing theses and dissertations

5/26/2018 Guidelines for Writing Theses and Dissertations

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Department of Psychology

Ateneo de Manila University

GUIDELINES FOR WRITING THESES and DISSERTATIONS

WHAT IS A THESIS/DISSERTATION? .

A thesis or dissertation is intended to showcase the research skills and conceptslearned by a student in Psychology. Through it, a student is expected to show

mastery of research skills in contributing to knowledge in Psychology. Both thesesand dissertations must reflect the ability to conduct research and write the research

report in a scholarly manner worthy of publication. In addition, doctoraldissertations are expected to make a unique and significant contribution to

psychological knowledge. For both theses and dissertations, scholarly writing expectations include asubstantive and organized build-up of arguments, proper format and style (as prescribed by the APAManual, 5th ed. and the department guidelines), and correct grammar, punctuation, and spelling (note that

Merriam-Websters Collegiate Dictionary is the standard spelling reference of the APA).

OVERVIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF A THESIS/DISSERTATION

FRONT MATERIAL (refer to attached sample for guidelines on format)

Title page

Approval sheets (1 recommending oral defense; 1 acceptance of paper)

AcknowledgmentsAbstract

Table of Contents (including List of Tables and List of Figures)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Review of Literature

Theoretical/Conceptual FrameworkStatement of the Problem(s)Hypotheses (if applicable)Significance of the Study (for proposal, include in INTRODUCTION; for final paper,

integrate in DISCUSSION)

CHAPTER II

METHOD

DesignSetting (if applicable)

Participants

Measures

ProcedureData Analysis (for proposal, include in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in RESULTS)Limitations of the Study (for proposal, in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in

DISCUSSION)


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CHAPTER III

RESULTS

CHAPTER IVDISCUSSION

(note that the subsections in this chapter may be organized and integrated in flexible ways, depending onthe nature of the topic, study design, writing style, etc.)

Limitations

Implications

CHAPTER V (optional)

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

APPENDIXES

GENERAL FORMAT GUIDELINES .

The following general guidelines apply throughout the manuscript:

SPACING

Double-space throughout the paper, including entries in tables

Double-space between entries in the Reference section; single-space within

entries

Spacing between subsections or subheadings within a chapter should at least bedouble-spaced, but may be triple- or quadruple-spaced for added clarity

FONT

Use 12-size font throughout the paper, including entries in tables

Use either Times New Roman or Courier (serif typefaces) for text and Arial or Helvetica (sans serif

typefaces) for figures

MARGINS

Use a 1.25-inch margin for the left side; 1-inch for all other sides of the page (note that cornerbrackets are no longer required by the Office of Graduate Services)

JUSTIFICATION

Left justify throughout the paper

INDENTATIONParagraph indentation should be 5-7 spaces or the normal tab default

PAGINATION

ALL page numbers are placed at the upper right hand corner of each page

The first page of a new chapter is not numbered but is still counted

Lower-case Roman numerals are used for the front material, but beginning only with theAcknowledgments (or page iv). The title and signature pages are counted but not numbered.


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HEADINGS & SUBHEADINGS

Chapter titles should be boldface, uppercase, and centered on top of the page.

Format of succeeding headings and subheadings (whether italicized, upper- and lowercase, flushed

left, etc.) should conform to APA rules on levels of headings (see pp. 111-115 of the APA Manual,5th ed.)

. ABSTRACT .

Content: This section should contain a brief, comprehensive summary of the

contents of the thesis: the research problem, methods, and results and conclusions.

Format: Text should not exceed 120 words and is written in past tense. The first

line is not indented; the text is left justified. The headingABSTRACT should bebold, centered, and in uppercase.

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Content: The introductory chapter begins with the overview of the study. You should describe thegeneral problem area you are studying in a manner that is sufficient for an educated but non-psychologist

reader to understand. Here is where you discuss the motivation for studying the problem: What theoreticaland/or practical situations brought about this study? Of what application is the problem or what is itssignificance? The goal is to describe the problem in broad strokes, justify its study, and capture the

interest of the reader.

Format: The overview of the study has no heading. This, as well as the rest of the introduction, is writtenin the present tense. Sections within this chapter follow one after the other, with no page breaks in

between.

