handbook on internet protocol-based networks and related topics

8/18/2019 Handbook on Internet Protocol-Based Networks and Related Topics

1/48

I n t e r n a t i o n a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n U n i o n

A Handbook on

Internet Protocol (IP)-Based

Networks and Related Topics

and Issues


2/48


3/48

I n t e r n a t i o n a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t

A H

Internet Protoco

Networks and Re


4/48

http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/study_groups/SGP_1998-2002/SG1/StudyQuestions/Question_13/QIndex.html


5/48

Preface

The use of Internet Protocol (IP)-based technologies is now a strategic

development and use of telecommunication networks. Consequently, there

ITU members in the policy and regulatory issues related to the growth of I

as the Internet, and their convergence with other networks. One example

Voice over IP (VoIP), which has given rise to a number of recent national

and decisions. We are also witnessing a growing interest in the policy andof next-generation networks (NGNs), a key standardization activity in IT

media platforms, such as delivery of television over broadband networks,

policy and regulatory reviews spanning what were previously different s

result in new challenges for national policy makers and regulators and there

build international dialogue on these issues, including the sharing of n

approaches as well as assistance in capacity building for developing eco

opportunity not only to find common technical approaches, as in ITU's sta but also to discuss and share common policy and regulatory approach

network security.

At its session from 5 to 16 May 2003, the ITU Council discussed and

several countries for ITU-T, in collaboration with ITU-D, to develop an

advise Member States, especially developing countries, on the managem

names and related issues.

A project team was duly created and worked by correspondence. Numer

received from entities that are key players in IP-based network develo

members and non-members of ITU.

The result of the project team's work was presented to the ITU Council in

publication.

We wish sincerely to thank the co-chairmen, Ms Fiona Alexander of

Mr Nabil Kisrawi of the Syrian Arab Republic, the members of the project t

the work and Mr Richard Hill and Mr Désiré Karyabwite who provided sec

as Ms Maite Comas Barnes and Ms Martine Métral who assisted the secreta


6/48


7/48

Foreword

As the use of IP-based networks, including the Internet, continues to grow a

dialogue on the roles and responsibilities of all stakeholders involved

innovation and use of these networks intensifies. The Internet and the appl

become of crucial importance to the economic, social and political develop

particular developing countries, as the global community seeks to use the In

a way to help provide digital opportunities for all. As a result, issues o

management, standardization and governance represent some of the most cvariety of international, regional and national forums, including the United

on the Information Society (WSIS). The results of these debates are likely t

contents of this handbook and readers of this handbook are invited to foll

issues.

With this in mind, the project team worked diligently to provide a factual, u

IP-based networks, including the Internet, work today, as well as some o

associated with the proliferation of these networks. We hope that ITU Me

Members as well as the larger global community find this handbook useful a

and national deliberations continue.

Additionally, we would like to express our most sincere thanks to the mem

who contributed to the success of this effort. Special thanks are owed to Ri

the ITU-T secretariat, and Désiré Karyabwite, representing the ITU-D sec

dedication and expertise the completion of this handbook would not have be

Fiona Alexander Na

Co-Chairman, IP-based Co

Networks Handbook Project Team NePr


8/48


9/48

A Handbook on Internet Protocol (IP)-Based Netw

Related Topics and Issues

Table of contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................

1.1 Purpose and scope .................................................................

2 General background..........................................................................

2.1 Snapshot of today's telecommunications environment .........

2.2 Internet Protocol (IP)-based networks...................................

2.2.1 Public versus private networks..............................................

2.3 What is "the Internet"? ..........................................................

2.4 Some of the relevant organizations .......................................

2.4.1 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) ....................

2.4.2 Internet Architecture Board (IAB) and Internet Engineeri

(IETF) ....................................................................................

2.4.3 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)...........

2.4.4 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICA

2.4.5 Regional Internet registries (RIRs)........................................

2.4.6 Root server operators.............................................................

2.4.7 Internet service providers (ISPs) ...........................................

3 Key policy questions associated with the general use of IP-based

3.1 Universal access/service provisions ......................................

3.2 Consumer protection .............................................................

3.3 Supervision of dominant market player(s) ............................

3.4 Emergency services ...............................................................

3.5 Access for disabled persons...................................................

3.6 Security and privacy ..............................................................

3 7 All ti f


10/48

4.3.4 Internationalized domain names (IDN) .................................4.4 International Internet connectivity ........................................

4.4.1 International traffic exchange................................................

4.4.2 ITU-T Study Group 3 work...................................................

5 Convergence issues, including technical and policy relationship

converging networks..........................................................................

5.1 National sovereignty and international interoperability ........

5.2 Technological neutrality of policies ......................................

5.3 Interoperability ......................................................................

5.4 ENUM ...................................................................................

5.5 "IP telephony" .......................................................................

6 Use of IP-enabled applications .........................................................

6.1 E-learning and other uses of Internet in education................

6.2 E-government ........................................................................

6.3 E-health..................................................................................

6.3.1 E-health applications .............................................................

6.3.2 Retrieval of health and medical information by citizens and

6.3.3 Case studies and current standardization work .....................

6.4 E-commerce...........................................................................

6.5 E-agriculture ..........................................................................

6.6 E-broadcasting: broadcasting over the Internet .....................

6.6.1 Broadcasting of radio programmes .......................................6.6.2 Video streaming.....................................................................

6.6.3 Web/netcasting ......................................................................

6.6.4 Narrowcasting........................................................................

6 6 5 S l k


11/48

A Handbook on Internet Protocol (IP)-Based Networks and r

1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose and scope

The purpose of this handbook is to inform Member States, especially deve

issues related to Internet Protocol (IP)-based networks, including the m

domain names and related issues.

The information presented is based on existing ITU material and input f

project team created to produce the handbook. The material presented doesof ITU members or the ITU as an institution, but instead attempts to portray

of some of the relevant current structures, institutions and issues associated

networks.

The intended audience is policy makers at the national level, mainly in dev

are or may be called upon to influence or to decide national policies

international policies with respect to the use of IP-based networks and/or IP

The main text of the handbook has been kept short, consisting essentia

references to more detailed material contained in separate, attached docu

been chosen in order to enhance the completeness of the handbook.

The structure and methodology of the subsequent sections are:

1) General background: provides a description of today's informati

technologies (ICT) sector well as some of the key actors in this area.

2) Public interest issues associated with the use of IP-based networks: p

the issues that may be relevant at the national level in order to develo

will enable an environment in which IP-based networks and ser

effectively at national and international levels and in the public interes

3) Technical management and coordination: provides a discussion of th

issues that may be relevant at the national level as well as the

international level.4) Convergence issues: provides a discussion of the issues that may aris

of voice and data technologies.

5) Use of IP-enabled applications: provides information on the actual o

IP-based networks.


