handbook ornamental
TRANSCRIPT
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Seed and Planting material production, testing and labels
in ornamental crops
T. Janakiram, Sujatha .A. Nair, R. L. Misra, Naveen Kumar and S. P. S. Raghava
Floriculture in India is growing at the rate of 7-10% per annum. The area under
flowers is around 1, 16,000 ha concentrated mostly in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, and West Bengal.
The success of floriculture industry mainly depends on the quality of seed and
planting materials. Because of the diversity in floriculture products, production and
distribution of both vegetatively propagated plant material and also seed propagated plant
materials have emerged as the most important and powerful business world over. Cultivation
of flowering annuals for seed production requires constant attention, in-depth knowledge,
skill and specialization. In most of the western countries, the climatic conditions during
winters are unfavourable for seed production, resulting in higher cost. Therefore, many seed
companies from the USA, UK, Holland, Germany and France have started their seed
production in India, which is being carried done on contractual basis by farmers in differentregions having favourable climate conditions. In India, about 600–800 ha area is under seed
production. Of the total production, Punjab alone contributes for 45–50%, Sangrur, Ludhiana
and Patiala being major seed-producing centres. The rest is being contributed by Karnataka
(Bangalore and Ranebennur), West Bengal (Kalimpong and Tarai area), Bihar (Ranchi),Maharashtra (Pune), Haryana (Panipat and Sirsa), Himachal Pradesh (Kulu Valley) and
Jammu and Kashmir (Srinagar Valley). The growers have adopted mostly open-pollinatedcultivars. There is a need to improve the quality of seeds and bulbs produced in India. The
value of flower seed and bulb in international market is about Rs. 1.5 crores annually.
Micropropagation has an edge over traditional propagation in case of vegetatively propagatedfloricultural plants. Micro-propagation has become order of the day for rapid multiplication
of disease-free, clean plants in millions in a very short time. Difficult-to-propagate plants can
now be propagated in any numbers through this technology. The other advantages are product
uniformity, season independent production, and easy exchange of germplasm and plant
material. The new Seed Act of 1988 which facilitated import of seeds and planting materials
of international varieties and the liberalization of industrial and trade policies in 1991 paved
way for the development of export-oriented units with strong back up from NHB and
APEDA. A number of units came up with the foreign collaboration. About 122 tissue culture
labs with an aggregate capacity of 245 million plants/annum have been set up in country. The
concentration of labs around Pune and Bangalore is due to climatic advantage and availability
of good infrastructural facilities.
Since most of the ornamental plants and seeds are produced by the nurseries, the
document covers all the related aspects to nursery for production of quality seed and
planting material
Importance of quality planting material
Good quality planting material (seeds, bulbs, etc) is a basic need of a grower. Thequality refers to genuine and diseased free material. Good quality planting material will boost
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productivity. Seeds or bulbs etc are the carriers of genetic potential for higher crop
production. The farmers are less sensitive to price when they are sure of quality planting
material its exclusiveness and the monetary compensations that will accrue from higher production. In case of problems caused by virus and virus like diseases, use of virus free
planting material becomes mandatory. Viability and good germination are of paramountimportance in case of seed propagated ornamental crops (Marigold, Aster, Zinnia, Hollyhock
etc). In ornamental crops very little have been achieved in the production of genuine plantingmaterial free from the diseases. It is perhaps lack of infrastructure facilities and trained
manpower. The nursery registration and certificate act and equipped with modern methods of plant propagation would only help in filling up the gap between demand and supply. The
demands on production and quality levels are increasing strongly. This development makes
increasing demands on both management and plant material for the nurserymen in our
country. The nursery has not only to cater to the varieties of plants but quality in terms of
genotype and freeness from the diseases has to be ensured.
Important considerations in quality plant material production.
Aspects of quality, which have an effect on plant performance, are either intrinsic or
visible
Visible aspects (In case of plants propagated through budding or grafting. e.g.: rose)
Homogeneity of plants – Lack of homogeneity may indicate different grades of inputs orgrowth differences in the production field. Source of rootstock and bud wood is
important.
Diameter of rootstock indicates the grade of rootstock and quality of the growth process.
Well-developed fibrous root system. This characteristic demonstrates growth on a well- prepared soil and regular growth during the period of production.
Strong outgrowth of bud or graft. A strong branch has the potential to quickly develop a
branching structure, the basis for flower production. The initial development, fast or slow,
one or more branches, is often variety related. No mechanical damage, no visible pests and diseases.
Healthy appearance. No growth abnormalities, green branches.
Intrinsic aspects
Strong physiological potential. Stress-free growth during the plant production period will
enable the plant to re-grow easily after planting in the field or green house, because plants have stored reserve food.
Healthy reproduction material and genetic homogeneity. Selection of source forreproduction material is based on healthy growth and material i.e. bud wood and root
stock, true to variety.
Free of non-visible diseases, e.g. Agrobacterium, Verticillium. Once the plants are
uprooted, these diseases, if in the early stage, are not visible. During the plant production
process this has to be controlled.
Sources of quality planting material Since quality of planting material effects the production, it is necessary to collect the
basic material from a genuine and reliable source. Efforts should be made to identify nodal
centers for supply of elite planting material of important ornamental plants in our country. In
recent years several multinational and industrial houses have entered into floriculture
business and are producing quality plant material. Apart from private industries the intensive
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research conducted at premier research institutes like IIHR, IARI, NBRI and other SAU, S
had led to development and release of high yielding and disease free varieties . The planting
materials of those elite varieties are supplied from these institutions in small quantities tousers for future multiplication.
Types of nurseries:
Three broad category of ornamental nurseries are:
Field grown nursery: Field production requires soils with good fertility, high
Organic-matter content (3-5%), and fine tilth, sandy-clay to clay-loam soil, which will hold
together in a ball, are ideal.
Container plant production:
Container production does not necessarily require good soil
on site. Container growing medium can be brought from remote locations.
However, good soil on site as a resource in media construction may be useful. A firm surface,
which allows for the placing of containers and insures surface drainage, is a must.
The advantages of containerized production includev High plant densities, use of land unsuited for field production,
v Planting times independent of the weather,
v Lower transportation costs because of lightweight media and less root loss and a
greater chance of survival than with field-grown plants.
The disadvantages are also numerous like
v Small containers need frequent watering, nutrients are rapidly depleted,
v Plants easily become root-bound,
v Containers are costly, labour costs to pot up plants are high and the roots are stressed
by temperature extremes.
There are several factors to keep in mind when deciding which containers to use: cost, design
features that control root growth, how the container affects growing medium moisture content
and temperature, availability, how the container suits the particular needs of the nursery,
durability, and shipping capacity.
Round black-plastic pots are the norm, but they can cause root constriction, leading to plants
with poorly developed root systems. There are other kinds of containers that promote better
root systems. For instance, copper-lined, white, and light-colored containers produce more
root growth, and square and stair-step pots help keep plants from becoming root-bound.
Pot in pot container production This is a technique of growing trees and shrubs in pots that
have been placed inside other pots that are permanently placed in the ground)
The pot-in-pot method of production was developed to alleviate some of the problems
associated with container production, such as blow over and moisture loss. This systeminvolves burying a holder pot, or moat pot, into the ground, and placing a containerized plantinside this pot. The greatest drawback to this system is the high initial cost of the moat pot.
But the moat pot is a long-term investment, since it will last for 15 years or more.
LAY OUT AND PLANNING GOOD NURSERY Nursery is an area for rearing plants. It is the place where all kinds of plants like trees,
shrubs, climbers etc. are grown and kept for transporting or for using them as stock plants for budding, grafting and other method of propagation or for sale.
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The modern nurseries also serve as an area where garden tools, fertilizers are also
offered for sale along with plant material. The area for nursery depends on the volume of
plants maintenance for business and the area may be small to large.The production and productivity of tree plants depends upon the availability of quality
planting material which in turn largely depends upon the nurseries and nursery activities. Thenumber of genuine and quality fruit and ornamental plants varieties produced by Agricultural
Universities, State Departments of Horticulture and Research Institutions are very meagre tomeet the demand of large number of growers through out the country. For this reason, most
of the clientile are depending on private nurseries and nurserymen for their requirement ofornamental plants. Hence, there is a greater scope to prosper for the nurserymen, who can
supply genuine and high quality plant material of different fruit and ornamentals plants
produced on sound scientific lines. Such high quality planting material could be produced by
careful planning, establishment and management of nurseries. The success of any nursery
depends largely upon several factors viz., proper selection of site, careful planning, selection
of crops and varieties which are in good demand and procuring the progeny from the reputed
institutions/nurseries, elite gardens, establishment of mother plants blocks/scion banks,
acquiring scientific information of each variety and skilful management in production of
necessary scions as well as marketing the same. As there is increased demand for the tropical
and sub-tropical fruit plants and ornamentals in recent past the planning of a nursery istherefore emphasized in this chapter.