Review of Literature

Content: This section discusses the theoretical foundations of the problem. The goalis to develop your problem conceptually and place it in the context of previousscientific work. Thus, a conceptual integration of previous research is needed. Pointout the themes, links, gaps, and inconsistencies in the literature with the aim to

provide a clearer conceptualization of the problem. Note that it is NOT the purpose of

this section to display how much literature you have read. Avoid presenting a litany ofpast studies that are conceptually disconnected from each other. This section provides

justification for your problem and hypothesis: Why study these particular variables? Why propose theseparticular hypotheses? Why study the problem with this method? What differentiates your approach from

what has been previously done?

Format: Unlike the other sections in Chapter I, this section is written in the past tense. Begin this section

with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase). To enhance organization, use subheadings (referto pages 111-115 of the APA Manual, 5thedition, on the rules on level of headings).


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Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Content: This is the creative section of your work, where you define your researchs

theoretical/conceptual frame. It is different from the literature review, in that here you discuss your ownoriginal integration of the major theories and/or frameworks that you intend to apply, which serves as the

basis of the conceptual definitions of your variables and the laws of interactions or presumed relationshipsamong them. The build-up of arguments from the literature review, to the theoretical/ conceptual

framework, to the research problem and hypothesis should be clear and logical.

Format: This section may or may not have a visual diagram illustrating the relationships among thevariables. Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

Statement of the Problem

Content: This section presents the specific research question(s). The statement of the problem should

have several characteristics: Firstly, it should be phrased in the form of a question; secondly, the questionshould suggest a relationship between variables to be examined (unless the study is exploratory ordescriptive). Thirdly, the research question should imply the possibility of empirical testing.

Format: This section is written in the present tense. Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered,

upper- and lowercase).

Hypothesis (if applicable)

Content: This section is necessary only if you have a particular theory/framework/premise that you are

testing. In the case of exploratory research, for example, a hypothesis is not necessary.

Format: The hypothesis statement should contain the predicted relationship among the variables. Beginthis section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

Significance of the Study

(for proposal, include in INTRODUCTION; for final paper, integrate in DISCUSSION)

Content: This section contains the theoretical and practical reasons why the research is being conducted.It is where you justify why the study should be conducted at all.

Format: Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

CHAPTER II

METHOD

Content: Like the first chapter, the method chapter begins with an

overview of the design used for the study. The research design is the planor structure for conducting a study, whether it is experimental, quasi-experimental, correlational, case-study, exploratory, etc. It summarizes

the set of procedures that you will use to obtain the data to answer yourresearch problems (e.g., how participants were assigned to groups).


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Format: The overview has no heading. The entire chapter is written in past tense, unless in a proposal,where it is written in the future tense. Sections in this chapter follow one after the other, with no page

breaks in between.

Participants

Content: This section should include the number and relevant characteristics of the respondents, as well

as the sampling plan or design.

Format: Tables and/or figures may be used to simplify the presentation of the demographiccharacteristics of the participants.Begin this section with a heading(bold, centered, upper- andlowercase).

Setting (if applicable)

Content: This section is included only if the setting is of particular significance or importance; forexample, if a specific community or organization is being studied. Describe the relevant characteristics ofthe setting, especially if this has bearing on the research problem, method, and results.

Format: Begin this section with a heading(bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

Measures

Content: In this section, discuss the conceptual and operational definition (a description of how variables

will be measured or observed) of each variable. In an experiment, the measurement of the dependent

variables is described here. If using an instrument, include the source, number of items and type of scale,scoring, reliability, and validity of the instrument. If constructing your own instrument, include the details

of the steps/procedures you took to develop the scale.

Format: Begin this section with a heading(bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

Procedure

Pretest (or Pilot Phase)

Content: If applicable, this section contains everything about the pretesting process, including the

sample used, a description of the materials that were pretested, and the actual conduct of the pretestprocedures. Report the relevant results of your pretest and the resulting adjustments or modifications youmade, especially in terms of how these affect or determine the final sample, instruments, and procedures

that you employed in your study.

Actual Procedure

Content: This section contains the process used when conducting the actual study and includes the step-by-step recipe beginning with how the subjects were contacted all the way to how the data werecollected. In an experiment, this is where you describe how the independent variables were manipulated

and how the extraneous variables controlled. This section should also contain the ethical proceduresapplied in this study, for example, informed consent, debriefing procedures, etc.

Format: Begin this section with a heading(bold, centered, upper- and lowercase). Subsections withinthis section have headings that are italicized and flushed left. Depending on the complexity of the design


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and/or procedures, additional subsections may be used (e.g.,Apparatus and Materials;Manipulation ofthe IV; etc.)