12/48

A Handbook on Internet Protocol (IP)-Based Networks and related Topics and Is

2 General background

This is a general background section that provides the reader with a baselin

of the Internet Protocol (IP)-based networks used as a vehicle for ICT requ

some of the organizations that are key global and/or regional actors in this ar

Some general data on how different countries have approached certain iss

responses to a survey conducted specifically for this handbook: see TS

responses to it at:

• http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/ip-polic/question/

2.1 Snapshot of today's telecommunications environment

It is widely believed that telecommunication infrastructure and networks ha

of economic growth and social development for many decades and will

telecommunications environment, however, is currently, and has been for

state of change induced by technology advances, deregulation, privatizatio

competition. Changes have occurred and continue to occur from both the p

points of view. From the policy point of view, we have moved from a s

State-controlled monopolies to a system based mainly on competitive, priv

supervised for some of their activities by national regulators. From the tech

we have moved from a system in which most revenues were derived from lo

slowly-evolving voice services based on fixed lines, to a system in which

derived mostly from fast-changing telecommunication services and applica

IP-based technologies.

Despite these perpetual changes, general agreement exists amongst ITU m

the role of an enabling environment for ICT development. Readers may be

the Final Report of ITU-D Study Group 1 on the Promotion of Infrastructure

in Developing Countries which can be found at:

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/study_groups/SGP_1998-2002/SG1/StudyQ

Question_13/QIndex.html

Global trends in reform have been well summarized and discussed in d

reports on "Trends in Telecommunication Reform". See:• http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/

2.2 Internet Protocol (IP)-based networks

There are many ways to characterize networks: on the basis of their logical

b d ) h i l l (h b d k b i )

http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/ip-polic/question/http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/ip-polic/question/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/study_groups/SGP_1998-2002/SG1/StudyQuestions/Question_13/QIndex.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/study_groups/SGP_1998-2002/SG1/StudyQuestions/Question_13/QIndex.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/study_groups/SGP_1998-2002/SG1/StudyQuestions/Question_13/QIndex.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/study_groups/SGP_1998-2002/SG1/StudyQuestions/Question_13/QIndex.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/ip-polic/question/


13/48


notion was captured in a definition by the United States Federa

(Resolution 1995), as submitted to the United Nations Working Group o

with a proposed amendment to reflect the evolving nature of the Internet2.

The connectionless packet-switched nature of IP-based networks is cer

feature with merits and disadvantages, but it is a less important distinguishin

historical features, which were:

a) Intelligence at the edges (also known as the "hourglass" architecture

National Research Council's The Internet's Coming of Age (Nationa

puts the matter: "As a consequence of this hourglass-shaped architec

takes place at the edge of the network, through software running on dnetwork and using open interfaces. By contrast, the PSTN [traditional

designed for very unintelligent edge devices – telephones – and fu

sophisticated core that provides what are termed "intelligent facilitie

true, but is now becoming less the case and the ultimate goal of NGN,

packet-based network, is to combine both intelligence at the edges and

b) Dynamic routing, known as the robustness principle. As the sa

robustness principle is arguably the single most important enablinInternet. It was initially adopted for the ARPANET in order

unpredictably changing topologies anticipated for defense application

reconfiguration) and then for the Internet in order to accommodate in

set of networks built by multiple implementers out of comp

implementations (i.e. heterogeneity of devices and technologies). I

requirements, the Internet accommodates decentralized manage

accordingly – evolution."

Furthermore, it should be noted that certain IP-based applications (in pa

worldwide web) make extensive use of name resolution services provided

System (DNS). The DNS is a highly distributed hierarchical database,

redundant main authoritative servers to provide details of individual doma

the DNS relies on "root servers" at the top of the naming hierarchy;

considered to be critical central resources for the DNS. From an operati

computers providing the DNS are decentralized (the root servers ar

authoritative sourcing of the DNS is centralized from a data management pservers contain identical copies of data obtained from a unique central sou

the root server system (albeit only for the specific purpose of host naming)

There is no equivalent for most other network technologies.


14/48


According to the features described above, IP-based networks were describ

networks", in which innovation can take place "at the edges" without any ne

network.

Historically, this approach made sense, since it would have been difficult to

architecture if many different networks all had to be modified to s

Internetworking. The notion of layering was introduced to describe the

services over and above the actual communications capabilities. Indeed, the

individual networks was another example of this approach, since no chang

were required to participate (via a router) in the nascent Internet. More rece

raised that applications could be developed in a more integrated fashion wunderlying networks. These integrated applications may still be considere

not embedded in NGNs, provided that the applications could interoperate w

support the end application.

2.2.1 Public versus private networks

A public network is one that can be accessed by any user, while a private n

can only be accessed by some restricted group of people, typically employecompany.

Most countries distinguish public networks from private networks an

regulatory provisions to the two, in the sense that few, if any, regulatory pro

networks and then only in the case of use of part of these networks by the pu

IP-based networks can be public or private. What is usually referred to as "

complex collection of public and private networks, in which portions of t partially accessible to the public (for example, to access a private group's w

to such a group).

2.3 What is "the Internet"?

There are many descriptions that seek to answer the question: "What

following technical definition has been adopted by ITU-T Study Group

Y.101 on Global Information Infrastructure terminology:

"A collection of interconnected networks using the Internet Protoco

function as a single, large virtual network."

As a result of Phase 1 of the United Nations World Summit on the Inform

W ki G I t t G (WGIG) t d d d


15/48


2.4.1 International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU), established in 1865

intergovernmental organization responsible for telegraphy, became later ththe United Nations system for telecommunication services3, 4. It serves as an

organization within which governments and the private sector work togethe

the Union as embedded in the ITU Constitution, Article 1, provisions 2 to 1

the Union – Radiocommunication (ITU-R), Telecommunication Standa

Telecommunication Development (ITU-D) – work today to build

telecommunication networks and services. They are supported in tha

Secretariat, which includes a Strategy and Policy Unit (SPU). The activities of telecommunication, including treaties on radio spectrum issues (the Rad

international telecommunications (the International Telecommunication Reg

approval of recommendations in order to ensure the seamless interworkin

equipment and systems on a global basis, the adoption of operational proc

growing array of wired and wireless services, and the design of pr

telecommunication infrastructure in the developing world.

The ITU Radiocommunication Sector has the following functions and struct"The functions of the Radiocommunication Sector shall be, bearing

concerns of developing countries, to fulfil the purposes of the Union,

this Constitution, relating to radiocommunication: by ensuring the rati

and economical use of the radio-frequency spectrum by all radioc

including those using the geostationary-satellite or other satellite

provisions of Article 44 of this Constitution; and by carrying out

frequency range and adopting recommendations on radiocommunicati

The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector has the following funct

"The functions of the Telecommunication Standardization Sector shal

particular concerns of the developing countries, to fulfil the purposes

telecommunication standardization, as stated in Article 1 of this C

technical, operating and tariff questions and adopting recommendatio

to standardizing telecommunications on a worldwide basis."

The ITU Telecommunication Development Sector has the following functio

"The functions of the Telecommunication Development Sector shall

of the Union as stated in Article 1 of this Constitution and to disch

sphere of competence, the Union's dual responsibility as a United Na

and executing agency for implementing projects under the Unite


16/48


"The activities of the Radiocommunication, Telecommunicatio

Telecommunication Development Sectors shall be the subject of

regard to matters relating to development, in accordance with the relConstitution."

