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Handbook of Mul-level Finance Eh-sham Ahmad and Giorgio Brosio (editors) World Bank Launch, May 4, 2015 CENTRO STUDI SUL FEDERALISMO

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Page 1: Handbook of Multilevel Finance - LSE Home · Handbook(of(Mul-level(Finance(Eh-sham(Ahmad(and(Giorgio(Brosio((editors)(World(Bank(Launch,(May(4,(2015((((CENTRO’STUDI’SUL’FEDERALISMO

Handbook  of  Mul-level  Finance  Eh-sham  Ahmad  and  Giorgio  Brosio  

(editors)  World  Bank  Launch,  May  4,  2015    

   

CENTRO  STUDI  SUL  FEDERALISMO  

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Why  did  we  start  this  volume  in  2010?  •  Only  four  years  aKer  the  launch  of  the  (successful)  Handbook  of  Fiscal  Federalism  –  Not  meant  to  be  an  update—although  there  is  an  element  of  this  in  key  areas,  given  the  large  volume  of  literature  

–  But  to  focus  on  what  the  new  insights  imply  for  policy  •  ODen  pracEce  and  circumstance  precede  development  in  theory,  but  this  new  theory  is  useful  –   in  addressing  a  range  of  issues,  including  climate  change,  natural  disaster,  and  preven-ng  conflict  

•  The  focus  of  the  volume  is  mainly  on  how  the  theory  can  be  applied  to  burning  policy  quesEons  of  our  Eme  –   although  it  starts  with  the  updates  to  method  in  key  areas  since  the  last  Handbook  

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Some  acknowledgements  •  Tribute  to  Ter-­‐Minassian  over  the  past  25  years  

–  When  Ahmad  came  to  IMF  in  March  1990,  aKer  comple-ng  an  assignment  for  “WDR  1990    Poverty;”  prevailing  FAD  view  was  that  intergovernmental  issues  were  either  poliEcal  or  structural,  hence  not  relevant  for  the  IMF  

–  But  Ter-­‐Minassian  saw  the  importance  of  the  issues  for  macroeconomic  stability,  and  encouraged  the  work.  

–  In  retrospect,  both  views  were  correct—it  is  both  poliEcal  and  structural  and  that  macroeconomics  depends  on  both  strands.  

–  The  interacEons  between  macro  policy,  governance  and  insEtuEons  are  important  and  maMer  to  FAD  and  the  IMF  as  well  as  the  Bank—clearly  reflected  in  her  chapter  in  this  volume.  

•  Also  grateful  to  Vito  Tanzi,  who  accepted  and  even  encouraged  debate  on  issues  he  did  not  necessarily  agree  with  

•  Within  a  week  of  joining  FAD,  Ahmad  was  on  his  way  to  China—and  had  the  privilege  to  debate  issues  with  Lou  Jiwei  and  the  MOF,  leading  to  the  design  of  the  1993  reforms  (to  which  the  Bank  also  contributed).  –  Policy  prescrip-ons  available  from  theory  at  the  -me  were  inadequate;  –  Chinese  1994/4  reforms  were  carried  out  in  advance  of  the  theore-cal  

developments  over  the  past  decade.    

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The  Volume:  Analy-c  Advances  •  Approaches  and  

Interpreta/ons  –  Lockwood  (Poli-cal  economy)  –  Breton  (Posi-ve  theory  of  

federalism  and  poli-cal  decentraliza-on)  

–  Salmon  (horizontal  compe--on)  

–  Revelli  (Geografiscal  federalism)  

–  Congelton  (Asymmetric  federalism)  

–  Spahn  (Contract  Federalism)  

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Key  policy  issues  of  relevance  to  countries  and  mul-lateral  agencies  

•  Policies  Instruments  and  Ins/tu/ons  –  Who  does  what?    (Dafflon)  –  Governance  and  InsEtuEons  

(Ahmad)  –  Revenue  assignments  

(Ambrosanio  and  Bordignon)  –  Tax  CompeEEon  (Wilson)  –  Below  the  salt:  VAT  (Bird)  –  Financing  Urban  Areas  (Bahl  and  

Linn)  –  Local  and  Regional  Taxes  

(Mar-néz-­‐Vazquez)  –  PoliEcal  economy  of  Property  

Taxes  (Ahmad,  Brosio,  Pöschl)  –  Transfer  Design  (Boadway)  –  Macro  Sustainability  (Ter-­‐