Data Analysis(forproposal, include in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in RESULTS)

Content: This section describes the procedures on how the data are to be (or were) analyzed, be it

quantitative or qualitative data.

Format: In the proposal, begin this section with a heading(bold, centered, upper- and lowercase). In thefinal paper, this is integrated in the Results chapter and has no separate subsection.

Limitations of the Study(for proposal, in METHOD; for final paper, integrate in DISCUSSION)

Content: This section contains the theoretical and practical boundaries of the study. It includes theparameters of the topic, subjects and method used. In other words, it will tell the reader that it will bestudying this but not that, and in this way but not that way. It also includes the limitations as tothe kind of results the study will generate.

Format: This section is written in the present tense. Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered,

upper- and lowercase).

CHAPTER III

.

RESULTS

Content: Following the background and theoretical/conceptual framework provided in Chapter I, and theoperationalizations and procedures from Chapter II, you are now in a position to present the results of

your study in Chapter III. Here is where you present results that are relevant to the problems andhypotheses of your study, and the statistical treatments you used to analyze the data. Avoid tangential

analyses, even if significant (if necessary, place in a separate subsection on supplemental analyses).Always support your conclusions or claims with the relevant quantitative (statistics) or qualitative data.As a general rule for quantitative data, descriptive (e.g.,M, SD) and inferential statistics (e.g., t, F, r) arereported, including other relevant information for evaluating effects (e.g.,p, df). Reserve discussion ofimplications and explanations of the results in the Discussion section. See page 10 for other guidelines in

writing this chapter.

Format: Results may be organized according to research question and

hypothesis, or according to variable. Make judicious use of subsectionsand subheadings. Use tables and figures to clearly present results and

statistical data. APA guidelines must be strictly followed. Forformatting guidelines of tables and figures, refer to pages 147-201 of

the APA manual, 5thedition. APA conventions in reporting statistics

must also be followed (refer to pages 137-146 of the APA manual, 5 thedition). This section is generallywritten in the past tense except when referring to a table or figure within the text (for example, Table 1

shows that).


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CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

Content: This chapter is where results are interpreted, evaluated, andplaced in context. Interpret your findings: What do they mean? Discuss

why the proposed hypotheses (if any) were or were not supported. Placeyour findings in context by discussing how the results relate to previous

findings/research. What do they contribute to the research area?

Discuss the limitations of your study, and note internal and external validity issues in relation to the topic,design, participants, tools, and other problems encountered in the conduct of the research. This sectionmay be integrated in the general discussion or placed in a separate section (depending on the nature ofyour study). In the latter case, begin the section with a heading (i.e., Limitations), bold, centered, and in

upper- and lowercase.

Format: The entire discussion is written in the present tense. To enhance organization, use subheadings(refer to pages 111-115 of the APA Manual, 5

thedition, on the level of headings).

Implications

Content: What are the implications of your findings for theory, research, and application or practice?This section discusses the key ideas that the reader can draw from the study that may be applied to similarareas of concern. Comment on future directions in this area, including implications on how the work can

be extended or improved for both research and practice.

Format: Begin this section with a heading (bold, centered, upper- and lowercase).

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS (optional)

Content: This chapter summarizes your most important findings and the implications and conclusions

that can be derived from them in a concise manner. Note that it is not meant to be a repetition of yourDiscussion chapter. It contains the take-home message, so to speak, such that a reader would have an

essential grasp of what you did and what you found. Such a chapter is particularly important for lengthyand complex manuscripts.

Format: The chapter is written in past tense. Use subsections and subheadings as necessary for clarity

and organization.

REFERENCES .

Content: This section lists all references cited in the text. If an abstract ratherthan an actual journal/book is utilized, this should be cited as such. Electronic

references (e.g., Internet sources) must also be formally cited. For citation andformatting guidelines, refer to pages 215-281 of the APA Manual, 5thedition.

APA guidelines must be strictly followed.


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Format: The headingREFERENCES should be bold, all CAPS, and centered on top of the first page of

this section. References follow a hanging indent format. Single-space within entries, but double-space

between entries.

APPENDIX

Content: The appendixes section should include the instruments, and other special materials, tools, and

instructions that were used in the study. It may also contain information that may be too detailed for thetext but which some may want to refer to (e.g., complex scoring procedures; a different type of analysis).

No raw data are included here.

Format: Each appendix should be placed in its own separate page, and affixed with its own heading

(APPENDIX A; APPENDIX B, so on). Headings should be in boldface, uppercase, and centered on top

of each page.