Within the foregoing framework, the specific functions of the Telecomm

Sector shall be to:

"a) raise the level of awareness of decision-makers concerning

telecommunications in the national economic and social develop

provide information and advice on possible policy and structura

especially by means of partnership, the development, expans

telecommunication networks and services, particularly in developin

account the activities of other relevant bodies, by reinforcing capabilit

development, planning, management, resource mobilization, and res

c) enhance the growth of telecommunications through coop

telecommunications organizations and with global and regional

institutions, monitoring the status of projects included in its deve

ensure that they are properly executed; d) activate the mobilization assistance in the field of telecommunications to developing coun

establishment of preferential and favourable lines of credit and coope

and regional financial and development institutions; e) promote and

to accelerate the transfer of appropriate technologies to the developing

changes and developments in the networks of the developed c

participation by industry in telecommunication development in de

offer advice on the choice and transfer of appropriate technology; g) o

sponsor studies, as necessary, on technical, economic, financial, ma

policy issues, including studies of specific projects in the field of

collaborate with the other Sectors, the General Secretariat and oth

developing a general plan for international and regional telecommuni

facilitate the coordination of their development with a view

telecommunication services."

The work of ITU promotes and coordinates the development an

telecommunication infrastructures, including those over which IP-ba

description of ITU's work with respect to IP-based networks can be found at

• http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ip/index.phtml

For more information on ITU in general, see:

http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ip/index.phtmlhttp://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ip/index.phtmlhttp://www.itu.int/osg/spu/ip/index.phtml


17/48


The IETF working groups are grouped into areas, and managed by area di

are members of the Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG). Providin

is the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). IAB also adjudicates appeals whagainst IESG. IAB and IESG are chartered by the Internet Society (ISOC)

General Area Director also serves as the chair of IESG and IETF, and is a

IAB.

For more information, see:

• http://www.ietf.org

There is good collaboration between both ITU-T and ITU-R on one hand a

particular, relevant IETF outputs are referenced in ITU recommendations. T

other standards development organizations (SDOs).

2.4.3 International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

The International Organization for Standardization develops a wide range o

well-known example related to IP-based networks is ISO 3166, which de

used in country code top level domain names (ccTLDs); see:

• http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html

There is close collaboration between ITU and ISO/IEC in many domains.

2.4.4 Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICAN

The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN) is a

headquartered in the United States, that performs functions with respect

addresses, under a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the Unite

Commerce.5 Specifically, ICANN deals with issues related to IP address spidentifier assignment, generic (gTLD) and country code (ccTLD) top-lev

management, and root server system management functions. ICAN

internationally diverse Board of Directors named by a Nominating Committ

by the ICANN constituencies described below, is responsible for coordina

the technical elements of the Domain Name System (DNS) to ensure unive

all users of the Internet can find all valid addresses, as well as certain

aspects of the domain name business.

ICANN's structure consists of three supporting organizations and five advi

propose policies for consideration by the ICANN Board of Directors. These

The Address Supporting Organization (ASO). ASO comprises the five reg

(RIRs), that collectively share a global responsibility delegated to them for

http://www.ietf.org/http://www.ietf.org/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Documents/DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdfhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.htmlhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Documents/DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdfhttp://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.htmlhttp://www.ietf.org/


18/48


The Governmental Advisory Committee (GAC). GAC is a forum, open to g

economies, through which their representatives provide non-binding advice

public policy issues related to the technical management of the DNS. Sorganizations currently participate as observers, for example ITU, WIPO and

The Root Server System Advisory Committee (RSSAC). RSSAC is resp

ICANN Board about the operation of the DNS root name servers. They con

on a variety of topics including the operational requirements of the root na

hardware capacities, operating systems and name server software version

and physical environment.

The Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC). The role of SSAC

community and Board on matters relating to the security and integrity of th

address allocation systems. Among other things, SSAC gathers and articula

to those engaged in the technical revision of the protocols related to the DN

and those in engaged in operations planning.

The At-Large Advisory Committee (ALAC). ALAC is responsible for p

involvement and informed participation in ICANN of the global individual and to provide an end-user perspective on ICANN activities that affect indiv

It should be noted that in addition to a memorandum of understanding

Department of Commerce (DOC), ICANN performs the Internet Assi

(IANA) functions under a separate contract with DOC. These functions inc

administrative functions associated with root management, coordination

technical protocol parameters, and allocation of Internet numbering reso

IANA functions contract, ICANN receives change requests and makes recwhich has the operational oversight and policy responsibility for the auth

DOC then directs VeriSign to make changes to the authoritative root

cooperative agreement between DOC and VeriSign. The management of th

file has no connection with the routing of Internet traffic.


• www.icann.org

• www.iana.org/root-managment.htm

2.4.5 Regional Internet registries (RIRs)

The regional Internet registries (RIRs) are non-governmental organiz

allocating Internet number resources such as globally unique IP addresse

http://www.icann.org/http://www.icann.org/http://www.iana.org/root-managment.htmhttp://www.iana.org/root-managment.htmhttp://www.iana.org/root-managment.htmhttp://www.icann.org/


19/48


Today, there are five RIRs providing technical coordination with respect to

necessary for addressing and routing. They are structured as not-for-profit,

organizations, operating as neutral and impartial bodies of industry seestablishment of ICANN and in particular the adoption of IC

(http://www.icann.org/icp/icp-2.htm), ICANN has accepted the role of a

these RIRs.

There are currently five RIRs:

• APNIC, established in 1993, serving the Asia-Pacific region (http://ww

• ARIN, established as InterNIC in 1993, serving Northern AmeriCaribbean (http://www.arin.net);

• LACNIC, formally recognized by ICANN in 2002, serving Central a

portions of the Caribbean (http://www.lacnic.net/en);

• RIPE NCC, established 1992, serving Europe and the Middle East (htt

• AfriNIC, established in 2005, serving Africa (http://www.afrinic.net).

Each of the RIRs is incorporated in a specific country as a private, organization. Each has a membership structure which is open to all inte

members are most typically LIRs or ISPs that require address space servic

most particularly in the case of APNIC, intermediate registries exist whic

level of individual countries or economic regions (generally as defined by

"national" registries are autonomous, but act as agents of their respective

management responsibilities, providing allocation services according to regi

For more information about RIRs, please consult the RIR websites listed abo

2.4.5.1 RIR policy process

Another function of the RIRs is to facilitate the development of polici

management of Internet resources regionally and globally. This is done

bottom-up, industry self-regulating manner, in response to the requirements

stakeholders in the respective RIR communities. Importantly, these policy

are open to anybody, and often include the active participation of both p bodies as well as civil society.

Each RIR hosts regular, open, public policy meetings, at least twice an

primary focal point for policy development in each region. These meetings a

parties, regardless of membership status, who can participate in discussing

http://www.ripe.net/http://www.ripe.net/http://www.apnic.net/http://www.apnic.net/http://www.arin.net/http://www.arin.net/http://www.arin.net/http://www.lacnic.net/en/index.htmlhttp://www.lacnic.net/en/index.htmlhttp://www.lacnic.net/en/index.htmlhttp://www.ripe.net/http://www.ripe.net/http://www.afrinic.net/http://www.afrinic.net/http://www.afrinic.net/http://www.afrinic.net/http://www.ripe.net/http://www.lacnic.net/en/index.htmlhttp://www.arin.net/http://www.apnic.net/http://www.ripe.net/


20/48


Regardless of the specific policy process or outcomes in each region, the

goal: ensuring the fair distribution and responsible stewardship of number re

maintain the stability and continued growth of the Internet. The managetechnical activities of the RIRs form an integral part of the infrastructure nee

operating efficiently.