Minassian)    

•  Emerging  Challenges  –  Capture  and  Clientelism  (Bardhan  

and  Mookherjee)  –  Poverty  reducEon  (Birner  and  von  

Braun)  –  Sharing  Natural  Resouces  (Brosio)  –  Environment  and  Climate  Change  

(Dalmazzone)  –  Natural  Disasters  (Goodspeed)  –  Conflict  prevenEon  (Dower  and  

Weber)  –  Measurement  issues  (Blöchliger)  

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Norma-ve  approaches  •  NormaEve  approaches,  post  WWII  

–  Largely  prescrip-ve  •  Influenced  by  US  experience  

–  Typically,  instrument  by  instrument  approach  (educa-on  in  isola-on;  or  property  taxes)    

•  Assignments,  financing  arrangements  –  Primary  and  secondary  educa-on  to  municipal  level,  func-on  of  local  

preferences  –  Central  government  addresses  spill-­‐overs  through  earmarked  grants  –  However,  neither  may  be  warranted  

•  center  may  be  able  to  provide  educa-on  in  line  with  local  preferences;  and    •  may  not  be  able  to  persuade  local  governments  to  internalize  spillovers  

•  Many  of  the  US  precondiEons  do  not  apply  everywhere:  sub-­‐na-onal  own-­‐source  revenues  and  hard  budget  constraints    

•  RecogniEon  of  externaliEes:  centraliza-on  of  educa-on  in  Mexico,  Chile…  

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Focus  on  incen-ves  and    evolu-on  of  ins-tu-ons  

•  Increasing  focus  of  literature  since  2006:  –  Why  and  how  policies  are  designed  and  implemented?  –  Importance  of  ins-tu-ons  and  incen-ves  –  Reviews  of  recent  developments  to  literature  and  original  contribu-ons  

(Lockwood,  Revelli,  Breton,  Salmon,  Bardhan  and  Mookherjee)  •  YardsEck  compeEEon  to  ensure  effecEve  outcomes  •  FacEons,  “capture”  or  “clientelism”  (Bardhan  and  Mookherjee—plus  

work  in  Bank)  •  Echoes  of  old  debates  (e.g.,  Federalist  papers)  •  Extensions  to  the  reality  of  modern  day  emerging  market  countries  •  Modern  day  “chea-ng”  or  informality  (analy-c  and  empirical  work  in  Mexico,  supported  

by  Bank,  as  background  to  2013  reforms)  •  Asymmetric  arrangements  (Congleton)  and  contracts  (Spahn)  updates  

from  2006  –  Require  more  advanced  PFM  underpinnings—recogni-on  and  monitoring  of  

liabili-es  and  outcomes  (Ahmad)  

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Cri-cal  alignment  of  incen-ves  with  ins-tu-ons  

•  What  works?  –  Generally,  combina-on  of  well-­‐designed  instruments  relevant  to  context  –  Incen-ves  mamer  (firms,  households,  modelling  interac-ons  between  

governments  at  different  levels)  •  Both  insEtuEons  and  policies  may  differ  according  to  context  

–  New  areas  of  research:  informality  and  chea-ng  with  “vested  interest”  –  “administra-ve  progression”  in  cases  where  elec-ons  may  not  provide  

adequate  “discipline”  –  Interac-ons  within  classes  of  instruments  (tax  on  tax)  and  across  instruments  

(taxes  and  transfers,  or  taxes  and  social  policy)  cri-cal  in  virtually  every  context  

–  Increasing  emphasis  on  the  “number  of  -ers”  in  achieving  accountability  •  Important  implicaEons  for  InternaEonal  Agencies  

–  Coordina-on  across  Divisions  in  FAD,  or  interac-ons  across  Bank  “Global  Prac-ces”  

–  Both  in  terms  of  assessments  and  relevant  policy  advice  

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TAXES,  TRANSFERS,  INSTITUTIONS  AND  MACRO  STABILITY  

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Heavy  focus  on  tax  design  •  Ambrosanio  and  Bordignon:  update  of  cri-cal  paper  from  2006  

Handbook:  –  Importance  of  “own-­‐source  revenues”  at  every  level  for  accountability  –  But  incen-ves  could  be  offset  by  poorly  designed  transfers  