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REVIEW OF LITERATURE CHECKLIST .

LOCATE RELEVANT LITERATURE

Identify key authors and journals

Use bibliographic reference sources

Use computerized literature searches

Obtain reprints and preprints

Look at literature from other disciplines

Scan tables of contents of key journals

Use reference lists from articles, chapters, and books

Use primary sources

Avoid the popular press

CRITICALLY READ THE LITERATURE

Identify conceptual and methodological themes

Identify strengths and weaknesses of individual articles

Identify strengths and weaknesses of field as a whole

Collect photocopies or notes

PREPARE TO WRITE

Make an outline of the sections and subsections of your review to ensure substantive and logicalbuild-up of arguments and ideas

Include page allocations

Limit the scope of your review; weed out conceptually irrelevant studies

Organize the papers and notes of the literature you will cover

WRITE THE REVIEW

Write the introduction, sections and subsections

Use transitions and integrative phrasing

Synthesize and critically analyze the literature

SET THE STAGE FOR YOUR FRAMEWORK, PROBLEMS, AND HYPOTHESES

BE CAREFUL NOT TO PLAGIARIZE!

Adapted from Cone, J.D. & Foster, S.L. (1999).Dissertations and theses from start to finish: Psychology

and related fields.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.


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RESULTS CHECKLIST .

PRESENT DATA RELEVANT TO PROBLEMS AND HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY

PRESENT RESULTS IN AN ORDERLY, LOGICAL WAY

Order and sequence the results

According to problem/hypothesis

Or according to variable

Support results, conclusions with the relevant statistical data

Name of statistic

Relevant details about the statistic

Statistical values for significant effects

Means

Standard deviations

Sample size

WORD RESULTS IN CLEAR AND STRAIGHTFORWARD MANNER

FOLLOW CONVENTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGY REGARDING PRESENTATION OFSTATISTICS

CREATE WELL-CRAFTED, CLEAR TABLES

PREPARE WELL-CRAFTED, CLEAR FIGURES

Adapted from Cone, J.D. & Foster, S.L. (1999).Dissertations and theses fromstart to finish: Psychology and related fields.Washington, DC: AmericanPsychological Association.


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DISCUSSION CHECKLIST .

SUMMARIZE YOUR FINDINGS

Avoid technical detail

Use clear language

INTERPRET YOUR FINDINGS

PLACE YOUR FINDINGS IN CONTEXT

Consider how your findings converge with, clarify, or contradict past findings

CONSIDER THE IMPLICATIONS OF YOUR FINDINGS

Theoretical implications

Research implications

Practical implications

INCLUDE A HUMILITY SUBSECTION

Consider internal validity issues

Consider external validity issues

Consider measurement issues

Consider statistical issues

INCLUDE COMMENTS ABOUT FUTURE DIRECTIONS

USE THESE TIPS:

Be a critical thinker

Avoid common problems

Select an appropriate organization

Source: Cone, J.D. & Foster, S.L. (1999).Dissertations and theses from startto finish: Psychology and related fields.Washington, DC: American PsychologicalAssociation.

These guidelines were prepared and approved by the

Faculty of the Department of Psychology

SY 2003-2004


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Roles and responsibilities regarding thesis or dissertation work

The Student

formally registers or enrolls for thesis/dissertation direction

initiates appointments with thesis adviser

conceptualizes the research problem and develops its theoretical groundwork

ensures that the manuscript conforms to the structure and format prescribed by the APA,Psychology Department, and Office of Graduate Services (OGS)

is responsible for meeting the Department and OGS deadlines for oral defenses andsubmitting the final and revised copies of the manuscript

The Adviser

makes herself or himself available for advising

provides guidance, direction, and support in the conceptualization, data-collection, analysis,and writing phases

makes the recommendation when the thesis is ready for oral defense

performs first-line editing and style reading

checks that the manuscript conforms to the structure and format prescribed by the APA,Psychology Department, and OGS

suggests members of defense panel and style reader

The Panel Members

reviews the manuscript submitted for oral defense

may provide feedback to the adviser if the manuscript (whether in substance or format) isdeemed not ready for a defense

asks questions pertaining to the thesis topic and the written report, provides constructivefeedback to the student, and evaluates the thesis/dissertation during the defense

may provide advice on specific matters (e.g., instruments; statistical analysis) prior to thedefense

The Style Reader

edits the manuscript according to APA, Psych Department, and OGS guidelines within 2weeks from receipt of the revised and adviser-approved manuscript

approves the final manuscript in terms of style and signs the style approval sheet(s)

serves as a member of the panel (if a faculty member)