It may be noted that a set of global guidelines for the allocation of IP addres

RFC 2050, published in 1996. However, this document is fairly general an

as it has been effectively replaced by the more refined policies developed wi

All RIR policies are available on the website of each organization,

documents such as a common "policy comparison matrix" developed by the

2.4.5.2 The Number Resource Organization (NRO)

Although existing as separate entities that meet the needs of their respective

must also work closely together, coordinating activities that support policies

In October 2003, the four RIRs – APNIC, ARIN, LACNIC and RIPE

memorandum of understanding (MoU) to form the Number Resource

http://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.html.

The purpose of NRO is to ensure the global coherence of certain RIR act

single common interface to all the RIRs where this is necessary. NRO al

activities, including technical projects and liaison activities. NRO does not

the regional policy-development processes of the RIRs, nor with any o

activities.

In October 2004, NRO signed an MoU with ICANN re-establishing tOrganization (ASO). ASO was originally formed in 1999 by an MoU

ICANN, and has been reformed as a consequence of the ICANN reform

two years. The purpose of ASO is to review and develop recommendatio

policy and to advise the ICANN Board on these matters. The new ASO M

will fulfil the role, responsibilities and functions of ASO as outlined in the I


• http://www.nro.net • http://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.html

• http://www.nro.net/documents/aso-mou.html

2.4.5.3 Provider-based addressing

http://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/http://www.nro.net/http://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/documents/aso-mou.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/documents/aso-mou.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/documents/aso-mou.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.htmlhttp://www.nro.net/http://www.nro.net/documents/nro1.html


21/48


applied, in which the recipients of IP addresses are the ISPs who are able t

address space and allow those address ranges to be reached through a min

announcements. From the addressing point of view, it has been said that Internet involves the ISP as the primary subdivision, with front

interconnections across which global routing information is exchanged.

A further consequence is that RIRs must make allocations not onl

demonstrated needs of ISPs, but also in such a way as to limit the number

allocations that are made. The value of the resource is due not only to the

addresses, but also to the need to maximize aggregation and limit routing ta

will be a need to carefully manage the assignment of IPv6 addresses also.2.4.6 Root server operators

The root server operators are 12 organizations, one public (the United Sta

operates three servers), the rest private entities, which operate the system

zone file that is administered through the Internet Assigned Numbers Auth

process. As a result of historical developments, 10 of the 13 original ro

United States; however, to facilitate geographic diversity and build in ne

redundancy, some of the root server operators have recently deployed mirroservers throughout the world. Today, the 13 root servers, together with mir

more than 80 locations in 34 countries. They provide the authoritative top-l

Internet Domain Name System (DNS). The role of root servers is sometim

the servers that route Internet traffic. Root servers do not in fact route traffic

function described above. More information on root servers can be found at:

• http://www.root-servers.org

• http://www.rssac.icann.org

• http://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index/shtml

It is important to distinguish these root servers, which provide information

servers that route actual traffic, i.e. that route the packets. These are compl

provided by different servers.

2.4.7 Internet service providers (ISPs)

Internet service providers (ISPs) are companies (usually private, but pcountries) that provide basic Internet connectivity and/or access and interco

(individual users or corporations that wish to access the Internet). Depen

business objectives, ISPs may provide all or some of the following services:

1) Facilities for access to the public Internet (dial-in, leased line, cable, A

http://www.root-servers.org/http://www.root-servers.org/http://www.rssac.icann.org/http://www.rssac.icann.org/http://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index/shtmlhttp://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index/shtmlhttp://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index/shtmlhttp://www.rssac.icann.org/http://www.root-servers.org/


22/48


agreements provide access to the full Internet, while peering is limited to

customers.

3 Key policy questions associated with the general use of IP-based

As mentioned previously, the one constant with respect to communication

change. The technological changes have driven, and have been drive

Governments around the world are faced with the issues arising from these

particular that of how to manage the policy issues that are typical of any

"network product" we mean any product whose utility or value increases

the number of users. Network products include roads, railroads, air traffic and, of course, telecommunication networks. The policy issues that are ty

products", and that may apply to the general use of IP-based networks, inclu

1) Universal access/service provisions

2) Consumer protection

3) Supervision of dominant market players

4) Emergency services

5) Access for disabled persons

6) Security (e.g. law enforcement, cybercrime, legal intercept) and privac

7) Allocation of scare resources

8) Dispute resolution

Each of these areas is discussed briefly in subsequent sections.

Some approaches to the issues raised above have been contributed by Mefor this handbook, and can be found at:

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach01.doc



• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach05.zip

3.1 Universal access/service provisions

Universal access/service provisions refer to many methods used to ensure

users located in areas where implementation costs are higher are offe

services of a quality and price comparable to users located in areas where i

lower . One well-known method is to impose, by regulation, low prices for

http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach01.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach02.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach03.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach05.ziphttp://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/telecoms/international/news/index_en.htm#editorialhttp://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/telecoms/international/news/index_en.htm#editorialhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach05.ziphttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach03.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach02.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach01.doc


23/48


The methods used to implement universal access/service provisions vary fr

examples include cross-subsidy by users in high-density areas to user

government subsidies, taxation, etc.The choice of a particular regime of universal access/service provision, if a

that depends on the overall information and communication technology (ICT

the state of its current telecommunications environment; its general

regulation, subsidies and taxation.

Most countries have (or have had) universal access provisions for wha

services provided by the circuit switched telephony model. With the adv

emerging question is whether access to IP-based networks, in particular via also be subject to universal access/service provisions.

3.2 Consumer protection

A description of what constitutes consumer protection varies from count

possibly, within countries, from issue to issue. In order to achieve som

protection, some countries have either relied on general consumer prote

IP-based networks and IP-based applications, or updated and strengthened e

are better able to protect consumers. The approaches vary widely depen

traditions and regimes as well as the state of a country's overall developm

countries, issues related to consumer protection have yet to be addressed, in

to spam prevention.

A key policy question is whether, and if so to what extent and how, provisio

protection should apply to the use of IP-based networks or the provision o

taking into account the traditional differences in the treatment of public and

3.3 Supervision of dominant market player(s)

In some countries there may be dominant players in a national telecomm

while in others there may be a single monopolistic provider. In both situati

or group of players with significant market power and the ability to d

reference to competitive forces exists. This situation may be due to histor

monopoly regime prior to liberalization) or because the national environme

monopoly exists (the market is too small to support true competition).Regardless of levels of development, supervision of dominant market pla

competition and a level playing field could be left to a generic compe

agency, but most countries have established a special-purpose telecommuni

decision-making process independent from the parties it regulates.


24/48


quickly in case of massive destruction, for example due to storms (mobile

facilities).