•  Wilson:  focusing  on  ver-cal  tax  compe--on  –  Role  of  the  central  government  in  addressing  inefficiencies  in  horizontal  tax  

compe--on  –  Transfers  become  important,  in  ensuring  efficiency  as  well  as  spa-al  equity  

•  MarEnéz-­‐Vazquez:  typology  of  mul-level  tax  assignments,  and  administra-on  constraints  

•  Ahmad:  not  necessary  to  replicate  complex  tax  administra-ons  at  lower  levels  for  accountability:  seqng  of  rates  is  cri-cal  –  Proximity  to  taxpayers  (cadaster  or  valua-on—land  records)  could  encourage  

“rent  seeking”)  –  Bank  work  on  electronic  land  records  and  cadaster  at  the  na-onal  or  regional  

level,  possibly  with  satellite  imaging,  a  very  important  contribu-on  in  increasing  number  of  countries.  

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Special  tax  issues:  •  Bird:  Should  countries  split  VAT  bases?  

–  Co-­‐occupancy  can  work,  with  difficulty  (Canada)  –  Bemer  not  to  complicate  VAT  –  Problems  with  Bri-sh  Commonwealth  assignments:  South  Asia,  

Canada,  Australia  •  Clean  solu-on  in  Australia,  involving  poli-cal  economy  compromise  with  

equaliza-on  transfers    •  Significant  reforms  under  discussion  in  India  

•  Ahmad,  Brosio,  Pöschl:  Why  do  local  property  taxes  perform  badly  in  developing  countries?  –  Very  visible,  and  with  weak  ins-tu-ons  and  central  transfers,  so  no  

incen-ves  to  levy  –  Solu-on:  based  on  J.S.Mill/Marshall—linkage  between  local  benefits  

(services)  and  financing;  also  addresses  “capitaliza-on”  of  local  investments  

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Poli-cal  economy  of  who  does  what?  

•  Dafflon  provides  a  useful  categoriza-on  of  responsibili-es  –  But  both  func-onal  and  economic  categories  are  involved—cf.  GFSM2001/2014,  including  full  recogni-on  of  liabili-es  (Ahmad)  

•  Important  to  focus  on  consistent  informa-on  together  with  clarity  of  spending  –  Pointless  to  devolve  educa-on  to  lower  -ers  if  they  do  not  have  own-­‐sources  of  revenues  or  standardized  repor-ng  •  Current  wave  of  centralizing  educa-on  in  La-n  America  aKer  two  decades  of  trying  to  copy  the  US  model  

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Transfer  design  and  implementa-on  

•  Boadway:  masterly  review  of  issues  and  associated  literature  –   important  tradeoff  between  horizontal  equity,  and  interpersonal  welfare  maximiza-on  h  

–  How  to  handle  migra-on  and  informality?  –  The  role  of  minimum  standards—whose?  And  how  to  finance  them?  SPPs  or  equaliza-on?  

–  Design  of  transfers  and  managing  risks,  hard  budget  constraints?  

•  Ahmad:  Implementa-on  issues  –  Ins-tu-onal  arrangements  (Grants  Commissions  or  MOFs)  –  Linkages  with  PFM  frameworks—monitoring  of  SPPs  –  Buildup  of  risks  and  liabili-es  

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Governance  and  ins-tu-ons  •  Ahmad:  Standardized  informaEon  is  criEcal  for  both  

–   yards-ck  compe--on,    and  –  also  administra-ve  (“Confucian”)  models  (volume  forthcoming)  –  Key  element  in  “incen-ve”  structures  

•  But  fiscal  organizaEonal  structures  may  look  and  operate  differently  in  various  countries  (building  on  North’s  characteriza-on  of  ins-tu-ons)  –  On  revenue  side:  integra-on  of  informa-on  and  administra-on  rather  

than  segmented  administra-ons  may  be  needed  with  chea-ng  (Mexico  2013)  

–  On  spending  side:  disincen-ves  to  recognize  liabili-es  •  PPPs—kicking  the  can  down  the  road,  including  in  EU?  •  Lack  of  TSA  facilitates  “bargains”,  “clientelism”  and  “game  play”  

•  IFIs  have  major  role  to  play  in  helping  design  appropriate  insEtuEons  and  governance  frameworks  

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Macro-­‐sustainability  •  Responsibility  for  spending,  own-­‐taxes,  transfers  and  informa-on  genera-on/PFM  come  together    –  Interac-ons  are  cri-cal  

