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Handbook of Compositesfrom Renewable Materials
Volume 3
Physico-Chemical and MechanicalCharacterization
Edited by
Vijay Kumar Thakur, Manju Kumari Thakurand Michael R. Kessler
/ScrivenerPublishing
Wiley
Contents
Preface xxi
1 Structural and Biodegradation Characterization of Supramolecular
PCL/HAp Nanocomposites for Application in Tissue Engineering 1
Parvin Shokrollahi, Fateme Shokrolahi and Parinaz Hassanzadeh
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 Hydroxyapatite: A Bioceramic of Renewable Resource 1
1.2 Biomedical Applications of HAp 2
1.3 Effect of HAp Particles on Biodegradation of PCL/HAp Composites 5
1.4 Polycaprolactone 6
1.5 Supramolecular Polymers and Supramolecular PCL 7
1.6 Supramolecular Composites: PCL (UPy)2/HApUPy Composites 8
1.6.1 Biodegradation Study of the PCL (UPy)2/HApUPy Composites 10
1.6.1.1 In Vitro Degradation Study 10
1.6.1.2 Water Uptake and Weight Loss 10
1.6.1.3 Chemical Properties 11
1.6.1.4 Thermal and Dynamic Mechanical Properties 11
1.7 PCL(UPy)2/HApUPy Nanocomposites 17
1.7.1 Biodegradation Study of PCL(UPy)2/HApUPy Nanocomposites 18
References 20
2 Different Characterization of Solid Biofillers-Based
Agricultural Waste Materials 25
Ahmad Mousa and GertHeinrich
2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Examples on Agricultural Waste Materials 26
2.2.1 Rice Husk 26
2.2.2 Olive Husk Powder 27
2.2.3 Cellulose 30
2.3 The Main Polymorphs of Cellulose 30
2.4 Modification Methods of Agro-Biomass 31
2.4.1 Physical Methods 31
2.4.1.1 Conventional Drying Methods 31
2.4.1.2 Microwave Heating 32
2.4.2 Chemical Methods 32
vii
viii Contents
2.4.3 Cross-linking ofthe Cellulose Macromolecules 33
2.4.3.1 Reaction with Formaldehyde 33
2.4.3.2 Acetylation 33
2.4.3.3 Polyisocyanates Coupling Agents 33
2.4.3.4 Silane Coupling Agents 34
2.5 Properties of Thermoplastics Reinforced with Untreated Wood Fillers 34
2.6 Production of Nanocellulose 34
2.6.1 Cellulose Whiskers 34
2.6.2 Microfibrillated Cellulose 35
2.6.3 Properties of Cellulose-Based Nanocomposites 36
2.6.3.1 Mechanical Properties 36
2.6.3.2 Thermal Properties 36
2.6.3.3 Barrier Properties 37
2.7 Processing ofWood Thermoplastic Composites 37
2.8 Conclusion 38
References 38
3 Poly (ethylene-terephthalate) Reinforced with Hemp Fibers:
Elaboration, Characterization, and Potential Applications 43
A.S. Fotso Talla, F. Erchiqui and J.S.Y. D Page3.1 General Introduction to Biocomposite Materials 43
3.2 PET-Hemp Fiber Composites 45
3.2.1 Potential 45
3.2.2 Challenges 47
3.3 Methods of Elaboration and Characterization of PET-HempFiber Composites 48
3.3.1 Elaboration 48
3.3.2 Melt Processing 49
3.3.3 Characterization 50
3.4 Properties of PET-Hemp Fiber Composites 50
3.4.1 Mechanical Properties 50
3.4.2 Thermostability 51
3.4.3 Structural Properties 53
3.4.4 Heat Capacities 54
3.4.5 Relaxation Properties 55
3.5 Applications of PET-Hemp Fiber Composites 57
3.5.1 Applications Requiring Small Deformations 57
3.5.2 Applications Requiring Large Deformations 57
3.5.2.1 The Constitutive Equations 58
3.5.2.2 The Free-forming Pressure Load 58
3.5.2.3 The Simulation Assumptions 59
3.5.2.4 The Numerical Free Inflation of PET-HempFibers Composite Discs 61