A key policy question is whether, and if so to what extent and how, emergshould apply to IP-based networks or IP-based applications. In this c

recommendations, in particular Y.1271 "Framework(s) on network requirem

support emergency telecommunications over evolving circuit-switched

networks" provide guidelines for the offer and acquisition of such ser

perspective.

3.5 Access for disabled persons

Many developed countries have provisions designed to facilitate access to b

services for handicapped people while the majority of developing countries

issue. A key policy question is whether, and if so to what extent and how

access for disabled persons should apply to IP-based networks or IP-based

account the traditional differences in the treatment of public and private netw

3.6 Security and privacy

With our increasing dependence on computer networks, the importanc

including appropriate provisions for law enforcement concerns and privacy

The explosive growth in the use of computers has increased the dependen

individuals on the information stored and communicated using these sys

heightened awareness of the need to protect data and resources, provide la

with effective tools to combat cybercrime, develop a global culture of

effective means to combat spam.

Some developed countries have provisions designed to facilitate tracking an

enforcement authorities, legal frameworks to combat spam, as well as p

identities of users of communication services and the content of those co

such countries, privacy and security provisions are very general and apply

to telecommunications. All developing countries should address these issues

For more information see:

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/edh/files/security-manual.pdf

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-security/

• http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/spam/index.phtml

• Council 2005 Document C05/EP/10 (report on SPAM as per WTSA R

http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/edh/files/security-manual.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/edh/files/security-manual.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-security/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-security/http://www.itu.int/osg/spu/spam/index.phtmlhttp://www.itu.int/osg/spu/spam/index.phtmlhttp://www.itu.int/osg/spu/spam/index.phtmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-security/http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/edh/files/security-manual.pdf


25/48


3.8 Dispute resolution

IP-based networks can be used to facilitate conventional dispute resoluti

conventional national court proceedings. Discussion of these topics can be f

• http://www.odr.info/

In addition, many countries have implemented specific dispute resolution sy

of disputes involving trademarks and Internet domain names. The best-know

the Uniform Dispute Resolution Procedure (UDRP) developed by WIPO an

number of parties serve as providers of UDRP services. For more informatio

• http://www.icann.org/udrp/udrp.htm

• section IV.v.1 of Attachment 4 at

http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.doc

Finally, there are many recent developments related to dispute resolution

telecommunication sectors. Many of those developments may apply equall

For an overview of those recent developments see:

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Document

DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdf • http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Case_Studies/Disp-Resolution/ITU_WB

4 Technical management and coordination of ICT resources and

No one entity or organization governs or controls ICT resources. As was

description of relevant organizations, these resources are managed or coo

organizations, both public and private. The remainder of this section

management and allocation systems of the current environment.

4.1 E.164 numbering

ITU-T Recommendation E.164 provides the number structure and fun

categories of numbers used for international public telecommunication

telephone network – i.e. the geographical areas, global services and net

categories, it details the components of the numbering structure and the d

successfully route the calls. Specific E.164-based applications which differseparate recommendations, while E.164.1 specifies the procedures and ru

assignment of E.164 numbering resources.

There has recently been increasing interest in interfacing, or interconne

applications with the public switched telephone network, by mapping E

http://www.odr.info/http://www.odr.info/http://www.icann.org/udrp/udrp.htmhttp://www.icann.org/udrp/udrp.htmhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Documents/DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Documents/DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Documents/DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Case_Studies/Disp-Resolution/ITU_WB_Dispute_Res-E.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Case_Studies/Disp-Resolution/ITU_WB_Dispute_Res-E.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/treg/Events/Seminars/2003/GSR/Documents/DRS_Final_GSR_5.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.dochttp://www.icann.org/udrp/udrp.htmhttp://www.odr.info/


26/48


There are currently two types of IP address: the original type, which is 32

"IPv4", and the new type, which is 128-bits long, and is called "IPv

prevalently used today with some limitations which have resulted in startIPv6. The issues related to those IP addresses and the migration to IPv6 h

number of papers, including:



• http://www.potaroo.net/ispcolumn/2003-07-v4-address-lifetime/ale.ht

• http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/

• http://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2004-12-isp.htm

• http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/ntiageneral/ipv6/index.html

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/ipv6/200506/index.html

4.3 Internet domain names and addressing

The Internet Domain Name System (DNS) is a distributed hierarchica

primarily used on the Internet to translate between domain names and IP addthe DNS can be found at:


• http://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index.shtml

Issues associated with the DNS are one of the many topics currently b

Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG).

4.3.1 Internet top level domain names

Internet top level domain names (TLDs) are those domain names that appea

a uniform resource identifier (URI), for example "int" in "www.itu.int". Suc

code TLDs (ccTLDs), or they may be generic (gTLDs) or sponsored (sTLD

top level domain names used only by a specific industry (for example "

purpose (for example ".museum").

4.3.2 Country code top level domains (ccTLDs)

A country code top level domain name (ccTLD) is a TLD used in the Int

country, for example ".ch" for Switzerland. As mentioned previously, the

each country are derived from the ISO 3166 standard. Currently there are

and policies for registering domain names in the ccTLDs vary significantly b

http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach08.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach09.dochttp://www.potaroo.net/ispcolumn/2003-07-v4-address-lifetime/ale.htmlhttp://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/http://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2004-12-isp.htmhttp://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2004-12-isp.htmhttp://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/ntiageneral/ipv6/index.htmlhttp://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/ntiageneral/ipv6/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/ipv6/200506/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/ipv6/200506/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach07.dochttp://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index.shtmlhttp://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index.shtmlhttp://www.isoc.org/briefings/016/index.shtmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach07.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/ipv6/200506/index.htmlhttp://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/ntiageneral/ipv6/index.htmlhttp://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2004-12-isp.htmhttp://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/http://www.potaroo.net/ispcolumn/2003-07-v4-address-lifetime/ale.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach09.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach08.doc


27/48


Some ccTLDs are reserved for use by citizens or entities of the concern

while others are operated in an open and completely unrestricted manner.

Generally speaking, the ccTLD managers (called registries) are entities thaoperationally) resident in the concerned country or territory. In the early d

registries were often academic or research institutions. Today they are mo

special-purpose non-profit organizations, or government-owned or license

have become involved in accordance with local legal frameworks and

involvement ranges from formal (via laws and regulations) through informa

A key question facing national policy-makers is how best to ensure that

goals are met by a ccTLD manager given the various models of ccTLD man

As noted above, in some countries, the ccTLD operator is entirely

supervision. In other countries, there is informal influence from the govern

countries there is a formal link between the government and the ccTLD ope

can take several different forms: contract between the government and

defining the roles and responsibilities of the operator, or regulations.