For the establishment of ornamental plant nursery on scientific base the following
points have to be considered.
A. Selection of siteLocation: The selected site for establishing a nursery should be located in an established
nursery area. By doing so, one can share the experiences of fellow nurserymen and therebymany mistakes can be avoided in planning, management and marketing of the nursery stock.
The selected site should preferably on a highway or atleast connected with a goodmotorable road, which facilitates easy and economic transport of inputs and nursery plants to
the users, orchardists and fruit growers. The selected site should also have electricity andother communication facilities. These facilities will improve the production as well as
marketing.
The Soil: The success of any nursery depends mainly upon the quality of soil and abundant
supply of good quality potable water. Before selecting the site for nursery, the soil and water
analysis must be done, since most of the fruit and ornamental plants cannot tolerate salinity
and alkalinity. The soil should be light to medium in texture with good fertility and sufficient
water holding capacity along with good drainage. A soil pH of 6.0 to 7.0 is most suitable for
any nursery. Salinity in soil or irrigation water leads to salt injury resulting in nutritional
deficiencies, marginal browning of leaves and in acute cases death of grafts, layers and
nursery seedlings especially in summer months. Therefore, a careful selection of soil with
good quality irrigation water supply is of paramount importanance for the nursery.
Topography: The topography of the selected land should be plain with one per cent slope.
The slope facilitates smooth flow of irrigation water and also gives a grand panoromic view,if planned and laid out properly which impresses the customers easily.The extent of land required for the nursery depends upon the targets of planting
material of different fruit crops and ornamental plants and varieties to be produced/multiplied. For example to produce about l lakh mango grafts atleast 2 hectares of
nursery land is required.
B. Planning and layout of a nursery
After selection of site for the establishment of a nursery, planning may be done inconsultation with an experienced horticulturist or nurserymen. By doing so the cost on
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establishment, production and marketing can be reduced substantially, besides performing
various nursery operations most efficiently and economically.
While planning and layout is being done, the following components are to be takencare and provision should be made for these.
1. Fence: Prior to the establishment of a nursery, a good fence with barbed wire must beerected all around the nursery to prevent tress pass of animals and theft. The fence could be
further strengthened by planting a live hedge with thorny fruit plants (like Koranda). Thisalso adds beauty in bearing and also provides additional income through sale of fruits and
seedlings obtained from the seed.
2. Roads and paths: A proper planning for roads and paths inside the nursery will not only
add beauty, but also make the nursery operations easy and economical. This could be
achieved by dividing the nursery into different blocks and various sections. But at the same
time, the land should not be wasted by unnecessarily laying out of paths and roads. Each
road/ path should lead the customer to a point of interest in the nursery area.
3. Progeny block/Mother plant block: The nursery should have a well-maintained progeny
block or mother plant block/scion bank planted with those varieties in good demand
(Annexure 1). The grafts/layers/ rooted cuttings/seedlings should be obtained preferably from
the original breeder /research institute from where it is released or from a reputed nursery.
One should remember that, the success of any nursery largely depends upon the initialselection of progeny plants or mother plants for further multiplication. Any mistake made in
this aspect will result in loss of the reputation of the nursery. A well managed progeny block
or mother plants block will not only create confidence among the customers but also reduces
the cost of production and increases the success rate of grafting/ budding/layering because ofavailability of fresh scion material throughout the season within the nursery itself and there
will not be any lag period between separations of scion and graftage.4. Wells, sump, pipelines, generators etc: Fruit and ornamental nursery plants require
abundant supply of water for irrigation, since they are grown In polybags or pots with limitedquantity of potting mixture. Hence sufficient number of wells to yield sufficient quantity of
irrigation water is a must in nurseries. In areas with low water yields and frequent powerfailures, a sump to hold sufficient quantity of water to irrigate the nursery plants is also very
much essential along with appropriate pump for lifting the irrigation water.
In areas where electricity failure is a problem which is more common, an alternate
power supply (generator) is very essential for smooth running of pumpset. Since water
scarcity is a limiting factor in most of the areas in the country a well laid out PYC pipeline
system will solve the problem to a greater extent. An experienced agricultural engineer may
be consulted in this regard for layout of pipeline. This facilitates efficient and economic
distribution of irrigation water to various components in the nursery.
5. Office cum stores: An office-cum-stores is needed for effective management of the
nursery. The office building may be constructed in a place which offers better supervision
and also to receives customers. The office building may be decorated with attractive
photographs of fruit ornamental varieties propagated in the nursery with details of it. A store
room of suitable size is needed for storing polybags, tools and implements, packagingmaterial, labels, pesticides, fertilizers etc.6. Seed beds: In a nursery, this component is essential to raise the seedlings and rootstocks.
These are to be laid out near the water source, since they require frequent watering andirrigation. Beds of 1-meter width of any convenient length are to be made. A working area of
60cm between the beds is necessary. This facilitates ease in sowing of seeds, weeding,watering, spraying and lifting of seedlings. Irrigation channels are to be laid out conveniently.
Alternatively, sprinkler irrigation system may be provided for watering the beds, which offersuniform germination and seedling growth.
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7. Nursery beds: Rising of seedlings / rootstocks in polybags requires more space compared
to nursery beds but mortality is greatly reduced along with uniformity. Nursery beds area
should also have a provision to keep the grafted plants either in trenches of 30cm deep and 1m wide so as to accommodate 500 grafts / layers in each bed. Alternatively, the grafts/ layers
can be arranged on the ground in beds of 1 m wide with 60cm working place in between the beds. Such beds can be irrigated either with a rose fitted to a flexible hosepipe or by overhead
micro sprinklers.8. Potting mixture and potting yard: For better success of nursery plants, a good potting
mixture is necessary. The potting mixtures for different purposes can be prepared by mixingfertile red soil, well rotten FYM, leaf mold, oil cakes etc. in different proportions. The potting
mixture may be prepared well in advance by adding sufficient quantity of superphosphate for
better decomposition and solubilization. The potting mixture may be kept near the potting
yard, where potting/pocketing is done. Construction of a potting yard of suitable size
facilitates potting of seedlings or grafting/ budding operations even on a rainy day.
c. Structures for nursery1. Shade houses: Shade houses in nurseries in tropical and sub-tropical regions offer many
advantages like raising of seedlings in bags directly, protecting the grafts from hot summer
months, effective irrigation through upside down overhead microsprinklers. The shade houses
made with shade nets (50% or 75%) for regulation of shade are particularly very useful inarid regions where the humidity is very low during summer months. The details of shadenets
use is given in the chapter of polyhouses.
2. Green houses/Polyhouses : Grafting or budding of several fruit species under polyhouses
or low cost green houses with natural ventilation will enhance the percentage of graft/budtake besides faster growth of grafts due to favourable micro climatic conditions of polyhouse.
The design and other details are given in the chapter of polyhouses.
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PUBLIC ROAD
Lay out of a Model OrnamentalNursery
Sump Pump
Shade House
O f f i c e c u m
S t o r e
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GENERAL NURSERY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Facilities required for propagating many plant species by seed, cuttings or graftingand budding include two basic units namely a structure with temperature control and ample
light such as a green house or hot bed where seeds can be germinated or cuttings rooted. Thesecond unit, is a structure into which the young tender plants can be moved for hardening
preparatory to transplanting and cold frames or lath houses are useful for this purpose.
Propagating structures
i. Green houses: There are number of types of green houses namely low cost green house
and commercial green houses. In green house construction, a wood or metal frame work
is built to which wood or metal sash bars are fixed to support panes of glass embedded
in putty. In all polyhouses/ green houses means of providing air movement and air
exchange is necessary to aid in controlling temperature and humidity. It is best, if
possible to have in the green house heating and self opening ventilators and evaporative
cooling systems.ii. Plastic green houses: Green houses covered with various types of plastic film have
become very popular for small home garden as well as for large commercial
installation. Several kinds of plastic materials are available and are cheaper than glass.