The Department Chairperson

approves the final composition of the panel

approves the manuscripts readiness for defense in terms of general format (and notnecessarily substance)


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Guidelines on schedules and deadlines for thesis or dissertation work

General guidelines (please refer to OGS for more specific rules and special cases)

As of the first semester, school year 2003-2004, graduate students who pass their oral defense are given aperiod of ONE YEAR from the oral defense term to submit the final copies of the thesis to the Office ofGraduate Services (OGS) and the Department. (The final copies of the thesis refers to the final revisedcopies of the manuscript, signed approval pages, OGS thesis abstract, and binding fees.) Students must

register for residency and pay the basic registration fee for the semester that they intend to submit thefinal revised copies of the thesis.

Beyond this one-year period, the student will be charged with a Late Thesis/Dissertation Clearing Fee forevery semester that the manuscript is being processed by the Department. Note that the rule that allows amaximum period (from the oral defense term) of 3 years for the masters degree and 5 years for thedoctoral degree for the submission of the final manuscript will be strictly observed.

Note also that the student will be considered a graduate and conferred with the masters/ doctoral degreeONLY upon submission of the final thesis/dissertation. Likewise, the thesis title, letter grade, and credit

units will be indicated on the students transcript only upon submission of the final paper.

Department guidelines

For graduate students who intend to graduate within the same semester as the oral defense of theirthesis/dissertation:

The OGS sets a deadline, which is usually towards the end of the term, for submission of thefinal, revised, unbound copies of the manuscript to their office. This deadline must be met inorder to be considered for graduation in that semester. This deadline is specified in the LoyolaSchools Academic Schedule, and may also be obtained from OGS, Registrar, or Department

personnel.

GIVEN THIS, THE DEPARTMENT SETS A DEADLINE FOR STUDENTS TO CONDUCT

THEIR ORAL DEFENSE. THIS IS USUALLY ON THE SATURDAY 5 WEEKS BEFORETHE OGS DEADLINE FOR SUBMISSION OF THE FINAL COPIES. The deadline is

necessary to provide the student with sufficient time to complete all the culminating workinvolved in finalizing the thesis (i.e., content revisions, style checking, signing of approval sheets,etc.), meet the OGS deadline, and graduate within that semester.


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For graduate students who do NOT intend to graduate within the same semester as the oral defense of

their thesis/dissertation:

Graduate students who would like to defend their thesis/dissertation, but do not necessarily haveto graduate within the same term, have until the end of the semester to conduct their oral defense.AN ORAL DEFENSE MAY BE SCHEDULED (ASSUMING THE AVAILABILITY OF THE

PANEL) UNTIL THE SATURDAY OF THE LAST WEEK OF REGULAR CLASSES,BEFORE THE ONSET OF FINALS WEEK.

As provided by the OGS rules, the student has, henceforth, ONE YEAR to submit the final andrevised copies of the thesis/dissertation to the OGS and the Department.


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SAMPLE PAGES OF THE FRONT MATERIAL

NOTES:

1. Replace Dissertation with Thesis as necessary (refer to title page and approval sheets)

2. Replace Doctor of Philosophy with Master of Arts or Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor ofScience as necessary (refer to title page and approval sheets)

3. The title should be in inverted triangle form (refer to title page)

4. Note that the MA thesis panel has 3, not 4 members (refer to second approval sheet). In this

case, place the name of the adviser in the last or fourth line, and the Deans name, centered,on a separate line below the panel members and adviser.

5. The Appendixes follow right after the References, and is not placed in a separate page unlessthe remaining space below the References is insufficient (as is the case in this sample, refer

to page viii-ix)

6. The List of Tables and the List of Figures are placed in their own separate pages (refer topages x-xi)

7. Chapter I, page 1, immediately follows after the List of Figures


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GENDER AND SOCIAL STATUS DIFFERENCES IN PERCEIVED TRAITSAND GOVERNANCE-ABILITIES OF POLITICAL CANDIDATES

A Dissertation

Presented to

the Faculty of the Graduate School


In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

by

Maria Elizabeth Teresa J. Macapagal

2003

The dissertation entitled:


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GENDER AND SOCIAL STATUS DIFFERENCES IN PERCEIVED TRAITS

AND GOVERNANCE-ABILITIES OF POLITICAL CANDIDATES

submitted by Maria Elizabeth Teresa J. Macapagal, has been examined and is recommended

for Oral Defense.