3.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 64
References 64
Contents ix
4 Poly(Lactic Acid) Thermoplastic Composites from Renewable Materials 69
Khosrow Khodabakhshi
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Poly(Lactic Acid) Production, Properties, and Processing 71
4.2.1 Lactide 71
4.2.2 PLA Polymerization 72
4.2.3 PLA Properties and Processing 73
4.3 Poly(Lactic Acid) Nanocomposites 74
4.3.1 General Modifications 74
4.3.2 Degradability 75
4.3.3 Melt Rheology 78
4.4 Poly(Lactic Acid) Natural Fibers-Reinforced Composites 79
4.4.1 PLA/Kenaf-Reinforced Composites 79
4.4.2 PLA/Flax-Reinforced Composites 82
4.4.3 PLA/Jute-Reinforced Composites 83
4.4.4 PLA/Hemp-Reinforced Composites 85
4.4.5 PLA/Sisal-Reinforced Composites 86
4.4.6 PLA/Wood Fiber-Reinforced Composites 88
4.4.7 Other Natural Fibers/PLA-Reinforced Composites 89
4.4.8 Recycling of Biocomposites 91
4.5 Conclusions 93
References 93
5 Chitosan-Based Composite Materials: Fabrication and Characterization 103
Nabil A. Ibrahim and Basma M. Eid
5.1 Introduction 103
5.2 Cs-Based Composite Materials 105
5.3 Cs-Based Nanocomposites 105
5.4 Characterization ofCs-Based Composites 130
5.5 Environmental Concerns 130
5.6 Future Prospects 130
References 133
6 The Use of Flax Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FFRP) Composites in the
Externally Reinforced Structures for Seismic Retrofitting Monitored byTransient Thermography and Optical Techniques 137
C. Ibarra-Castanedo, S. Sfarra, D. Paoletti, A. Bendada andX. Maldague6.1 Introduction 137
6.2 Experimental Setup 139
6.2.1 Experimental Specimen with Artificial Defects 139
6.2.2 Retrofitted Walls in the Faculty of Engineering,LXquila University 144
6.2.3 Internal Wall Inspected by Square Pulse Thermography 146
6.2.4 External Faculty Facade Solar LoadingThermography Inspection 148
x Contents
6.3 Conclusions 151
Acknowledgments 152
References 152
7 Recycling and Reuse ofFiber Reinforced Polymer Wastes in
Concrete Composite Materials 155
M.C.S. Ribeiro, A. Fiuza andA.J.M. Ferreira
7.1 Introduction 155
7.2 Recycling Processes for Thermoset FRP Wastes 158
7.2.1 Incineration and Co-incineration 158
7.2.2 Thermal/Chemical Recycling 159
7.2.2.1 Thermal Processes 159
7.2.2.2 Chemical Processes 160
7.2.3 Mechanical Recycling 161
7.3 End-Use Applications for Mechanically Recycled FRP Wastes 164
7.3.1 Concrete Materials Modified with FRP Recyclates 164
7.4 Market Outlook and Future Perspectives 166
Acknowledgment 167
References 167
8 Analysis of Damage in Hybrid Composites Subjected to Ballistic
Impacts: An Integrated Non-Destructive Approach 175
S. Sfarra, F. Lopez, F. Sarasini, J. Tirillb, L. Ferrante, S. Perilli,
C. Ibarra-Castanedo, D. Paoletti, L. Lampani, E. Barbero,
S. Sdnchez-Sdez and X. Maldague8.1 Introduction 176
8.2 Lay-up Sequences and Manufacturing of Composite Materials 178
8.3 Test Procedure 178
8.4 Numerical Simulation 180
8.4.1 Construction ofthe Models 183
8.4.1.1 The Intercalated Case 185
8.4.1.2 The Sandwich Case 187
8.4.2 First Step of the Numerical Simulations 188
8.4.2.1 Mesh 189
8.4.3 Second Step of the Numerical Simulations 190
8.5 Non-destructive Testing Methods and Related Techniques 191
8.5.1 Near-infrared Reflectography (NIRR) Method 191