Plastic houses are usually of temporary construction except when permanent high costcoverings are used. Plastic covered green houses tend to be much lighter than glass
covered ones with a build up of excessive high humidity.a) Polythene film: This is the most inexpensive covering material but it is the short
lasting one. However, UV ray resisting polyethylene film of various thickness isusually recommended which lasts longer.
b) PVC film: This material is pliable and comes in various thickness and widthsupto 6 ft. It is longer lasting than polythene and is more expensive PVC surface of
film tends to collect dust and lower the light intensity in due course of time.
c) Polyester film: This is a strong material with excellent weathering properties
lasting for 3-5 years and is unaffected by extremes of heat or cold. But is usually
costlier than polythene film/pvc film.
d) Fiberglass: Rigid panels, corrugated or flat fiber glass sheets embedded in plastic
are widely used for green house construction. Fibre glass is strong, long lasting,
light weight and easily applied which is coming in a variety of widths, lengths and
thickness. It is costlier than poly thin film/pvc film.
iii. Hotbeds: The hot bed is often used for the same purpose as a green house but in a
smaller scale. Amateur operations and seedlings can be started and leafy cuttings root
early in the season in such structures. Heat is provided artificially below the
propagating medium by electric heating cables, pot water, steam pipes or hot air blows.As in the green house, in the hot beds attention must be paid for shading and ventilationas well as temperature and humidity control.
iv. Lathhouses: These structures are very useful in providing protection from the sun forcontainer grown nursery stock in areas of high summer temperatures and high light
intensity. Well established plants. also can require lath house protection including shadeloving plants Lathhouses construction varies widely depending on the material used.
Aluminium pre-fabricated lathhouses are available but may be more costly than woodstructures. Shade is provided by appropriate structures and use of shade nets of different
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densities allow various intensities of light in the lathhouses.
Miscellaneous propagating structures
i. Mist beds: These are valuable propagating units both in the green house and out doorsand are useful mainly in rooting of leafy cuttings.
ii. Mist chamber: This is a structure used to propagate soft wood cuttings, difficult to root plants and shrubs. Here the principle is to spray the cuttings with a minimum quantity
of water. This is achieved by providing the cuttings a series of intermittent sprayingsrather than a continuous spray. The intermittent spraying can be done easily by means
of a high pressure pump and a time switch. The pump leads to a pipeline system inside
the propagating structure. The mist nozzles are fitted to these pipelines and suitably
spaced over the propagating material.
iii. Nursery bed: These are raised beds or boxes made of brick and mortar, provided with
drainage holes at the bottom. The dimensions of the boxes are 60 cm high, 120 cm
broad and length as required preferably not exceeding 10 m. Roof structures for
planting on both sides and forming ridges at the centre are constructed on the top of the
nursery beds. These structures may be made permanent with angle iron or may be made
of wood. Moveable bamboo mats, palm leaf mats are placed over these structures to protect the seedlin"g from hot sun and heavy rains. Even shade roofing can be used for
this purpose for raising see dings.
iv. Fluorescent light boxes: Young plants of many species grow satisfactorily under
artificial light from fluorescent lamp units. Although adequate growth of many plantspecies may be obtained under fluorescent lamps but not up to the mark compared to
good green house conditions.v. Propagating cases: Even in green house, humidity conditions are often not sufficiently
high for rooting. The use of enclosed frames or cases covered with glass or plasticmaterials may be necessary for successful rooting. In using such structures, care is
necessary to avoid the build up of disease organisms due to high humidity.
Types/species/varieties of plants for production under polyhouse conditionsThere are many tender and half hardy plants worth raising each year, all of which can
be propagated from cuttings throughout the year. Some of the varieties / types are:
Tender perennial and half-hardy plants viz : Argyranthemum, Bidens aurea, Calceolaria,
Cheiranthus cheiri, Convolvulus sabatius, Diascia barberae, Diascia rigescens, Diascia vigils,
Epilobium canum, Erysimum linifolium, Fuchsia magllanica, Hebex andersonii, Hebe
ochracea, Hebe rakaiensis, Lavatera olbia, Lavatera thuringiaca, Lotus berthelotii,
Osteospermum, Pelargonium, Pelargonium x fragrans, Penstemon, Salvia argentea, Salvia
lavandulifolia, Salvia uliginosa, Verbena.
Bedding plant viz; Ageratum, Antirrhinum majus, Begonia semperflorens, Callistephus
chinesis, Dahlia figaro, Dorotheanthus bellidiflorus, Gazania x hyubrida, (8) Helichrysum
bracteatum, Ipomoes tricolor, Limonium sinuatum, Nemesia strumosa, Pelargonium, Salivasplendens, Tagetes erecta, Verbena hybrida, Viola x wittrockiana.Under Indian conditions, quoset type, multi span green house is most suitable,
because of its low cost and ease of fabrication, ultraviolet resistant low density polyethylenesingle film cladding of 200 micron thickness is sufficient for naturally ventilated and fan and
pad green houses. Fan and Pad green houses are most suitable for nursery raising and rootingof cuttings due to high relative humidity inside. High humidity can be maintained in green
house used for nursery raising or for rooting cuttings by misting or fogging which is alsoknown as mist chamber.
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The containerized transplant production and the hybrid seed production of high value
annual ornamentals have become a service oriented industry in advanced countries.
Thus, the green house technology for production of planting material would be highly paying, there being a demand for planting material. Nurserymen are enterpreneurs can avail
themselves of the subsidy facilities being provided by the Government of India and technicalguidance provided by the State Department of Horticulture and the Agricultural Universities
for adopting the technology and making covered cultivation or profitable venture.
SHADE NETSThe shade nets are now popular among the modern nurserymen. The shadenets are
primarily used to protect the nursery plants from direct sunlight. The display planting
material is most important consideration in nursery activities. The planting material requires
certain amount of protected cultivation systems, which help in maintaining the freshness and
appeal of the plants. The shade nets are available in desired shading percentages. These are
ultraviolet ray stabilised and can be used for longer time. With many incentives in the form of
subsidies from the:Government, use of shade net is becoming more popular.
v The main effect of shade net is to reduce sunlight to the required intensity
v Though white, green and black are popular colours, red and blue nets are recent
introductions. Transluscent blue shade net gives blue light, which is found to beexcellent for plant growth.
v For general purpose shading nets with open weave pattern are preferred in fan and pad
system, however closed weaving patterns will be useful.
v Shade nets are also used as sunscreen in low cost polyhouses or glass houses used for production of plant material.
v Movable screen have the advantage that whenever sunlight decreases the shade netcan be moved to one side to let more sunlight.
v Shade nets help increase in quantity (growth) and quality besides having partial protection from biotic and abiotic stresses.
Fertilization
Commercial synthetic fertilizers (including slow-release and liquid fertilizers) have played a
key role in modern nurseries. As organic production becomes standardized, more and more
nursery growers are adopting organic fertilizers. Unlike synthetic greenhouse fertilizers,
organic fertilizers have been given little research to support their use in a nursery mix recipe.
Regardless of fertilizer type—whether the source is synthetic or organic—in sustainable
nursery production the emphasis is on zero runoff. Excessive nitrates and phosphorus are the
most common problems in runoff water.
Organic or synthetic slow-release fertilizers help cut down levels of nitrates in runoff water.
Slow-release and controlled-release synthetic fertilizers, such as Nitroform™ and
Osmocote™, are becoming more common in container production systems. For best results,
they should be incorporated into the growing media, rather
than top dressed. Slow-release fertilizers are often used in combination with liquidfertilization.Foliar feeding can be used to supplement soil and liquid fertilization, especially where certain
nutrients are deficient and must be incorporated into the plant quickly
Irrigation
The two most widely used irrigation systems are overhead and drip (or trickle). Overheadirrigation is designed to cover a large area, and these systems are the least expensive to
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install. However, this method produces uneven water distribution, which can slow plant
growth, encourage disease, and contribute to runoff. drip or trickle system, which uses 60%-
70% less water than overhead systems. Drip irrigation systems cost more to install thanoverhead systems, but have superior application uniformity and efficiency. They are also less
affected by wind and crop canopies, and they produce less runoff. Another advantage is thatworkers can continue working while the plants are being irrigated. The biggest disadvantage
to trickle irrigation, besides the initial cost, is keeping the pipes and emitters clean. A third,less-used type of irrigation system is sub irrigation using capillary sand beds. In this system,
water rises into containerized plants through capillary action. Usually, the sand bed iscovered with at least one inch of fine sand, and slopes very slightly from one end to the other.