______________________________________ __________________________________MA. EMMA CONCEPCION D. LIWAG, PhD CRISTINA J. MONTIEL, PhD

Chairperson Adviser


_____________________________JOSE M. CRUZ, SJ, PhD

DeanSchool of Social Sciences

Comprehensive Examinations Passed: 09 and 16 February 2002.


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The Faculty of the Graduate School of the Ateneo de Manila University accepts the

dissertation entitled:

GENDER AND SOCIAL STATUS DIFFERENCES IN PERCEIVED TRAITS

AND GOVERNANCE-ABILITIES OF POLITICAL CANDIDATES

submitted by Maria Elizabeth Teresa J. Macapagal, in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology, major in Social Psychology.

______________________________ _____________________________________

ALMA S. DE LA CRUZ, PhD ANNA MIREN GONZALEZ-INTAL, PhDMember Member

______________________________ ____________________________________

PATRICIA B. LICUANAN, PhD MA. ISABEL ECHANIS-MELGAR,

PhD

Member Member

_________________________________CRISTINA J. MONTIEL, PhD

Adviser

________________________________

JOSE M. CRUZ, SJ, PhDDean

School of Social Sciences

Grade: Excellent

Date: 11 February 2003


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iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I have so many people to thank who have helped me in this journey. I am grateful to my

adviser and mentor, Dr. Cristina Jayme Montiel for showing me the wonders of research. I

thank my practicum adviser, Dr. Anna Miren Gonzalez-Intal, for suggesting this interesting

topic and Dr. Patricia B. Licuanan for inspiring me to pursue my interest in gender. I also

thank my other panel members Dr. Alma de la Cruz, Dr. Allen Tan, and Dr. Isabel Melgar for

their valuable comments.

I am especially grateful to Kashmir Sheerin Castillo, my very reliable research assistant. I

also thank the following who helped me in distributing the survey forms: Aileen Castillo,

Raymond Cosare, Mayumi Damanico, Barbara David, Peter Emata, Francis Mercado,

Kenneth Nerecina, Jocelyn Nolasco, Mira Ofreneo, Regina Reyes, and Lizabeth Sanchez. I

also express my gratitude to all the respondents and interviewees.

I am indebted to the Ateneo Faculty Development Program and Peace Psychology Funds

for the financial support. I also thank all my coteachers, friends, and students at the

Psychology Department, especially Fr. Jaime Bulatao, SJ, Susan, Annette, and Elma for the

moral and emotional support. Special thanks go to Maam Alma and Nitz for helping me in

style reading.

I dedicate this dissertation to my loving husband, JC Mercado, my children, Angela and

Matthew, and my parents, Arthur and Mariter Macapagal. Thank you so much for believing in

me and inspiring me to reach great heights.


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v

ABSTRACT

The study investigated the influences of respondent-gender, respondent-social class,

politician-gender, and position of political candidate on perceived traits and governance-

abilities of political candidates. The survey used a 2 X 3 X 2 X 2 factorial design covering 536

respondents aged 18 to 35 years old. The 12 interviews provided a more in-depth approach to

the research questions. The respondents were asked to rate a hypothetical political candidate

who was either a male or female mayor, or male or female president using a Shah scale and a

Likert-type attitude scale. Research results show that the females and respondents from the

lower social classes showed a more favorable perception of politicians. The current study has

also shown that men and women political candidates are perceived as having different traits

and governance-abilities. The interviewees reported their preference for a male mayor but said

both male and females can be good presidents. Findings also show that females and E

respondents tend to view female politicians more positively whereas the males and ABC and

D respondents believed that it is the male politician who can do a better job. The implications

of the findings for construal research, voter education, consciousness-raising, and political

campaign strategies are discussed.


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vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 1

Statement of the Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Review of Related Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Gender Differences in Political Attitude and Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4Political information and interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Political participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Women in politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Gender socialization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Structural and situational factors in gender differences . . . . . . . . . . . 15Social Class Differences in Elections and Governance-AbilitiesRatings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Voters Evaluation of Political Candidates Traits and Governance-

Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Attitude Toward Women and Men Political Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Perceived traits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20Gender bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Perceived governance-abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Attitude Toward Politicians at Varied Positions of Office . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Social Role Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Identity Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Symbolic Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

II. METHOD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Interviews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34


22/29

Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .

vii

37

Shah Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Construction of the Shah scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Scoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Reliability and validity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 40

Semantic differential dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 40

Governance-Abilities Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Interview Schedule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43Pretest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Actual Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

III. RESULTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Survey Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Perceived Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Overall Perceived Traits of Politicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Respondents Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Social Status of Respondent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Gender of Politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50Position of Politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Gender of politician X gender of respondent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Gender of politician X SES of respondent X gender of respondent . 51

Summary of Results for Perceived Traits of Political Candidates . . . . . . 55Perceived Governance-Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Overall Perceived Governance- Abilities Scores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Gender of Respondent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

SES of Respondent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Gender of Politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Position of Politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Gender of politician and SES of respondent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61Respondents SES X position of politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Gender of politician X gender of respondent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

SES X politicians gender X position of politician . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Gender of politician X position X gender of respondent . . . . . . . . . 66

SES X politicians gender X position of politician X

respondents gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66


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Summary of Results for Governance-Abilities of PoliticalCandidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

67

In-Depth Interview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Respondent-Gender Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Respondent-Social Class Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Gender of Politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70

Male politicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 70

Female politicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Position of the Politician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Position and Gender of Politician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76Mayor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

President. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Summary of In-Depth Interview Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

IV. DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Perceived Character Traits of Political Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Perceived Governance-Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Respondent Gender Difference in Perceived Traits and Governance-

Abilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Social Class Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84Gender of Politician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Position of Political Candidate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Politicians Gender and Politicians Position Interaction Effect. . . . . . . 93

Respondents Gender and Politicians Gender Interaction Effect. . . . . . 96

Respondents Social Class and Politicians Gender Interaction Effect . 99Respondents Gender X Respondents SES X

Politicians Gender Interaction Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100Limitations of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108


24/29

APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

114

A. Number of Women Senators and Congresswomen From Commission on

Elections (COMELEC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

B. Number and Percentage of Women Candidates in Recent Elections

From Commission on Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

C. Number of Women in Elected Local Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

D. Occupations by Socioeconomic Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

E. Pretest Questionnaire of Shah Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

F. Questionnaire to Determine Semantic Differential Dimensionsof Shah Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

G. Final Shah Scale. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

H . Interview Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

I. Politicians Mentioned in Interview Corresponding to Character Traits . . . . 131

J. Politicians Mentioned in Interview Corresponding toGovernance-Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134


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x

LIST OF TABLES

Page

1. The Cells of the Factorial Experiment and Their Corresponding

Sample Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2. Traits in the Final Shah Scale With Their Corresponding Mean LikeabilityScores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

3. Traits of Shah Scale Categorized by Evaluation, Potency, and Activity . . . . 41

4. Frequency Table of Perceived Traits of Political Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

5. Analysis of Variance of Perceived Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6. Means of Perceived Traits of Gender of Politician, SES, and

Gender of Respondent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7. Means and Standard Deviation of Perceived Governance-Abilities of

Political Candidates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

8. Analysis of Variance of Perceived Governance-Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

9. Mean Scores of Perceived Governance-Abilities Based on SES of

Respondents Gender and Gender of Politician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

10. Significant Interaction Effects of Governance-Abilities.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64


26/29

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

1. Conceptual framework of the study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2. Male and female respondents perceived traits of male and

female politicians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

3. Female respondents from ABC, D, and E social classes and their

perceivedtraits of male and female politicians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4. Male respondents from ABC, D, and E social classes and their perceived

traits of male and female politicians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

5. Interaction effect of gender of politician and SES of respondent ongovernance-abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63


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THESIS/DISSERTATION PROCEDURE/REQUIREMENTS

Procedure Office Comments/ Requirements

Submission of Revised Thesis

Student does steps 1 to 8. All work for the degree must be completed

Beginning SY 2002-2003, only students who within 5 years from the date of the first

have completed all requirements for the degree registration for the degree.

may join the graduation ceremony.

1) Clears revised copy of thesis with the Thesis Department Student submits letter addressed to Dept.

Adviser , Style Reader, and Dept. Chairperson. Chairperson together with a copy of the revised

thesis. Upon approval by the Dept. Chairperson,

student pays the basic registration fee, and/or

Late Thesis/Dissertation Clearing Fee, dependingon when oral defense was passed.*

2) Clears revised copy of thesis with OGS Details:

OGS for format of front matter in general & Name of Student

details. Degree

Title of Thesis

Date of Oral Defense

Grade in the Oral Defense

Names of Thesis Adviser and

Panel Members

Details should be consistent w/ records.

3) Obtains thesis paper (optional) and copy of Registrar Thesis paper is P350 per ream of 500 sheets.