8.5.2 Active Infrared Thermography (IRT) Method 192
8.5.2.1 Principal Component Thermography (PCT)
Technique 192
8.5.2.2 Partial Least-Square Thermography (PLST)
Technique 193
8.6 Results and Discussion 194
8.7 Conclusions 206
References 206
Contents xi
9 Biofiber-Reinforced Acrylated Epoxidized Soybean Oil (AESO)
Biocomposites 211
Nazire Deniz Ytlmaz, G.M. Arifuzzaman Khan and Kenan Ytlmaz
9.1 Introduction 211
9.2 Soybean Oil 213
9.2.1 Epoxidized Soybean Oil 215
9.2.2 Acrylated Epoxidized Soybean Oil 216
9.3 Functionalization of Soy Oil Triglyceride 216
9.3.1 Epoxidation 218
9.3.2 Acrylation 219
9.3.3 Green Chemistry in AESO Production 221
9.3.4 Properties ofAESO 221
9.3.5 Modification of AESO 221
9.3.6 Comonomers Used in Production of AESO Resins 224
9.4 Manufacturing of AESO-Based Composites 227
9.4.1 Components Used in Manufacturing of AESO-Based
Composites 228
9.4.1.1 Glass Fiber 228
9.4.1.2 Natural Fibers 228
9.4.2 Composite Production Methods 232
9.4.3 Properties of Composites 233
9.4.3.1 Vibration-Damping/lriermomechanical Properties 234
9.4.3.2 Mechanical Properties of the Composites 238
9.4.3.3 Flexural Properties 240
9.4.3.4 Impact Properties 242
9.4.3.5 Dielectric Properties 243
9.4.3.6 Thermal Expansion 244
9.4.3.7 Water Absorption of AESO Composites 245
9.4.3.8 Climate Resistance 246
9.4.3.9 AESO-Based Nanocomposites 247
9.5 Targeted Applications 247
9.6 Conclusion 247
Acknowledgments 248
References 248
10 Biopolyamides and High-Performance Natural
Fiber-Reinforced Biocomposites 253
Shaghayegh Armioun, Muhammad Pervaiz and Mohini Sain
10.1 Introduction 253
10.2 Polyamide Chemistry 256
10.2.1 Bio-based Polyamide 256
10.2.2 Properties of Polyamides 257
10.2.3 Chemical Synthesis of Intermediates from Castor Beans 258
10.2.3.1 Undecenoic Acid Pathway 259
10.2.3.2 Sebacic Acid Pathway 260
10.2.3.3 Decamethylene Diamine Pathway 260
xii Contents
10.3 Overview of Current Applications of Polyamides 261
10.4 Biopolyamide Reinforced with Natural Fibers 262
10.5 Conclusion 268
References 268
11 Impact of Recycling on the Mechanical and Thermo-Mechanical
Properties of Wood Fiber Based HDPE and PLA Composites 271
Dilpreet S. Bajwa and Sujal Bhattacharjee11.1 Introduction 271
11.2 Experiments 275
11.2.1 Materials 275
11.2.2 Material Processing 276
11.2.3 Experiment Design 277
11.2.4 Test Methods 277
11.2.4.1 Tensile Testing 277
11.2.4.2 Flexural Testing 278
11.2.4.3 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) 278
11.2.4.4 Heat Deflection Temperature (HDT) 278
11.2.4.5 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis 278
11.2.4.6 Izod Impact Test 278
11.2.4.7 Melt Flow Index (MFI) 279
11.2.4.8 Scanning Electron Microscopy 279
11.2.4.9 Fiber Length Measurement 279
11.3 Results and Discussion 279
11.3.1 Effect of CA on the Mechanical and
Thermo-Mechanical Properties 279
11.3.2 Effect of Recycling on the Tensile Strength,and Flexural Strength 280
11.3.3 Effect of Recycling on the HDT, Tensile Modulus,
Flexural Modulus and Storage Modulus 282
11.3.4 Effect of Recycling on the CTE and MFI 284
11.3.5 Effect of Recycling on the Impact Resistance of
Composites 285
11.3.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy 286
11.3.7 FTIR Analysis 287
11.4 Conclusion 289
References 289