Water is released at the high end and slowly percolates to the low end. These systems cost the
most to install, but they have no runoff or leaching.
Weed ControlWeed control is extremely important. Weeds not only compete for water and nutrients, but
they can also hinder sales of nursery stock. Weed control efforts should focus on two areas:
in the pot and under the pot. Sanitation is the least costly and most effective method for
controlling weeds. To prevent weed seeds from blowing into pots, attention to a vegetation-free zone both on and surrounding the production bed—is critical. Hand weeding is costly,
but it may be appropriate in a small nursery setting. Weeds must be removed when they are
still small, since large quantities of media are lost when big weeds are pulled out of
containers.Herbicides, on the other hand, are widely used in container nursery production. Even though
weed-free media is used to establish nursery plants, wind and birds and surface irrigationwater are sources of weed seeds that get deposited onto the pot surface. Thus, pre- and post-
emergent herbicides are commonly used in commercial nursery production to control thesefreeloaders.
NURSERY PLANT PROTECTIONInsect pests, diseases are critical factors in the process of multiplication of plant
material under open as well as controlled conditions. Control of insects and diseases are
integral part of the nursery plant production.
Pest management:Prevention or avoidance of pests and their damage is possible by the following
methods:
· Maintain vigorous, healthy plants by using proper culture and management practices
· Practice IPM and realize that all culture and management factors can affect pests
· Scout plants for pests
·
Use soaps, oils and botanicals whenever possible· Spot spray only infested plants that exceed the threshold· Destroy heavily infested or injured plants
· Conserve and promote beneficial insects by selective pesticide use
Disease management:
· Steam Sterilization: Rooting media sterilisation is essential if it has been exposed or
previously used as it may contain undesirable microorganisms, insects, and weeds.
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Steam sterilisation is relatively expensive but ecofriendly compared to chemical
sterilisation
· Soil Solarization: In solar sterilisation, the soil is ploughed thoroughly and coveredwith polythene sheet for few days depending on temperature conditions
· Hot Water Treatment (bulbs,corms)
· Biological Control ( Bacillus, Pseudomonas, and Streptomyces and fungi such as
Trichoderma reduces fungal plant pathogens)· Chemical Control
SCALES
Scales are serious pests on many plants. These remain covered inside a hard coating
which looks like a waxy scale and infest lower surface of leaves, veins of branches.
v These insects suck plant sap and as a result plants become weak
v The affected leaves turn yellow, deformed while the branches and the plant may die -
in severe cases.
v Plants with green shade or semi shade are more prone to attack
v If tender annual flowerings crops are attacked, it is necessary to eradicate them
immediately.
Management: Selection of scale free planting material prevents early build up of pest.Cutting and burning of infested parts reduces further spread. Sprays of dimethoate, etheon
and chlorpyriphos at 0.05% provides effective control of scales. Application of 10%
pongamia oil to pruned shoots completely controls rose red scale within 3 weeks. Natural
enemies viz., Aphytis spp. Chilocorus nigritus and Pharasymnus horni are common enemiesof red scale in nature. Spraying of fish oil resin soap at 0.5 kg/30 litres of water or methyl
parathion 0.05% or dimethoate 0.05% provides effective control of scales on orchids.
THRIPS
Thrips are minute insects and mainly attack tender leaves and growing buds. Theseare sucking insects which affect a large number of plants. Both nymphls and adults can affect
plant parts.
v As a result of sucking nature of the pest, plants become weak and the affected parts
develop brown streaks, with burnt appearance.
v The tender twigs, foliage, flower buds get distorted and dry.
Management: Sprays of oxydemeton methyl or dimethoate or oxydemet on methyl or
acephate given at 0.05% at 10 days interval provides significant control of thrips. A predatory
wasp, Polistes hebraeus preys on R. cruentatus. Soil application of phorate @ 1 kg a.i./ha
also reduces thrips damage. Drenching soil with chlorpyriphos 0.1% also helps in reducing
population.
APHIDSAphids are sucking insects which are blackish or brownish or green in colour and
suck sap from tender shoots, leaves and flower buds. The aphids excrete honey-dews on the
foliage causing sooty mould to grow over the foliage.
vShoots or foliage get deformed
v Affected plants become weak, retard in growth
v In case of ornamental plants, ornamental look may be affected.
Management: Spraying of dimathoate 0.05% or oxydemeton-methyl 0.05% or malathion 0.1% at 10-15 days interval controls aphid population effectively. To prevent recurrence of the
pest granular insecticides like phorate @ 1.0 kg a.i/ ha should be applied to soil. Applicationof 4% alcohol extracts of Solanum indicum and Erythrina indica provides good control of
rose aphid. Water extract of pongamia kernel 4% or pongamia oil 2% sprays cause significantmortality of aphids, on chrysanthemum. Application of neem oil 1 % also reduces aphid
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population effectively. Grubs and adults of coccinellid beetles and maggots prey upon the
aphids and effectively wipe out their population in nature.
MEALYBUGMealy bugs are small fleshy insects which remain covered in a white, wooly and
waxy secretions.
v Generally older plants are affected
v The insects suck the sap as a result of which plants weaken, leaves turn yellow & getdeformed.
v In severe cases affected plants may even die
v Mealy bugs secrete honey dews which stick to the foliage and as a result of which
sooty mould cover the leaf surface impairing the normal activity of the leaves
Management: Prompt collection and desctruction of infested parts reduces spread of the
pest. Crawling of ants on plants is the sign of beginning of mealybug infestation. Spraying
should be taken up at this stage. Sprays of methyl parathion 0.05% or dimethoate 0.05% or
acephate 0.1 % at 15 days interval effectively controls mealybug infestation. Application of
pongamia oil 2% also provides good control of mealy bugs, if plant is not sensitive to oil
sprays. Release of coccinellid predator, Cryptolamus montrouzieri and a parasitoid,
Leptomastridia abnormis reduces mealy bug population in glass house grown ornamentals.
WHITEFLIESWhiteflise are tinny insects, white in colour and are very active.
Management: Excessive dampness and dark conditions should be avoided for crops grown
under protected conditions. Removal and burning of heavily infested leaves checks
multiplication of the pest. Clean cultivation, using of insect screening nets and Proper closingof doors help in preventing incidence of whiteflies. Spraying of phosphamidin 0.05%
alternated with triazophos 0.05% at an early stage of infestation effectively contains pest build up. Sprays of methomyl and acephate at 0.05% significantly reduce nymph and pupal
population. A management package of spraying dichlorvos 0.05% for adults, triazophos orSpark at 0.05% alternating with pongamia oil 1% for nymphs and soil application of
carbofuran @ 1 kg a.i./ha provides effective control of whitefly on gerbera. Release of a parasitoid, Encarsia formosa (6 adults/m2), and use of yellow sticky traps gives significant
control of whiteflies on green house ornamentals.
MITESThe mite is a minute dot sized pest red in colour almost invisible to the naked eyes,
resembling the spider but not a true spider. This is a sucking type of pest if established once,
they may become a serious problem.
v The tender shoots affected by mites develop spots and turn yellow, dry and drop.
Management: Cutting and burning of severely infested plant parts reduces further
multiplication of mites. Proper ventilation, irrigation and clean cultivation are essential to
keep the pest population under control. Acaricides like dicofol 0.05% and wettable sulphur
0.3% sprays (2-3) at 15 days interval gives considerable control of mites. Spraying of
triazophos 0.05% or dimethoate 0.05% followed by a spray of pongamia oil 1 % provides
significant control of T.urticae on carnation. New acariades like vertimec, pentac Apollo,Mitac, Cascade are also used to combat mite problem in nurseries. Commercial neemformulation (3500 ppm azadirachtin) application against T. urticae Causes mortality, growth
retardation, reduction in egg hatchability and egg laying. Methyl parathion 0.05%, fluvalinate0.012% and ethion 0.05% also offer significant control of mites that infest various
ornamentals. Use of dicofol, 0.05%, protenofos 0.05% and wetlable sulfur 0.05% bringsdown mites population considerably on ornamental crops. Release of predatory mite,
Amblyseivs sp @ 20/plant successfully contains T.uritcae population on Rose.