For background information on ccTLDs, see:

• IETF RFC 1591 "Domain Name System Structure

http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1591.txt?number=1591, which provides th

rules that have been used to implement the Internet Domain Name Sy

ccTLD operators

• The ICANN webpages containing "ccTLD Resource Materials" at

http://www.icann.org/cctlds/

• In February 2002, ICANN's Governmental Advisory Committee (GA

for Delegation and Administration of ccTLDs" at

http://www.icann.org/committees/gac/gac-cctldprinciples-23feb00.htm

• Further information on ccTLD can be accessed through regiona

APTLD for Asia Pacific (http://www.aptld.org), AFTLD for Africa

CENTR for Europe (http://www.centr.org), NATLD for North Amer

America and the Caribbean (http://www.lactld.org)

• The list of current ccTLD contact information for each country code c

http://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htm

• Information on national practices for certain countries can be found at

h // i i / / i l j /i li /fi l/ h d

A H db k I t t P t l (IP) B d N t k d l t d T i d I

http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1591.txt?number=1591http://www.icann.org/cctlds/http://www.icann.org/cctlds/http://www.icann.org/committees/gac/gac-cctldprinciples-23feb00.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach10.dochttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.iana.org/cctld/cctld-whois.htmhttp://www.icann.org/committees/gac/gac-cctldprinciples-23feb00.htmhttp://www.icann.org/cctlds/http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1591.txt?number=1591


28/48


4.3.3 Generic and sponsored top level domains (gTLDs and sTLDs)

The best-known gTLDs are "com", "org", and "net", but there are severa

introduced gTLDs include "sponsored" names such as ".aero" and ".museumresponsible for developing policies to govern the TLD policy, aside from co

required of all gTLDs. For current information on TLDs see:

• http://www.iana.org/gtld/gtld.htm

4.3.4 Internationalized domain names (IDN)

The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has approved three document provide a technical foundation for handling domain names with Unicode ch

names which contain non-ASCII characters). These documents are:

• RFC 3490 "Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA)

• RFC 3491 "Nameprep: A Stringprep Profile for Internationalized Dom

• RFC 3492 "Punycode: A Bootstring encoding of Unicode for In

Names in Applications (IDNA)"

A discussion of IDN can be found at:


Implementation of IDN raises some very complex issues. In particular, befo

domain names, registries should define a policy for what scripts they acc

which subset of Unicode they accept. These issues are discussed in the

Engineering Team (JET) Guidelines for Internationalized Domain Names Administration for Chinese, Japanese, and Korean" and also in the Interne

Internationalized Domain Names: Overview and Method", available at

http://www.ietf.org/internet-drafts/draft-klensin-reg-guidelines-04.txt (this

approved by IETF and has been offered for discussion).

ICANN has also published several reports and papers which discuss vario

"IDN Committee Final Report to the ICANN Board" at

http://www.icann.org/committees/idn/final-report-27jun02.htm and the pre

the bottom of http://www.icann.org/committees/idn/.

Information on recent (as of 2004) developments with respect to IDN can be

htt // t / ti /2003/ k h /d f lt ht

A Handbook on Internet Protocol (IP) Based Networks and r

http://www.iana.org/gtld/gtld.htmhttp://www.iana.org/gtld/gtld.htmhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach13.dochttp://www.ietf.org/internet-drafts/draft-klensin-reg-guidelines-04.txthttp://www.ietf.org/internet-drafts/draft-klensin-reg-guidelines-04.txthttp://www.icann.org/committees/idn/final-report-27jun02.htmhttp://www.icann.org/committees/idn/http://www.icann.org/committees/idn/http://www.aptsec.org/meetings/2003/workshop/default.htmhttp://www.aptsec.org/meetings/2003/workshop/default.htmhttp://www.aptsec.org/meetings/2003/workshop/default.htmhttp://www.icann.org/committees/idn/http://www.icann.org/committees/idn/final-report-27jun02.htmhttp://www.ietf.org/internet-drafts/draft-klensin-reg-guidelines-04.txthttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach13.dochttp://www.iana.org/gtld/gtld.htm


29/48


4.4 International Internet connectivity

4.4.1 International traffic exchange

There are several key concepts related to the international exchange of

include international traffic flows, accounting regimes and peering. A fu

concepts, and current international Internet traffic exchange settlement mod

• http://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2005-01-isp.htm

4.4.2 ITU-T Study Group 3 work

ITU-T Study Group 3 (SG3) started examining the international Internet co

1998. The objectives of the study were, at that time, to identify the differen

and the public switched telephone network (PSTN) costing models. S

inappropriate to apply the existing PSTN costing model to the Internet, bu

regarding whether the existing private leased-line model results in equit

between providers.

In early 2000, the regional tariff groups of SG3 developed a set of basi

believed would provide the basis for a more detailed set of principles

recommendation developed by the regional groups called for respect for the

In June 2000, SG3 attempted to gain global agreement on the proposal ma

groups but failed owing to the resistance of a few Member States. The Cha

decided to submit the draft recommendation directly to the Sector's gove

Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA-2000) where

reservations made by some countries, and labelled as Recommendation D.50

The purpose of the recommendation was to set out the principle for ne

transmit international Internet traffic. The possible need for compensation

carrying the traffic was also recognized in the recommendation. When p

circuits, they generally have a choice between the "sender-keeps-all" or pe

connections when traffic is more or less balanced, or the asymmetric

initiating provider pays for the whole connection with the other country (fu

the case today for some developing countries.

The recommendation called for arrangements to be negotiated and agreed

basis when direct Internet links are established internationally. It requ

providers involved reach a mutual agreement.

Recommendation D.50 also said that the parties involved could take into ac

for compensation for elements such as traffic flow, number of routes, geogra

cost of international transmission when negotiating such commercial arrang


http://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2005-01-isp.htmhttp://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2005-01-isp.htmhttp://www.potaroo.net/ispcol/2005-01-isp.htm


30/48

A Handbook on Internet Protocol (IP) Based Networks and related Topics and Is

SG3 also recognized that the costs of the international link for Interne

developing countries and the Internet backbone networks can be a ser

countries in regions where the necessary infrastructure is not in place andaccess is not yet functioning fully.

Some believe however that the global market is changing and many of the a

1998 in support of a comprehensive settlement regime for international

longer wholly apply, and other possible solutions have emerged. Comp

Internet backbone markets and it is no longer the case that most Internet tra

America. Crucially, this increased competitiveness, combined with the im

the local market in reducing leased line costs, is helping to reduce the cos

improve the ability of purchasers of international connectivity to negotiate im

Another important contributing factor has been the development of Internet

These provide means of reducing costs of access to Internet backbones in ot

ISPs to deliver Internet traffic without connecting the local or regional ISPs

regions, as is the case in some developing countries, as well as to aggre

traffic for transmission to the Internet backbones. This also serves to stimu

traffic with regional and local content which in turn provides incentives

infrastructure and increased interconnectivity.

A number of IXPs have been established in developing countries with the

programmes. For example, the United Kingdom's Department for Inte

(DFID) has helped to fund the establishment of IXPs in Uganda, Tanzania

continuing provision of bilateral and multilateral aid for establishing r

characterized by some as a means to facilitate the expansion of cheaper

developing countries.

Global backbone network providers meanwhile are continuing to extend the

increased demand for Internet connectivity and provide connectivity via loc

IXPs, around the world.