•  Ter-­‐Minassian  (see  separate  presenta-on):  –  Importance  of  fiscal  rules  at  the  sub-­‐na-onal  level  –  But  also  precondiEons  for  access  to  credit    

•  Especially  own-­‐source  revenues  and  •  Full  informa-on  on  the  build-­‐up  of  liabili-es  (PFM  underpinnings)  

•  Cri-cal  importance  in  mul-level  (China,  Indonesia)  and  Federal  Countries  (Mexico  and  UAE)  –  Also  in  Currency  Unions  (volume  forthcoming  on  the  Crisis  in  the  EU  and  Mul-level  Finance)  

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“GEOGRAFISCAL”  ISSUES,  URBAN  “HUBS”  AND  SUSTAINABLE  GROWTH  

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“Geografiscal”  issues  •  Revelli:  Spa-al  issues  are  increasingly  to  the  fore  in  the  literature.    –  Both  ver-cal  and  horizontal  compe--on  and  demonstra-on  effects,  complementari-es  and  spillovers.  

–  Provides  a  challenge  for  econometricians.  •  Exci/ng  area  for  new  research  linked  to  sustainable  development  agenda:  – Applica-ons  to  establishment  of  “sustainable  new  hubs”  

–  Empirical  work  on  “convergence”,  e.g.,  in  China  (volume  forthcoming),  UK  and  Chile  (on-­‐going  project)  

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Metropolitan  and  urban  “hubs”  •  Bahl  and  Linn:  

–  Key  issues  in  efficient  management  of  large  metropolitan  areas  –  Mul-level  ques-ons:  organiza-onal  arrangements,  responsibili-es  and  

financing  are  cri-cal  •  But  there  are  constraints  in  expansion  of  “mega  ci-es”  

–  conges-on  and  pollu-on  costs,  and    –  middle  income  traps    

•  Links  back  to  the  “geografiscal”  agenda  above  for  sustainable  “hubs”  and  genera-on  of  employment    –  No  private  investment  unless  cost  differen-als  are  addressed  and  local  

public  services  are  provided  efficiently  –  More  than  just  physical  investments  

•  More  than  building  empty  castles  in  the  desert;  or  connec-vity  from  nowhere  to  anywhere  

–  Mul-level  governance  and  ins-tu-ons  are  cri-cal—and  all  building  blocks  come  together??  

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POVERTY  REDUCTION  

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Capture,  clientelism  and  sustained  poverty  reduc-on  

•  Bardhan  and  Mookherjee:  add  the  cri-cal  concept  of  “clientelism”  to  the  idea  of  “capture”  from  the  2006  Handbook  –  May  well  be  targeted  perfectly  to  the  poor—e.g.,  with  condi-onal  

cash  transfers,    –  but  this  may  be  driven  by  “buying  votes”  rather  than  long-­‐term  

development  needs  •  e.g.,  BISP  

•  Does  decentraliza-on  impact  posi-vely  on  the  provision  of  public  services  for  the  poor?    –  as  highlighted  in  Junaid  Ahmad,  Devarajan,  Khemani  and  Shah  (2006  

Handbook)  based  on  WDR  –  by  strengthening  both  the  poor  people’s  ability  to  demand  bemer  

services?  and    –  enhance  incen-ves  and  the  capacity  of  public  agencies  to  provide  such  

services?    

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Poverty  reduc-on  in  mul-level  context  

•  What  cons-tutes  sustainable  poverty  reduc-on?  –  Long  term  investments  or  transfers?  – What  happens  to  incen-ves  to  work?  

•  Birner  and  von  Braun:  survey  the  literature,  including  empirical  evidence  on    –  Role  of  local  service  delivery  

•  But  evidence  in  CCTs  is  mixed:  – Mexico  moved  to  a  basic  benefit  (minimum  pension)  and  phased  out  Oportunidades  in  2014.  