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LEAF EATING CATERPILLARSCaterpillars feed on foliage
v They damage leaves by feeding
Management: Collection and destruction of egg masses and leaves infested with early larval
instars of hairy caterpillar and S.litura reduces pest build up. Setting up of light traps attractsadult moths and helps in monitoring pest population. Spraying of quinalphos 0.05% or
chlorpyriphos 0.05% gives protection to foliage from semiloopers, hairy caterpillars andS.litura. Application of Bacillus thuringiensis dust and spray (3 x 106 spores) gives effective
control of these caterpillars on rose. Spraying of plant derivatives like neem oil 1 % or neemkernel extract 4% checks damage by early instar larvae.
LEAF BEETLES AND WEEVILSManagement: Soil application of phorate or carbofuran @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha controls
grubs. Setting up of light traps helps in collecting adults and monitoring pest incidence.
Fortnightly sprays of quinalphos 0.05% or methyl parathion 0.05% or chlorpyriphos 0.05%
taken up in the evening protects foliage from betles and weevils on rose. Ethanol extract of
neem kernel at 2.5% or neem oil 1 % inhibits feeding by chafer beetles on rose.
CUT WORMSThese are essentially found in a nursery. The insect remains in the soil and attacks the
seedlings at ground level.Management: Use of light traps collects adult moths. Poison bait consisting of carbaryl or
malathion at 0.1% , wheat bran andmollasses scattered in the fielkd, controls larvae. Sprays
of methyl parathion 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05% provides protection to foliage from cut
worms. Application of granulosis virus causes 90-94% mortality of cutworm on ornamentals.
LEAFMINERS
The larvae of the insects mines into leaves between epidermal layers leaving excreta on leafsurfaces
v The affected leaves become brittle turn brown & dry.Management: Removal and destruction of severely mined leaves reduces further damage.
Sprays of deltanethns 0.05% triazophos 0.06% and pongamia oil 0.5% causes significantmortality of larvae. Drenching of soil with Margosan (0.33%) and spraying with same
chemical at 0.94 and 1.25% effectively reduces number of pupae and adults. Use of yellow
sticky traps coated with chlorpyriphos or permethrin reduces adult population. Release of
eulophid parasitoid. Diglyphus intermedius @ 1000 at weekly intervals gives considerable
reduction of leaf miner population on chrysanthemum.
SNAILS AND SLUGSSnails are one of the important pests found in nursery
v They cut the young plants at general level and damage seedlings during rainy season.
Management: Hand picking and killing by putting them in 5% salt solution is the most
effective method to bring down the population. Spreading of 'Snail kill' (3% metaldehyde
pellets) in the field kills snails and slugs. Spraying of neem oil 1 % and water extract of
soapnut 5% protects foliage from snail damage.
DISEASESi) Damping off: This is a major disease of germinating seeds which is caused by three
separate fungi mainly species of Pythium Rhizoctonia and. Phytophthora. The diseaseis expressed either by the failure of the seedling to emerge or by the death of the
seedling soon after emergence. A common symptom is the girdling of young seedlingstems at the soil surface. Damping off usually occurs only in youmg, succullent
seedlings during or shortly after germination, but older plants may be affected insevere cases.
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Control measures involves direct control by use of Captan 0.2% or Bavistin
0.15% or Kavach 0.2%, drenching or use of organomecuerials such as Cersan or
Thiram or Agrosan as seed treatment chemicals at rate of 2g/ ka of seed. Regulation ofenvironmental conditions such as excess humidity, water also plays an important role in
spread and control of disease.
ii) Anthracnose: This is a kind of leaf spot formed in young plants and spots are
circular, slightly raised concentric and are studded with large number of raised blackor red bodies. The infection spreads rapidly under high humid conditions, spraying
with copper fungicides 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15%, will control the disease.
iii) Blights: These also sometimes causes damage to the nursery stock in high humid
areas. The blights are kept under control by constant and timely spray of copper
fungicides 0.2% or Dithane Z-78 0.2%
iv) Dieback: This is serious in some of the grafts/buddlings at the young stage. The
disease may be due to fungi. The symptoms are drying up of the margin of the leaf
and drying slowly spreads to young shoots in severe cases. Control measures involves
dipping of scion sticks in Bavistin or Benlate 0.2°/" solution and prophylactic sprays
with Topsin M 0.15% or Bavistin 0.15%.
v) Leaf spots: The disease is very common in grown up plans and number of fungi as
well as bacteria is involved. The leaf spots vary in size shape colour and extent ofdamage. The symptoms vary according to the pathogen involved. Spraying with
Copper fungicide 0.2% or Bavistin 0.15% or Dithane Z-78 0.2% will control the
disease.
vi) Powdery mildews: This is a common malady in most of ornamental crops during drycool weather and when plants produce new flesh. The powdery mildews are easily
recognised by the presence of scattered areas showing powdery growth mostly on theyoung leaves. Spraying with wetable sulphur sulfex 0.2% or Calixin 0.15% will
control the disease.
Precautions for handling plant protection euipment
v They should be kept away from food or feed stuffs and medicines.
v The instructions found on the labels should be carefully read and strictly followed.
v Bags and containers of pesticides should be cut open with a separate knife intended
for such purposes.
v The empty containers, after the use of the chemical, should be destroyed and should
not be put into some other use.
v While preparing the spray solutions bare hands should not be used for mixing the
chemical with water.
v Inhaling of pesticide sprays or dusts and smoking, chewing, eating or drinking while
mixing or applying the chemicals should be avoided Spilling of pesticides on skin or
clothing should as far as possible be avoided. The clothes should be washed after each
operationv Particles or drops of pesticides which may accidentally get into eyes should be
flushed out immediately with large volumes of clean water
v It is preferable that protective clothings and devices are used while handling poisonous chemicals to avoid exposure to sprays or drifts Dusting or spraying should
never be done against the wind and it is preferable to have them done in cool andcalm weather
v Sprayer nozzles should not be blown by mouth if gets blocked while spraying.Washers and other contaminated parts should be buried After handling pesticides
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hands, face and body should be washed and clothing changed
v Washing of equipment after use and containers in or near wells, or streams should be
avoided
v Persons engaged in handling pesticides should undergo regular medical check up
v In case of any suspected poisoning due to insecticides the nearest physician should becalled immediately.
SYMPTOMS AND MANAGEMENT OF NUTRIENTS
Plant performance in nursery depends on nutrient status in plant media, but nothing has been
worked out owing to its short duration of plant with nursery. Nutrients are necessary for
growth and productivity of crops. Apart from the N,P,K,Ca,Mg and S, micronutrients such as
Zn, Fe, Cu, B, Mo, Mn, el, etc are also necessary for maintaining the normal health and
metabolism of plants. However, nutrient deficiency can lead to poor and stunted growth of
plants resulting in poor performance. Often nurserymen are encountered with some
deficiency symptoms appearing in nursery plants and they should have sufficient knowledge
to identify the nutrient deficiencies in nursery plants to take up appropriate steps to correct
the nutrient deficiencies. The deficiencies are manifested in various plant parts. The
appearance of plant parts can be used by nurserymen to help indicate plant health in generaland nutrient deficiencies in particular. The expression of deficiency symptoms are varied
among the plant parts viz., whole plant, leaves, stem, roots etc., depending upon the role of
the element and nutrient content. The deficiency symptoms of different micro and macro
nutrients and their corrections are given hereunder.
Nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants
SYMPTOMS DEFICIENCY
A Older or lower leaves affected
1. Effects mostly generalised over whole plant, more or less drying,scorching of lower leaves, plant light or dark green.
Nitrogen (or posphorus)
(a) Plants light green light yellow, drying to light brown colour,stalks short and slender if element is deficient in later stages of
growth.
Nitrogen
(b) Plant dark green, often developing red and purple colour, lower
leaves sometime yellow; turning to greenish brown black colour.Phosphorus
2. Effects mostly localised, mottling or chlorosis with or without
spots of dead tissue on lower leaves, little or no drying up of lower
leaves
Magnesium,
Potassium
or Zinc
(a) Lower leaves mottled or chlorotic, without dead spots, leaves
may redden as with cotton, sometimes with dead spot tips and
margin turned or curved upwards, stalks slender.