In the new study period 2005-2008, SG3 will continue to study how

developments and shifts in international Internet traffic flows are inf

availability, efficiency and cost of Internet connectivity around the wo

important issue for developing countries as repeatedly voiced in the WSIinternational Internet connectivity is one of the topics be considered by

Internet Governance. Additional information can be found at:

The European Commission site:

• http://www.europa.eu.int/information society/topics/telecoms/internat


http://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtmlhttp://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/telecoms/international/news/index_en.htm#editorialhttp://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtmlhttp://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/topics/telecoms/international/news/index_en.htm#editorial


31/48

A Handbook on Internet Protocol (IP) Based Networks and r

5 Convergence issues, including technical and policy relat

converging networks

Technological innovations are beginning to link traditional telephony tech

IP-based networks. This technological convergence raises technical and p

members. Examples of such new technology capabilities include ENUM

IP Telephony/Voice over IP (VoIP) (see § 5.5 below).

5.1 National sovereignty and international interoperability

It is axiomatic that nations are sovereign, that is, that they have the right

national policies, laws, rules, and regulations they see fit, within the

international law and international treaties.

It is equally axiomatic that international interoperability is an

telecommunications, and that such international interoperability can be ac

operators conform to agreed international standards, including internation

naming and addressing schemes.

While international standards are not binding, they are typically follow

appropriate international interoperability. See § 5.3 below.

5.2 Technological neutrality of policies

As noted earlier, national approaches to the regulation (or not) of IP-basedtechnologies vary widely. While some Member States have signalled a

technology-neutral approach to the regulation of telecommunication servi

with all Member States. Indeed, the issues involved are complex. What i

neutral regulatory frameworks are frameworks in which regulations tha

service (such as voice transmission) apply uniformly no matter what

implement the service. For information on trends in this respect, see:

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/conreg/index.html

5.3 Interoperability

I t bilit f IP b d t k d IP b d li ti i


http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/conreg/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/conreg/index.htmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/worksem/conreg/index.html


32/48

( ) p

5.4 ENUM

The ENUM protocol maps in one direction parts or all of the ITU-T R

international public telecommunication numbering plan into the Internet (DNS). At first glance a simple protocol, ENUM nevertheless raises a nu

policy issues. For a summary, see:


• ITU-T Recommendation E.164 Supplement 3

• ITU-T Recommendation E.164 Supplement 4

5.5 "IP telephony"7

"IP telephony" consists in using IP-based networks to provide voice transm

more-or-less equivalent to traditional public switched telephone services.

considered to be simply an application provided over existing services; inde

formal definition of it as a service in ITU-T. Although "IP telephony" d

substantial percentage of the global worldwide telephony traffic volume, it i

result of the following technical motivations:

• The circuit-switched network was designed and optimized to provfull duplex 4 kHz switchable voice channels between points (64 kbit/s

• Data, in general, are characterized by bursts of information rather th

flows typically associated with speech.

• Data burst can be most efficiently transported using packets of i

interleaved in time within a network with other packets being carried

and destinations.

• For more than 40 years, voice has been digitally encoded into 64 kb

transported over the 64 kbit/s channels. However, advances in voic

range of options, e.g. from 5-8 kbit/s to higher quality audio at 64 kb

at a rate other than 64 kbit/s is difficult over the 64 kbit/s circuit-switc

IP telephony subscribers need to interconnect with the approximate

classical telephony subscribers, and implementation of a transcodin

necessary to transform their lower bit-rate to the legacy 64 kbit/s en

happened when the low-rate encoding of mobile networks was conetworks).

• Significant work has been performed in IETF, ITU and elsewhe

capabilities using IP that permit voice to be transported over IP us

coding. Carrier-grade products that integrate those protocols are bein


http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach14.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach14.doc


33/48

• In addition, the flexibility of packet-switched networks to accomm

streams, with a wide range of characteristics and based on IP

standardized interfaces and languages available to it, allows th

applications providing new revenue streams. In some cases those ca

driver for the introduction of IP transport within telecommunication n

"reproduction" of existing telephony services.

• IP-based networks can use the same underlying lower layer transpo

metallic pairs, cable, wireless, optical fibre, satellite. The evolution to

be accomplished economically by deploying IP-based packet switc

connected by existing transport facilities. This was a tremendous veh

access to mass markets in developed countries owing to the availabilitransport facilities; but this is not the case for developing countries,

good reason to increase their transport facilities towards developed co

Internet access. However, in The Essential Report on IP Telephon

were advised to consider a checklist of factors which would help t

introduction of IP networks at national level and for international c

checklist:

1) Does the growth of telecommunication traffic and the relative pdata support the introduction of "IP telephony"?

2) Consider the need for know-how and training to deploy rapidly sk

able to meet the technical, operational, management and policy ch

the new "IP telephony" environment.

3) Universal service: Role of an "IP telephony" system in the

access/service.

4) Affordable prices: What parameters should be taken into account

– Prices of proposed "IP telephony" to be considered as being

applications as widely utilized as possible,

– Costs that affect the affordability of the service such as:

• Interconnection charges

• Reasonable transit charges, if applicable

• Government charges (if any).

5) Interconnection matters: Are there technical and/or operational

prevent interconnection, and what steps must be taken to resolve t

6) Numbering: What steps may need to be taken to implement the



34/48

11) Consider the extent to which "IP telephony" is responsive

requirements in cases of emergency.

12) Consider broad-based investment sources, including private-pdomestic and foreign sources, for the introduction of IP-based netw

13) Consider non-discriminatory, transparent and efficient rulemaki

consistent with the sustainability of new technologies.

Discussion and a publication of these topics can be found at:



• http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/publications-articles/pdf/IP-tel_re

6 Use of IP-enabled applications

The actual services provided to end users through the Internet are defined

mechanisms of Transmission Control Protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP)

higher-level application protocols, such as hypertext transport protoco

protocol (FTP); network news transport protocol (NNTP) and simple

(SMTP). Because these protocols are not embedded in the Internet itself,

protocol can be operated over the Internet through as little as one server com

protocol data in the proper format, and one client computer that can re

protocol data. The utility of a service to users, however, increases as the

provide that service increases.

By the late 1980s, the primary Internet services included electronic mail o

and Usenet news. E-mail, which is probably the most widely-used Internet a

to send text-based messages to each other using a common addressing

Internet users to "log into" other proprietary networks, such as library card

Internet, and to retrieve data as though they were directly accessing those

users to "download" files from a remote host computer on to thei

"newsgroups" enable users to post and review messages on specific topics.

Despite the continued popularity of some of these applications, in particul

service that has catalyzed the recent explosion in Internet usage is the world

web has two primary features that make it a powerful, "full service"

i f ti th h th I t t Fi t b li t "b "


http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach15.ziphttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach16.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/publications-articles/pdf/IP-tel_report.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/publications-articles/pdf/IP-tel_report.pdfhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach16.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach15.zip


35/48

This section identifies and describes some of these new applications and pro

of implementation. Case studies and information on implemented projects ca

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach03.doc• http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.doc

• http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-applications/

6.1 E-learning and other uses of Internet in education

Distance learning is a topic that has been high on the agenda of govern

recently, the growth of the Internet and the penetration of broadband hav

content-richer delivery of educational content (already available but not before, distance learning was based on television broadcasts or the use o

videoconferencing, distance learning over the Internet offer governments,

and individuals new possibilities. These possibilities go beyond simply

delivery of content of the past, but allow the creation of truly interactive and

to distance learning.