•  The  policy  context  remains  cri-cal—and  the  case  for  any  measure  has  to  be  carefully  evaluated  in  its  ins-tu-onal/mul-level  context  

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CLIMATE  CHANGE  AND  MANAGING  NATURAL  DISASTERS    

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Mul-level  issues  with  climate  change  

•  Area  for  fruiuul  research:  –  Spa-al  aspects  already  discussed  (sustainable  “hubs)  –  Tax  policy  and  transfers:  for  na-onal  carbon  tax  (to  prevent  race  to  the  bomom—Ahmad  and  Stern,  2011)  

•  Dalmazzone:  examines  case  of  local  environmental  challenges:  –  Externali-es  and  uniformity  of  standards  and  goals  call  for  central,  even  suprana-onal  guidelines  

–  But  local  ac-on  on  pollutants  and  conges-on  will  be  cri-cal  –  Considerable  incen-ves  to  cheat  

•  Balance  needed  between  local,  state,  central  and  suprana-onal  ac-ons  

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Disaster  preven-on  and  relief—in  renewed  focus  with  Nepal  and  Hai-  

•  Goodspeed:  –  focuses  on  consistent  incen-ves  at  different  levels  for  preven-on  •  Local  building  codes;  health  care  and  coordina-on  facili-es,  feeder  roads  and  networks  

•  The  role  of  co-­‐insurance  in  affec-ng  local  and  private  incen-ves  to  undertake  preven-ve  measures  

–  Case  for  coordina-on  with  center  •  Early  warning  (hurricanes  and  tsunamis)  •  Dealing  with  catastrophic  events  •   pooling  of  risks  and  •  Reconstruc-on—and  relief  coordina-on  

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THE  STRUGGLE  OVER  NATURAL  RESOURCES  AND  AVOIDING  CONFLICT  

Keeping  countries  together    

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Revenue-­‐Sharing  and  Transparency  •  People  in  resource  rich  regions  oKen  see  more  environmental  

damage  than  benefits  –  Could  lead  to  secession  tendencies  and  conflict  

•  Brosio  examines  the  case  and  typology  of  op-ons  –  Capture  by  corrupt  central  and  local    elites  –  SWFs  a  par-al  solu-on  –the  en-re  value  chain  has  to  be  seen  to  be  

fair  (much  more  needed  on  PFM  than  before)  •  Appropriate  management  of  sector,  with  properly  assigned  taxes  

and  shares  –  Poli-cal  economy  may  result  in  asymmetric  sharing,  oKen  linked  to  

compensa-on  of  damage  –  See  e.g.,  Acheh  in  Indonesia  –  But  equaliza-on  transfers  also  important  

•  So  confluence  of  taxes,  revenue-­‐sharing,  transfers  and  governance  criteria…feeds  into  the  crisis  prevenEon  agenda  

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Preven-ng  or  addressing  ethnic  or  regional  conflicts  

•  Dower  and  Weber:  model  conflicts  due  to  ethnic  differences;  and  the  role  of  “transfers”  in  reducing  incenEves  to  secede  –  effec-veness  of  transfers  depends  also  on  the  ‘distance’  between  the  

centre  and  the  regions  –   increases  up  to  a  certain  level  of  ethnic  diversity,  but  it  decreases  

thereaKer,    •  Implies  that  fiscal  policies  have  limits  in  alleviaEng  conflicts  if  used  

in  isolaEon.  •  Ahmad,  Brosio  et  al  2007:  Problems  exacerbated  if  there  is  a  

natural  resource  in  the  minority  regions  –  Analysis  basis  for  IMF-­‐WB  non-­‐paper  for  Iraq  in  2007  –unfortunately    

ignored  by  both  agencies,  but  which  s-ll  provides  a  key  to  the  solu-on  –  Also  a  central  element  of  Bank  inputs  to  the  Yemen  NaEonal  

Dialogue  agreement  •  But  UN-­‐brokered  Cons-tu-onal  arrangements  not  locked  in  place  quickly  

enough  •  S-ll  remains  the  basis  for  any  poli-cal  semlement  in  Yemen!  

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Conclusions  •  A  big  lesson  is  the  interacEon  of  instruments  and  policies  

that  are  typically  addressed  in  isolaEon  by  the  IFIs  •  There  is  a  significant  research  and  policy  agenda,  where  

collabora-on  would  be  very  desirable,  both  on  method  as  well  as  specific  country  cases  

•  More  case-­‐specific  works  in  progress:    –  Volume  on  the  Crisis  in  Europe  and  Mul/level  Finance  (editors  Ahmad,  Bordignon  and  Brosio)  in  Press;  

–  China-­‐specific  volume  under  prepara-on;    –  Tax-­‐social  policy  agenda  under  informality  (focussing  on  LSE-­‐IADB-­‐JICA  project  on  Mexico  and  Indonesia;  with  support  from  the  World  Bank  for  part  of  the  work  on  Mexico)  is  nearing  comple-on.  

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