Magnesium
(b) Lower leaves mottled or chlorotic, with dead spots Potassium or Zinc
(i) Spots of dead tissue small usually at tips and between veins, more
marked at margins of leaves, stalks slenderPotassium
(ii) Spots generalised, rapidly enlarging and generally involving
areas between veins eventually involving secondary and even primary veins, leaves thick, stalks with shortened inter nodes.
Zinc
B. New or bud leaves affected (symptoms localised)
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1. Terminal buds, following appearance of distortions at tips or bases
of young leaves.Calcium or Boron
(a) Young leaves of terminal bud at first typically hooked, finally
dying back at tips and margins so that latter growth ischaracterised by a cut out appearance at these points, stalks finally
die at terminal bud.
Calcium
(b) Young leaves of terminal bud becoming light green at bases,with final break down here; in later growth, leaves become twisted,
stalk finally dies back at terminal bud.
Boron
2. Terminal bud commonly remains alive, wilting or chlorosis ofyounger or bud leaves with or without spots of dead tissues, veins
light or dark green
Copper, Manganese,
Sulphur or Iron
(i) Young leaves permanently wilted or marked chlorosis; twig or
stalk just below tip and seed head often unable to stand erect in later
stage when shortages are acute.
Copper
(ii) Young leaves not wilted, chlorosis present or without spots of
dead issue scattered over the leavesManganese or iron
(a) Sports of dead tissue scattered over the leaves smallest veins tend
to remain green producing a checkered or reticulated effect Manganese
(b) Dead spots not commonly present, chlorosis may not involve
veins making them light dark green in colourSulphur or Iron
(i) Young leaves with veins and tissue between veins light green in
colourSulphur
(ii) Young leaves chlorosis, principal veins green, stalks short and
slenderIron
(c) Stems
i) Stunted shade plants but have stronger stems Phosphorus
ii) Thin and erect stems Sulphur
iii) Stocky appearance with short internodes Pottassium
iv) Slender and weak stems with poor lignification spilling orcracking on the barks
Copper
Control measures
Nutrient deficiency can be easily rectified by applying the deficient element either bysoil application or by foliar application or by the combined application of soil + foliar spray.
Nitrogen: Applying recommended doses of N fertilizers. If thedeficiency is observed during the growth phase, 1% of urea can be used.
Phosphorus: Recommended doses of P and foliar spray of 2% DAP or 1 % super
phosphate extract.
Potassium: Recommended doses of K and foliar spray of 1 % KCl or 1% K 2SO4
Calcium: Lime application depending upon the pH and foliar spray of 1 % calcium
nitrate (Fruit crops)
Magnesium: Soil application of Domolite or Gypsum Salt MgSO4,7H2O depending
upon the deficiency and 0.5% of Gypsum salt as foliar spray.
Zinc: Soil application of Zinc Sulphate at 12.5 - 25 kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5%
Zinc Sulphate.
Iron: Soil application of Ferrous sulphate at 50kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5% Ferrous
sulphate (for calcerous soil, only foliar spray is recommended)
Manganese: Soil application of Manganese sulphate at 25 kg/ha and foliar spray of
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0.2-0.4% MnS04
Copper :Soil application of Copper Sulphate at 10kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.5%
CuSO4Boron: Soil application of Borax at 15-20 kg/ha and foliar spray of 0.2% Borix acid
Molybdenum: Soil application of 500g to 2 kg of Ammonium molybdate and 0.1 %foliar spray of ammonium molybdate
Nutrients can be sprayed on the foliage of the crops either in the morning or lateevening. Spray can be repeated 2 to 3 times with an interval of 15-20 days with 400 litres of
spray fluid per ha. Spray fluid should be prepared only with clean water. Spraying can bedone with hand operated sprayer. Care should be taken to ensure that the entire foliage should
be thoroughly wet. Spray fluid can be mixed with any wetting agent at 1 ml per litre of spray
fluids. Spraying on young foliage yields better results than spraying on the old mature leaves.
Common fertilizers and their nutrient contents:
Per cent
FertilizerN P2O5 K 2O Ca Mg S
1. Ammonium Sulphate 20.5 - - - - 23.4
2. Ammonium Chloride 28.0
3. Ammonium Nitrate 32.5
4. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate 26.0
5. Urea 46.0
5. Single Super Phosphate (SSP) - 16 - 23 - 10
6. Diammonium Phsophate 20.0 54 - - - -
7. Ammonium Sulphate 20.5 - - - - 23.4
9. Rock Phosphate - 20-23 - 34
10. Potassium Chloride (MOP) - - 60 -
11. Potassium Sulphate (SOP) - - 48 - - 18
12. Potassium Nitrate 13 - 37
PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES
Rose: Roses can be propagated by cuttings, layering, budding and grafting. Among all these
methods, budding on a rootstock is widely practiced.
Roses are mainly propagated through budding. In the budding technique, ‘T’ buddingis commonly practiced. The rootstocks used are Rosa multiflora (Karnataka, West Bengal and
Bihar), Rosa indica (North India) and Rosa bourbaniana (North India),A thornless rootstock namely NISHKANT has been developed at IIHR Since it is
devoid of thorns, close planting of rootstocks can be taken up for budding operation. Budding Technique
The rootstocks are normally propagated through cuttings. The dormant buds from aselected variety are carefully removed with a sharp, Knife along with a small portion of stem.
The selected rootstock is pruned to about 7-10 cm height and on a pencil thick stem, a ‘T’
shape cut is made and the bark is slightly loosened to accommodate the selected bud. After
inserting the bud the bark portion of the rootstock is covered and tied with a film of
polythene. The dormant buds get incorporated into the rootstock and sprout to produce new
flush.
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Cacti:Cacti can be grown from seeds which is a very slow process requiring 2 to 3 years to
flower and seed. The seeds are very fine and require all the precautions needed for growingvery fine seeds. The easiest and common practice for propagation is to detach offsets and root
them in sandy soil. The best method however, is to graft them on cereus etc, which groweasily from cutting. The most suitable roots stocks are ‘mytiIlocatus gcometricans’, cereus
qudransularis and cleistocatus. While growing grafted cacti one must be doubly caustious inwatering as the root stock as well as scion are both susceptable to rotting due to over watering
other precautions for grafting as follows:
v The rootstock should be in full leaf and be well watered 48 hours before grafting so
that it is quite turgid.
v Only carry out grafting when daytime and night-time temperatures reach a minimum
of 18°C (64°P).
v Use sharp, disinfected tools.
There are a number of different methods of grafting, depending on the species
selected. The general principle is to put together the root-stock (with the top cut off) and the
scion (cut with the same diameter as the rootstock) so that their conductive tissues meet. Hold
them together with an elastic band, maintaining a firm but moderate pressure. After about a
week the graft will be established.Palms: Most of the palms are propagated from seeds. A few others such as Rhapis and
Cyrotostachys species produce suckers from the ground level and can be propagated by
division of the clumps. The size of the seed may vary from the size of a pea to that of a
coconut or even larger in some kinds. It is difficult to generalize the rate of germination andgrowth, but many seeds take a long time to germinate and it may not be a surprise if some
germinate a year after sowing. Therefore, pans in which palm seeds have been sown shouldnot be disturbed for a long time even if there is no immediate germination. The hardest seeds
may be soaked for a couple of hours in water a little below boiling point to soften the seedcoat before germination. The stratification method may be followed for some hard coated
seeds if these do not germinate properly. The compost for sowing consists of garden soil andsand in the proportion of 2:1. The pans should have a good drainage, as the seeds will remain
in the pans for quite a long time. The seeds are sown thickly and be kept under bottom heat
for proper germination. Seeds can be sown any time of the year, but some people prefer to
sow during the spring while others during the rains. Sowing during the rainy seasons appears
to be more reasonable in the plains of India. As soon as the first pair of leaves develop fully,
the seedlings should be potted in small pots of a size sufficient to hold the roots and the seed
and never in over –sized pots. As the palms grow they are transplanted to slightly bigger pots
holding about 2-3 cm more soil around the plant than the previous ones. Palms develop long
roots; therefore, seedling should not be delayed for transplanting.
Bougainvillea: Bougainvilleas are usually propagated by cuttings, ground or air layering and
budding. Normally pencil thick hardwood leafy cuttings of 15-25 cm length are preferred.