E-learning covers a wide set of applications and processes which use all av

to deliver vocational education and training. The term covers computer-balearning, and the use of mobile technologies; it includes virtual classrooms

and uses. There are many identifiable drivers for information and comm

(ICT)-enabled and more recently information and learning technologies (IL

and these may be classified as technical innovation, organizational and bu

the characteristics of the needs and demands of the individual learner.

Online or web-based learning (learning via the Internet, intranets and ex

understood to be a subset of e-learning (technology-supported learning).

E-learning is becoming an integrated and critical component of corporate k

and performance enhancement, and return on investment is measured in that

e-learning can be electronically related to business successes, and more bu

e-learning's ability to build knowledge and develop skills while reducin

Within corporate training, there is a sound understanding of how to exploit t

The term "e-learning" is used also in further and higher education to describ

other Internet technologies to enhance the teaching and learning experience.

The e-learning solutions are:

• Simple informational solutions

(http://www.e-learningcentre.co.uk/guide2elearning/2-1/index.htm)


http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach03.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-applications/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-applications/http://www.e-learningcentre.co.uk/guide2elearning/2-1/index.htmhttp://www.e-learningcentre.co.uk/guide2elearning/2-1/index.htmhttp://www.e-learningcentre.co.uk/guide2elearning/2-1/index.htmhttp://www.e-learningcentre.co.uk/guide2elearning/2-1/index.htmhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-applications/http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach03.doc


36/48

6.2 E-government8

It is widely accepted that public administrations should use ICT tools to

democracy, accountability and efficiency – at all levels of government, and level:

• In the delivery of public services to citizens and enterprises.

• In the design of online services, adapted to the needs of citizens and b

• In the better management of financial, human and public resources and

Provision of information and services via the Internet (in particular, via th

increase the use of Internet by citizens in each country and should, as a demand for private companies to provide information and services via th

governments of developing countries play a leading and model role in the

could create a "virtuous circle" in which other components of society are m

use of the Internet, for the benefit of all citizens. ITU-D has impl

e-government projects (e.g. Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Bosnia Herzegovina, Bulga

Paraguay and Uzbekistan) aimed at increasing efficiencies in the way go

delivering online services to citizens and businesses. Further informa

http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-applications/.

6.3 E-health

E-health can be defined as the use of information and communication tec

particular the Internet to improve or enable health and healthcare. Indeed

combined use in the health sector of electronic communication and informa

data transmitted, stored and retrieved electronically) for clinical, educati

purposes, both on site and remote. This is a complex subject that has impoand regulatory components and whose relevance increases as cheaper infor

resources become available and integrated into society. In particular, th

broadband and the deployment of local area networks (LANs) inside the

smart instrumentation and powerful IT equipment, has opened up the p

between point-of-care devices and databases defining a treatment, the im

systems used by the nurses running a facility, the integration and consolidat

and patients' records, associated billing, etc., irrespective of distance or geog

revolution in-the-making is the popularization of IP technologies.

E-health resources can help:

• Improve health status by supporting healthy lifestyles, improvin

enhancing healthcare quality;



37/48

Ensuring access to and quality of e-health resources will be central to re

health in the future.

The concept of e-health is widely adopted to describe the application ofrange of functions which, in one way or another, affect the health of citizen

activity can be summarized in three main "streams" of actions:

• Delivery of care to patients by healthcare professionals

• Health-related information

• Trading health products

6.3.1 E-health applications

A wide range of potential applications of ICTs are now available in the he

implemented to varying degrees within many developed countries. These

from the purely administrative to those for care delivery.

6.3.2 Retrieval of health and medical information by citizens and inst

Another new but important trend is the retrieval of health and medical info

Internet also provides a useful medium not only for commercial inform publishers, but also for official bodies seeking innovative ways to support

campaigns.

6.3.3 Case studies and current standardization work

Some case studies highlight experiences with the implementation of pilo

http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/fg7/case_library/Categories.asp#3.

The recently created e-Health Standardization Coordination Group (eHSChow to further foster standardization in e-health and has collected informati

information, see http://www.ehscg.org/.

6.4 E-commerce

E-commerce is the use of electronic systems to engage in commercial ac

e-commerce to buy and sell goods and services, create greater corporate

customer service. A detailed tutorial of issues and developments is given at:



6 5 E agric lt re


http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/fg7/case_library/Categories.asp#3http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/fg7/case_library/Categories.asp#3http://www.ehscg.org/http://www.ehscg.org/http://www.ehscg.org/http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach17.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach17.dochttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach04.dochttp://www.ehscg.org/http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/fg7/case_library/Categories.asp#3


38/48

ICTs for product-tracking have already been used successfully; see: http

action/20030328/index.shtml.

ITU-D successfully launched an IP-based e-agriculture project in rural information please visit: http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/e-strategy/e-applications/

In addition, governments are involved in building wireless network backbon

provide connectivity among national and international communities. This is

in regions and in least developed countries. With increased information

interregional trade has led to partial improvement in the quality of life of the

6.6 E-broadcasting: broadcasting over the InternetThe Internet is a natural medium for broadcasting, given its architectu

broadcasting of digital multimedia content can be found in:


6.6.1 Broadcasting of radio programmes

It all started with music CDs: they started delivering pristine quality music

market. With the advancement of audio compression techniques, the mosfiles (the popular designation for the Moving Picture Expert Group (MPEG

compression scheme), digital audio came into everyday parlance. The advan

processing devices, allowing the creation of cheap real-time encoders, toget

of extensive MP3 content, has stimulated the creation of the "digital age sh

provide listening round the globe. As the bandwidth required for audio tran

than for video (a V.90 PCM modem dial-up connection can suffice), Intern

an early entrant in the suite of Internet applications explored by the Internuse of the Internet raises intellectual property issues that are being stud

international levels.

6.6.2 Video streaming

TV broadcasting used to be a monopoly for over-the-air or cable TV netwo

bandwidth that video signals required for a quality transmission – be

However, the penetration of the broadband Internet and more importantly

image compression techniques such as ITU-T H.264 | MPEG4/AVC have broadcast-quality content using ADSL links or other bandwidth-richer

technologies. In several countries, traditional telephone companies are c

experimenting with offering services that are similar to, or even richer

traditional cable TV operators.


http://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtmlhttp://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtmlhttp://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtmlhttp://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtmlhttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach18.ziphttp://www.itu.int/ITU-T/special-projects/ip-policy/final/Attach18.ziphttp://www.ipv6style.jp/en/action/20030328/index.shtml


39/48

• Company presentations

• Board meetings

• Conferences with the clients

• News and entertainment

6.6.2.1 How does streaming work?

Suppose you are interested in keeping your sales force up-to-date with a new

force is distributed across the seven seas. Getting them across to your place

the time and expenditure involved in travelling are not worth the cost of tOne of the options is to send the product details in the form of a product dem

over the web. But this product demo involves heavy files and multimedia ap

to download over the web. What is the solution here?

Content that is streamed in the form of packets and is downloaded while the

section of an already downloaded part may be one way to avoid tho

technological parlance is called streaming.

6.6.2.2 How can streaming help?

In general, the best way of pres