12 Lignocellulosic Fibers Composites: An Overview 293
Grzegorz Kowaluk
12.1 Wood 293
12.2 Conventional Wood-Based Composites 296
12.3 Lignocellulosic Composites with Reduced Weight 299
12.4 Regenerated Cellulose Fibers 301
12.5 Composites with Natural Fibres 303
12.6 Sisal 303
12.7 Banana Fibers 304
Contents xiii
12.8 Lignin and Cellulose 305
12.9 Nanocellulose 306
References 306
13 Biodiesel-Derived Raw Glycerol to Value-Added Products:
Catalytic Conversion Approach 309
Samira Bagheri, Nurhidayatullaili Muhd Julkapli,
Wageeh Abdulhadi Yehya Dabdawb and Negar Mansouri
13.1 Introduction 309
13.2 Glycerol 313
13.2.1 Production of Glycerol 313
13.2.2 Applications of Glycerol 316
13.3 Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol to Value-added Products 316
13.3.1 Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol 318
13.3.2 Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerol 324
13.3.3 Catalytic Acetylation of Glycerol 328
13.3.4 Catalytic Esterification of Glycerol 330
13.3.5 Catalytic Reforming of Glycerol 333
13.3.6 Catalytic Reduction of Glycerol 337
13.3.7 Catalytic Etherification of Glycerol 339
13.3.8 Catalytic Ammoxidation of Glycerol 341
13.3.9 Catalytic Acetalization of Glycerol 342
13.3.10 Enzymatic Conversion of Glycerol 344
13.4 Conclusion 345
References 346
14 Thermo-Mechanical Characterization of Sustainable
Structural Composites 367
Marek Prajer and Martin P. Ansell
14.1 Introduction 367
14.2 Structure and Mechanical Properties of Botanical Fibers 368
14.2.1 Structure, Morphology and Composition ofNatural Fibers 369
14.2.1.1 Structure and Morphology 369
14.2.1.2 Chemical Constituents 370
14.2.2 Physico-Mechanical Properties 370
14.3 Sustainable Polymer Matrix 372
14.3.1 Thermoplastic Biopolymers 372
14.3.2 Synthesis, Morphology, Physical and Mechanical
Properties of Poly-L-lactide 373
14.3.2.1 Synthesis 373
14.3.2.2 Morphology 374
14.3.2.3 Physical and Mechanical Properties 375
14.3.3 Biodegradation and Environmental Impact 376
14.4 Interface in Natural Fiber-Sustainable Polymer Microcomposites 377
14.4.1 Enhancement of Natural Fiber Adhesion to Polymer Matrix 377
14.4.1.1 General Considerations and Fiber Treatment 377
xiv Contents
14.4.1.2 Mimicking Supramolecular Cell Wall Structures
with Advanced Polymerization Methods 378
14.4.2 Matrix Morphology Development in the Presence of
Long-Fiber Reinforcement 379
14.5 Natural Fibers as a Reinforcement in Unidirectional and
Laminar Composites 381
14.5.1 Theory of Fiber Reinforcement 382
14.5.2 Manufacturing High-Fiber-Volume Fraction Composites 383
14.6 Sustainable Structural Composites 384
14.6.1 Selection of a Low Microfibril Angle Natural Fiber and
a Sustainable Polymer Matrix 386
14.6.1.1 Fiber Selection 386
14.6.1.2 Polymer Matrix Selection 386
14.6.2 Enhancing Mechanical Strength of Fibers with
Chemical Treatment 387
14.6.2.1 Modeling Statistical Variation of Single Fiber
Bundle Failure 387
14.6.2.2 Effect of Caustic Soda Treatment on Sisal Fiber
Bundle Tensile Strength 390
14.6.3 Adhesion Optimization and Polymer MorphologyDevelopment at Fiber-to-Matrix Interface 393
14.6.3.1 Observation ofCrystalline Morphology at
Fiber-to-Matrix Interface 393
14.6.3.2 Microbond Pullout Shear Test 397