The cutting are treated with growth regulator such as IBA (Indole butric acid), in solution
or talc form. The concentration used is generally between 1,000 and 3,000 ppm in the quick –dip- method.
Time for making cuttings.
v Delhi: July August or February – March
v Eastern India: Monsoon season
v Bangalore like climate: Throughout the year (preferably June to October)
The cultivars, which do not respond to propagation by cuttings, are raised throughlayers. For propagation by air layering the media used is mold or leaf mold with farmyard
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manure or farmyard manure with soil and sand. ‘T’ or shield budding raises the varieties,
which do not respond to above methods. Generally Dr. R.R. Pal robuts cultivar is used as
rootstock. The best time for budding is February to March.
Jasmine: cuttings on commercial scale multiply Jasmine. However, propagation by layering
and even by grafting (approach or inarching) and budding is possible. To facilitate the rootingin layering (ground or air layering) or cuttings, a 1000-2000 PPM of IBA preparation is
applied to the basal portion for rooting. Fifteen centimeters long shoot tip cutting with fourleaves and five distal buds are placed in a rooting media of vermiculate or good soiled and
then rooted in a mist chamber. In the open, hardwood or semi-hardwood (15-20 cm long)cuttings with or without leaves are used for multiplication. The hardwood cuttings of j.
sambac may be planted directly in situ during rainy season by which a success of 70-80 per
cent rooting may be obtained. Layering of tender shoots ensures better and quick rooting and
multiplication is done in rainy season or June-July, High humidity is maintained to promote
rooting of the cutting.
Chrysanthemum: Chrysanthemum is propagated vegetatively either through sucker, cutting
or through micro propagation.
A. Suckers: After flowering, the stem is cut back first above the ground. This induces
the formation of side sucker, which are separated from the mother plant and are planted in
sand bed. Well rooted sucker can be used for planting B. Terminal cuttings: These cuttings are taken from a healthy stock plant, 5-7, cm
length cuttings are made by shearing basal leaves and cutting half of the open leaves., the
cutting are dipped in 2500 ppm Indole butyric acid or either in seradix/ karadex (rooting
hormone). These cutting are put in sand beds I semi shade conditions and wateredimmediately and thereafter regularly.
Canna: Easily propagated by division of rhizomes i.e., rootstock. This rootstock is a branchy mass with many large buds, while dividing the rootstocks, it is better not to cut too
close but to leave several strong buds on each piece and may be planted directly in the beds.If stock is not abundant, only a few plants should be made retaining at least one bud on each
piece. It will be worthwhile to bear in mind that weak buds produce only weak plants. Theone-bud plants are usually better suited for planting in pots. Propagation by seeds in quite a
difficult process and is normally not adopted unless and until it is for the purpose of raising
new hybrids.
Gladiolus: corms propagate it, which remains dormant for about three months after harvest.
Dormant corms do not sprout. After harvest, the corms of at least 4 cm diameter should be
planted.
Carnations: Terminal cutting measuring 10-15 cm from vegetative plants and treatment
with IBA (50ppm) + NAA (100 ppm) and planted in sand medium and also propagated
through tissue culture.
Gerbera: Propagated through suckers and tissue culture
Poinsettias, Duranta: Pre-treatment of semi- hard wood cutting with IBA+NAA 3000 ppm
and planted in sand medium
Ixora: Dipping of soft wood cutting in IBA at 2000 ppm for 3 minutes and planting insand medium under mist. Euphorbias: Terminal cuttings dipped in IBA at 3000 ppm for 3 minutes and planting in
sand medium under mist.Nerium : Pre treatment of hard wood cuttings in IBA at 3000 ppm for 7 mts ana planting in
sand medium under mist.Juniper : Cuttings, layers (in slow growing and prostrate forms)
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METHODS OF PROPAGATION ADOPTED FOR OTHER IMPORTANT
ORNAMENTAL PLANTS
Name Propagation
Common garden plants and trees
Bauhinia Seeds
Celiba pentandra (Silk Cotton) SeedsCassia excelsa Seeds
Cassia javanica Seeds
Erythrina indica (Pangra) Cutting
Glyricidia maculata Seeds
Jacaranda mimosifolia Seeds
Lagertemia flosreginae Seeds
Michelia champaka Seeds and grafting
Gulmohar Seeds
Peltophoraum Seeds
Foliage trees (ever green)
Alstonia SeedsAraucaria (Monkey puzzle) Seeds
Artocarpus (Bread fruit) Seeds
Casuarinas Seeds
Thuja Seeds and heek cutting
Felicium decipens (fern leaved tree) Seeds
Ficus benjamina Seeds
Ficus elastica Cuttings, Air layering
Grevilea robusta (Sliver Oak) Seeds
Kigelia pinnata Seeds
Polyalthia longifolia Seeds
Royal palm (Oreodoxa Regia) Seeds
Flowering shrubs
Achania Cuttings
Barleria Cuttings & Seed
Buddleacaesalpinia pulcherrima (Peacock flower) Cuttings & laters
Cestrum noctumum (Night Queen) Seed
Hibiscus Cuttings
Ixora Cuttings & layers
Jatropha Cuttings & Seed
Lantana Cuttings & layers
Lagerstromeae Indica Cuttings & layers
Nerium (Oleander) Cuttings & layers
Poinsettia Cuttings & layersTabernae Montana Cuttings & layers
Rose Cuttings & bidding
Thevetia Cuttings & Seed
Foliage shrubs
Acalypha Cuttings
Anthurium Rhizomes
Aralia Cuttings
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Arunda donax Suckers
Coleus Cutting
Crotons Cuttings, layers
Dieffenbachia Cuttings & Suckers
Dracaena Cuttings
Duranta Cuttings
Eranthemum CuttingsMaranta Cuttings
Panax Cuttings
Iresene Cuttings
Phyllanthus (variegated) Cuttings & Suckers
Creepers
Allamanda Cuttings
Antigonon Seed, Tubers
Aristolochia elegans Seeds & Layers
Bignonia gracillis Cuttings & Layers
Bigonia venusta Cuttings & Layers
Clematis CuttingsClerodendron Cuttings
Echites Layering
Honeysuckle Cuttings
Ipomea horsfolleae Cuttings
Monstera edulis Cuttings
Passion flower Cuttings
Pothos Cuttings
Quisqualis indica Root suckers
Flowering annuals
Aster, Snapdragons, Marigold, Celosia, Cosmos,Comphrena, Helianthus annum Helichrysum,
Impatients, Lobella verbena, Plox, Zinnia, etc.
Seeds
The Important methods of propagation
1.Seed PropagationPropagation by seeds is the major methods by which many ornamental plants are
perpetuated. It is one of the most efficient and widely used propagation method. Various
types of seasonal shrubs and ornamental flowering and avenue trees are being multiplied by
the seeds.
v Some annual creepers like chitoria ternatea, Cobaea Scandens, Lathyrus odoratus,
Ipomea Spp. Quamocut pennata, thunbergaia alata, Tropaeolum majus etc. are raised
through seeds Several ornamental shrubs like Adenium obesum, Asclepiascurassavica, Bahunia acuminate, B. galpinnii, Caesalpinia pulcherrina, casiia biflura,
Galphima gracillis, Memcylan edula, Nyctanthes arbor – tristis, Rauwolfia
Canescens, Thevetia neriifolia are also propagated from seeds.
Flowering annuals propagated by seeds. Nursery preparation and sowing of seeds: Annual ornamental seedings are in great demand
for home gardens as well as landscape purpose in larger quantities. It is required to raise theseedings at nursery before they are sent for marketing.
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The seeds can be sown in seed pans, seed frames, pots or in baskets. For larger
requirements, permanent seed frames could be constructed for sowing the seeds. Adequate
drainage facilities should be provided in the sowing media in order to drain out the excessmoisture.
The soil for sowing seed should be light and porous. A mixture made up of one part ineach of loam and sand and two parts of leaf mould is ideal for sowing.
The seeds should be sown in the nursery beds evenly and thinly. The seedings in thethickly sown seed bed will be lanky due to competition for nutrition and also subject to
damping of disease easily. After sowing the seeds they should be covered with fine sand orleaf mould twice the thickness of the seeds. As a general rule large sized seeds should be
sown a bit deeper. Tiny seeds such as Petunia, Antirrhinum, etc. should be mixed with 8-10
times of their bulk with fine sand and sown to get uniform spread. The seedling may also be
raised in portrays and can be sold.