Thesis Abstract format. Note: Student must observe 1 inch margin onall sides.

4) Prints cleared thesis on thesis paper - 1 set Thesis paper is optional.

and prepares Thesis Abstract.

5) Makes 3 photocopies. Original + 3 photocopies = 4

Orig-Library, 2-Archives, 3-Department,

(If student wants additional copies, prepare 4-Registrar (This is student's copy after

written request to be endorsed by the Registrar has prepared certification.)

Chairperson. Submit this to OGS.)

6) Prints Approval Pages (3 to 4 copies each) Signatures must be complete before

and has these signed. submitting to OGS for binding.

a. Approval Sheet for Defense signed by Adviser,

Chairperson, & Dean.(4 copies)b. Approval Sheet for Acceptance of the

Thesis signed by the Adviser, Panel

Members, and Dean.(4 copies)

c. Approval Sheet for Style signed by the

Style Reader.(3 copies)


28/29

Procedure Office Comments/ Requirements

7) Submits the following to OGS: OGS Binding Fee as of July 2002 (using bookcloth)

a. Thesis (Orig & 3 photocopies) - about P1 per page per copy; min. charge is

b. Abstract (Orig. & 3 photocopies) P180 per copy.

c. Approval Pages (3 to 4 copies each; - add P10 per line per copy for titles exceeding

all original signed) 2 lines (inverted pyramid format)

d. Binding Fee Normal processing: 4 days to 1 week

e. Soft copy (as required by the department) Processing can take as long as 2 months or

more during peak periods e.g.March submission.

(Binding c/o Albert/Mang Badong Garcia)

8) Fills up information sheet for the graduation OGS To update contact information.

ceremony (for those who defended their thesis

from SY 2002-2003 onwards.)

9) OGS submits bound theses copies OGS

(CHED and/or Registrar, Library, Archives, Registrar

Department) Library

Archives

Department

For thesis submitted on or near the II Sem OGS (To be included in list of Candidates for

cut-off date for inclusion in the Graduation Registrar Graduation in the Programme, student must

Programme, OGS gives clearance to Registrar. submit revised thesis etc. about 2 weeks before

(Registrar submits list to VP-LS) the commencement date in March.)

10) Graduates who will need certification from Registrar One week for normal processing.

the Registrar do the following: Cashier No processing one week before and duringa. Go to Registrar's Office to get form. regular registration period. Students may

b. Fill up form and have this signed by get copies 3 weeks after regular registration

Registrar. period.

c. Clear with Accounting Office.

c. Pay P25 to Cashier.

11) Student applies for clearance and official Registrar One week for normal processing.

copies of transcript of records, certifcate of Cashier No processing one week before and during

graduation and/or diploma. Also regular registration period. Students may

obtains Student's bound copy of thesis. (for get copies 3 weeks after regular registration

those who defended their thesis after II Sem period.

SY 2001-2002) Transcript - P25/page

Note: 1) Amounts are subject to change without prior notice.

2) The Registrar's Office is located at the 2nd Floor, Bellarmine Hall.

3) The Office of Graduate Services, Accounting Office, and the Cashier are located at the

Ground Floor, Xavier Hall.

4) Departments/Programs may have other/additional requirements.


29/29

5) Student has to take note of the following guidelines on thesis submission:

Oral Defense Passed

Procedure afterwritten request for thesisclearing is approved by

Chairperson

Beginning I Sem

SY 2003-2004

I Sem SY 2002-2003

To Summer 2003

Before

SY 2002-2003

Within oral defense term No additional proceduresrequired

NA NA

Within 1 year after oraldefense term

During the registrationperiod, get registration form

and register for Submit200/Submit 400. Pay basicregistration fee.

No additional proceduresrequired

NA

After the one year periodbut not to exceed 3 yearsfor the masters and 5

years for the Ph.D.after theoral defense term

During the registrationperiod, student registers forSubmit 200/Submi t 400 and

pays basic registration andLate Thesis / DissertationClearing Fee per term that

the thesis is beingreviewed/processed by theDepartment.

Pay Late Thesis /Dissertation Clearing Feeper term that the thesis is

being reviewed/processedby the Department.

NA

NA NA All students wil l have to payLate Thesis / DissertationClearing Fee per term that

the thesis is beingreviewed/processed by theDepartment.

guidelines for writing theses and dissertations

Documents

writing theses

department guidelines

final paper

indiscussion5262018

new chapter

following general guidelines

scholarly writing expectations

list of tables