14.6.4 Processing and Thermo-Mechanical Characterization
of Unidirectional Long-fiber-bundle Composites 398
14.6.4.1 Compression Molding of Long-fiber-bundleThermoplastic Composites 398
14.6.4.2 Mechanical Properties of Long-fiber-bundleComposites 398
14.6.4.3 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis of
Long-fiber-bundle Composites 400
14.7 Discussion and Conclusions 401
Acknowledgment 402
References 402
15 Novel pH Sensitive Composite Hydrogel Based on Functionalized
Starch/clay for the Controlled Release of Amoxicillin 409
T.S. Anirudhan, J. Parvathy and Anoop S. Nair
15.1 Introduction 409
15.2 Experimental 412
15.2.1 Materials 412
15.2.2 Preparation of Composites of Cross-linked CarboxymethylStarch and Montmorillonite (CL-CMS/MMT) 412
15.2.2.1 Preparation of Carboxymethyl Starch (CMS) 412
15.2.2.2 Preparation of Cross-linked CarboxymethylStarch (CL-CMS) 413
Contents xv
15.2.2.3 Preparation of Sodium Montmorillonite
(Na-MMT) 413
15.2.2.4 Preparation of Cross-linked CMS/MMT
Hydrogel (CL-CMS/MMT) 413
15.2.3 Characterization ofthe Drug Carrier 413
15.2.4 Physio-Chemical Evaluation of CL-CMS 414
15.2.5 Drug Encapsulation Experiments 414
15.2.6 Swelling Studies 415
15.2.7 In Vitro Drug Release 415
15.2.8 Antimicrobial Activity 415
15.3 Results and Discussion 416
15.3.1 Characterization of CL-CMS/MMT Hydrogel 416
15.3.2 Physico-Chemical Evaluation of Cross-linked
Carboxymethyl Starch (CL-CMS) 417
15.3.3 Effect of MMT Content on the Swelling Ratios
of CL-CMS/MMT Composites 418
15.3.4 Swelling Studies 419
15.3.5 In Vitro Release Studies 419
15.3.6 Release Mechanism Studies 420
15.3.7 Antibacterial Studies 421
15.4 Conclusions 421
Acknowledgments 422
References 422
16 Preparation and Characterization of Biobased Thermoset Polymersfrom Renewable Resources and Their Use in Composites 425
Sunil Kumar Ramamoorthy, Dan Akesson, Mikael Skrifvarsand Behnaz Baghaei16.1 Introduction 425
16.2 Characterization 427
16.2.1 Physicochemical Characterization 427
16.2.1.1 Chemical Composition 427
16.2.1.2 Density and Morphology 430
16.2.1.3 Viscosity 431
16.2.1.4 Molecular Weight 433
16.2.1.5 Melting Temperature 433
16.2.1.6 Crystallinity and Morphology 434
16.2.1.7 Wettability and Surface Tension 436
16.2.1.8 Water Binding Capacity and Swelling 437
16.2.1.9 Thermal Conductivity 438
16.2.1.10 Thermal Stability 439
16.2.1.11 Flammability 441
16.2.2 Mechanical Characterization 442
16.2.2.1 Tensile Properties 442
16.2.2.2 Flexural Properties 444
16.2.2.3 Impact Properties 444
16.2.2.4 Compressive Properties 447
xvi Contents
16.2.2.5 Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis 448
16.2.2.6 Toughness and Hardness 449
16.2.2.7 Creep and Fatigue 450
16.2.2.8 Brittleness and Ductility 451
References 452
17 Influence ofNatural Fillers Size and Shape into Mechanical and
Barrier Properties of Biocomposites 459
Marcos Mariano, Clarice Fedosse Zornio, Farayde Matta Fakhouri
and Silvia Maria Martelli
17.1 Introduction 459
17.2 Mechanical Properties of Biobased Composites 464
17.2.1 Relevant Parameters in Fillers Reinforcement 466
17.2.2 Stress Transfer and Percolation Mechanisms 467
17.2.3 Common Fillers Coming from Natural Sources 470
17.2.3.1 Microfillers 470
17.2.3.2 Nanofillers 471
17.2.4 Shape and Size of Natural Fillers 472
17.2.5 Impact of Fillers Size and Volume Fraction 475
17.2.5.1 Filler Size 475
17.2.5.2 Filler Amount 477
17.2.6 Processing 478
17.2.6.1 Casting Evaporation 478
17.2.6.2 Hot Processing 479
References 480
18 Composite of Biodegradable Polymer Blends ofPCL/PLLA and
Coconut Fiber: The Effects of Ionizing Radiation 489
Yasko Kodama
18.1 Introduction 489
18.2 Material and Method 494
18.2.1 Coconut Fiber 494
18.2.2 Preparation of Blend Sheets 495
18.2.3 Preparation of Composite Pellets and Sheets 496
18.2.4 Radiation Processing 496
18.2.4.1 Electron Beam Irradiation 496
18.2.4.2 Gamma Irradiation 498
18.2.5 Samples Characterization 498
18.2.5.1 Mechanical Test 498
18.2.5.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 498
18.2.5.3 Force Modulation Microscopy 499
18.2.6 Biodegradability 500
18.2.6.1 Enzymatic Degradation 500
18.2.6.2 Biodegradability in Compost Soil 500
18.2.7 Cytotoxicity Test 500
18.2.7.1 Cell Culture 500
18.2.7.2 Extract Preparation 500
Contents xvii
18.2.8 Bioburden Test 501
18.2.9 Sterility Test 502
18.3 Results and Discussion 502
18.3.1 Mechanical Properties 502
18.3.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy 504
18.3.3 Atomic Force Microscopy and Force Modulation Microscopy 508
18.3.4 Cytoxicity 511
18.3.5 Bioburden 512
18.3.6 Sterility Test 515
18.3.7 Enzymatic Degradation 516
18.3.8 Biodegradation in Simulated Compost Soil 518
18.4 Conclusion 519
Acknowledgments 520
References 521
19 Packaging Composite Materials from Renewable Resources 525
Behjat Tajeddin19.1 Introduction 525
19.2 Sustainable Packaging 527
19.3 Packaging Materials/Composites 531
19.4 Biomass Packaging Materials/Biobased Polymers 532
19.4.1 Cellulose/Cellulose Derives/Cellulose Blends 532
19.4.2 Chitosan/Chitosan Derives/Chitosan Blends 533
19.4.3 Gelatin/Gelatin Derives/Gelatin Blends 535
19.4.4 Starch/Starch Derives/Starch Blends 535
19.4.5 Fruit Purees 537
19.5 Vegetable Oils/Essential Oils 538
19.6 Aliphatic Polyesters 538
19.6.1 Polylactide Acids (PLAs)/PLA Blends 539
19.6.2 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates)/PHAs Blends 541
19.6.3 Polycaprolactone 542
19.6.4 Polyesteramide 542
19.6.5 Polyurethane/PU Blends 542
19.7 Synthetic/Natural Polymers Reinforcement with Any Other
Renewable Resources/Vegetables Fibers Blends 544
19.8 Edible Packaging Materials (Composites) 545
19.9 Processing Methods or Tools for BiopackagingComposites Productions 546
19.9.1 Hot Press Molding and Foaming: Melt-processed Blends 546
19.9.2 Casting Method 546
19.9.3 Aqueous Blends 547
19.9.4 Extrusion 547
19.9.5 Injection Molding 547
19.9.6 Co-extrusion 548
19.9.7 Ultrasonic 548
xviii Contents
19.10 Nanopackaging (Bionanocomposites) 549
19.11 Preparation Methods for Packaging Nanocomposites 550
19.12 Edible Nanocomposite-based Material 552
19.13 Summary/Conclusion 552
Abbreviations 553
References 554
20 Physicochemical Properties of Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete 563
M. Shanmuga Sundaram and S. Karthiyaini20.1 Precursor of Geopolymerization 563
20.2 Back Ground of Precursor 564
20.3 Present Scenario of Geopolymer 564
20.4 Geopolymer Concrete 565
20.5 Constituents of Geopolymers 566
20.6 Evolution of Geopolymer 566
20.7 Works on Geopolymer Concrete 567
20.7.1 Fresh and Hardened Concrete 567
20.7.2 Durability of Geopolymer Concrete 568
20.7.2.1 Acid Attack 568
20.7.2.2 Sulfate Attack 568
20.7.2.3 Water Absorption 569
20.7.3 Bond Strength of Geopolymer Concrete 570
20.7.4 Thermal Properties of Geopolymer Concrete 571
20.7.5 Compressive Strength Test on Geopolymer Mortar Cubes 572
20.7.5.1 Mortar Cube 572
20.7.5.2 The Compressive Strength of GeopolymerConcrete Cubes 572
20.7.6 Split Tensile Strength 572
20.7.7 Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Columns 573
20.8 Economic Benefits of Geopolymer Concrete 574
20.9 Authors Study 574
20.10 Conclusion 577
References 578
21 A Biopolymer Derived from Castor Oil Polyurethane: Experimental
and Numerical Analyses 581
R.R.C. da Costa, A.C. Vieira, R.M. Guedes and V. Tita
21.1 Introduction 581
21.1.1 Polymer Mechanical Behavior: Experiments and
Constitutive Models 583
21.2 Experimental Analyses 586
21.2.1 Materials and Manufacturing Process 586
21.2.2 Mechanical Test Methods 586
21.3 Constitutive Models 590
21.4 Results 591
21.4.1 Experimental Tensile Tests Results 591
21.4.2 Experimental Compression Tests Results 592
Contents xix
21.4.3 Experimental Bending Tests Results 595
21.4.4 Experimental DMTA Results 597
21.4.5 Constitutive Models Results 598
21.5 Conclusions 602
Acknowledgment 604
References 604
22 Natural Polymer-Based Biomaterials and its Properties 607
Md. Saiful Islam, Irmawati Binti Ramli, S.N. Kamilah,Aztnan Hassan, M.K. Mohamad Haafiz and Abu Saleh Ahmed
22.1 Introduction 608
22.2 Modifications of PLA 612
22.3 PLA Applications 612
22.4 Characterization by FT-IR 614
22.5 Characterization by Optical Microscopy 615
22.6 Characterization by Electron Microscopy 616
22.7 Characterization by Mechanical Testing 618
22.8 Characterization of GPC 624
22.9 Characterization of Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis 625
References 626
23 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Polymer Membranes from
Renewable Resources 631
Anika Zafiah Mohd Rus
23.1 Introduction 631
23.2 Membranes Classifications 633
23.2.1 Typical Membrane Technique Preparation 633
23.2.1.1 Particulate Leaching/Solvent Casting 634
23.2.1.2 Gas Foaming 634
23.2.1.3 Freeze Drying 634
23.2.1.4 Electrospinning 634
23.2.1.5 Phase Inversion 635
23.2.2 Membrane Modification 635
23.2.2.1 Blending 636
23.2.2.2 Curing 636
23.2.2.3 Grafting 637
23.3 Overview of Fabrication Method of Polymer Membranesfrom Renewable Resources 637
23.3.1 BP/PEG (Blends)—1 Ply Fabrication 637
23.3.1.1 Renewable Polymer (BP) Preparation 637
23.3.1.2 Poly(ethylene glycol) Preparation 637
23.3.1.3 BP/PEG (Curing): 2 Plies Fabrication 637
23.3.1.4 BP/PEG (grafting)--1 Ply Fabrication 638
23.3.1.5 BP/DMF Fabrication 638
xx Contents
23.4 Chemical Reaction of Renewable Polymer (BP) 640
23.4.1 Functional Group Determination by Means of
Infrared Spectroscopic (FTIR) for BP, PEG, and
BP/PEG (Blends)—1 Ply, BP/PEG (curing)—2 Plies,and BP/PEG (grafting)—1 Ply 642
23.4.1.1 BP/PEG (Blends)—1 Ply 643
23.4.1.2 BP/PEG (Curing)—2 Plies 643
23.4.1.3 BP/PEG (Grafting)-l Ply 644
23.4.2 BP/DMF 644
23.5 Morphological Changes of Polymer Membrane by ScanningElectron Microscope 645
23.6 Water Permeability 648
23.7 Conclusions 649
References 650
Index 653