2. CuttingPropagation by cutting is a simple and less expensive method. Cutting is a process by
which a plant is produced by severing a vegetative portion from the plant and rooting it in a
favourable medium under optimum conditions. Plant parts such as stems, roots, leaves and
modified stems such as corms, rhizomes, tubers, runners and bulbs are used for this purpose.
The stem cutting can be categorized into 3 types.Softwood cuttings: These types of cutting can still be sub-divided into two groups. In the
first group comes those cuttings which are taken from herbaceous plants such as coleus,
carnation, dahlia, chrysanthemum etc. the second group consists of cuttings taken from the
unripened tips of woody plants, such as most of the ornamental shrubs and some tree. Thecutting should be detached from the mother plant from below a node.
Semi-hard- wood cuttings: Semi-hard-wood cuttings are those which have passedthe soft-wood stage but yet to ripen fully., Jasmines and hydrangeas are example of plants
from which such cuttings are taken for propagation. Hard –wood cuttings: the cuttings which are taken from the mature current years
growth, as in some shrubs and tree. While in the first tow categories of cuttings the length ofcutting remains between 2.5 to 10 cm and 15 to 25 cm, but in case of hard-wood cuttings the
length depends upon the nature of plants and prevailing climatic conditions. But normally,
for many hare-wood cuttings the length varies between 15 and 30 cm.
The stem cuttings are further categorized into 3 groups.
(i.) Terminal cuttings: Such cutting are obtained from terminal portion of a shoot. The
leaves from the lower portion of the cutting are removed by nipping (and not by tearing off),
while 2-4 leaves are retained in the apex. If the size of the leaves is very larger, these may be
cut into halves. Most of the cuttings are to be inserted in the rooting media as early as
possible, after being detached from the mother plant. But in case of cacti and some other
succulent plants these are air –dried for 2-4 days before inserting in the rooting media.
(ii.) Heel cutting: when lateral shoots are pulled off from the stem with a portion of the
stem attached to it, these are called heel cuttings. Heel cuttings root more easily. If needed,
the basal end could be smoothened off with a sharp knife. Sometimes carnation cutting are prepared in this way.
(iii.) Node cuttings: Plants like Dracaena and Dieffenbachia are propagated from single ormultiple node cuttings. Such cuttings are normally placed horizontally on the rooting media.
(iv.) Root cuttings: Root cuttings should be taken from young roots of average thicknessand the length may vary from 2.5 to 15 cm with one or a few buds. The cuttings are placed
horizontally or vertically in light soil or sand. The horizontally placed cuttings are covered
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sufficiently. The adventitious buds give rise to new shoots and roots to grow from the base of
these buds or from the cut sections of the old roots.
(Gypsophyla, Caillardia, Aralia, Yucca etc. are some of the ornamentals propagated by thismethod
Leaf cuttings: In this method the leaf stalk when notched and placed in rooting medium,they produce individual plants.
(Rex begorua, Bryophyllum, Saint paulia are some of the examples)Factors affecting rooting in cuttings: Age and nutritional environmental factors affect the
rooting of cuttings. Age and nutritional condition of the stock plant, position of the shoot onthe parent plant, maturity of the tissue at the base of the cuttings and presence of leaves and
buds on the shoot are the internal factors affecting the rooting of cuttings. Light, temperature,
humidity and rooting medium are the external factors affecting the rooting wounding,
defoliation treatment with growth regulators is used especially in ornamental like
Bougainvillea (2000 ppm of IBA+NAA mixture by quick dip method) and Ixora (IBA 200
ppm). Vase on shrubs like Tagar, Crotons, Hemelia and Climbers and creepers as well as
trees like Pangara and peltoforum are being propagated by cuttings.
3.LayeringLayering is done when a clone can not be rooted through stem cutting. It is an
important method of commercial propagation in ornamental like Jasmine, Hibiscus, Ixora,Mussanda. Generally the plants, which are difficult to multiply by cutting, can be raised by
one or other method of layering. In this method since the twigs are attached to the mother
plant, the supply of food and water supply is not discontinued; this helps in rooting in layer
than cuttings.Rooting of layering is encouraged by etiolating. Presence of sufficient oxygen,
moisture and temperature and application of root promoting substance at the time of layeringhelp to get profuse root in a short time. Root promoting substance are applied as powder or in
lanolin.Simple or ground layering: is the common and simplest from of layering. Majority of
the variegated plants which are difficult to root from cuttings (e.g. Bougainvillea cv.Thinmma, Duranta Plumeri Vaeiegation) could be rooted through this method of layering.
Some clumbers are also rooted through this.
Air layering: Air layering or gootie is one of the most widely used method of layerage in
ornamental plants. A large number of shrubs, foliage plants and even ornamental trees are
raised by this method.
Generally branches of plants which are not prone to bending upto the ground level
for layering are propagated by this method. Generally terminal portions are used for air
layers. The mature branch is slit or nitched below a node at the desired height. The part of the
wounded stem, as well as 5 cm on either side of the wound, is covered with damp sphagnum
moss and this is covered over by polythene paper and secondly tied at both ends the
polythene paper around the moss to form a bag and fold the ends several times inwards to
prevent the moisture in the moss from coming out. The two ends are tied firmly on the two
sides of the stem layered.4. Grafting
Grafting is the method of propagation used for perpetuating clones that cannot be
readily maintained by several methods of propagation.It is used for obtaining special forms of plan growth etc. This method of propagation
is limited for plants. In ornamental grafting is followed only for few crops like cacti.Sometimes approach grafting is done for propagation of delicate Hawaiian cultivars of
Hibiscus.
5. Budding
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In budding, a single bud, as against a scion wood containing a number of buds in the
case of grafting is inserted on the rootstock in a manner that both will unite and continue to
grow as a single plant. Three to five weeks after the budding operation, the portion of therootstock about 3-5 cm above the union, is cut off. Mostly ‘T’ budding is employed for
propagation of most of the ornamental plants. The patch budding is generally not popular.This method is sometimes used for multiplication of hibiscus hybrids. The optimum time of
budding is when the stock plant is actively growing and the bark separates easily from thewood.
6. OthersSuckers
In some plants new stems are produced from the adventitious buds on their roots.
Such new growths are called suckers. These suckers can be perpetuated as individual plants.
(e.g. chrysanthemum)
DivisionThis type of propagation is the simplest method of propagation for increasing the
number of stock plants. It involves simply dividing the plants into small pieces each of which
must contain a portion of the rootstock with leaves or buds or as a few roots.
Division must be carried out during the dormant season. The clumps are lifted with a
fork and are divided by separating them into suitable sized portions. Each portion showscontain about 3 or 4 buds or stems and the outside portions of the clumps should be selected,
as these are the most vigorous. Some of the clumps are easy to divide by pulling them apart
after shaking of the loose soil, others are more difficult, and the rhizomes or rootstocks have
to be separated with or without knife or through with a spade. The divided portions must be planted firmly and well watered within an hour or two.
Majority of herbaceous ornamentals can be increased through this method. (e.g.Alstroemaria, Delphinium, Campanula, Armeria, Daisy etc.)
RhizomesRhizomes are sub- terrnean stems that arise from a lateral bud from the main stem at
ground level and extend underground near the surface horizontally. The aerial shoots developfrom the laterial buds.
Generally rhizomes are cut into small pieces having one or more buds and planted for
multiplication (e.g. Canna)
StolonsA slender branch, which normally produces roots and bears a bud at this extreme, this
forming a new plant e.g. Chlorophytum.
TubersThey are short, thickned part of subterranean branches, which store large quantities of
plant food, mainly starch. Tubers contain buds in the axils of reduced leaves.
CormThese are underground stem with a short, fleshy, vertical axis covered with dried leaf
bases.
e.g. gladiolus
Plug production of flower seedlings
There has been a shift from growing seedlings on flat and raised nursery beds in open fieldtowards growing value added transplants in specially designed containers such as plug trays.
A major advantage of block or modular raised seedlings as compared with that of bare-roottransplants is the significant reduction of the transplanting shock resulting in improved crop
establishment and yield of several annuals. Container raised seedlings are easy to handle,
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grade, shift and transport manually as well as mechanically. Further, it provides good control
of young plants in the nursery due to better water drainage, aeration, sanitation, quick take-
off and uniform growth in nursery and in the field after transplanting.
Production of healthy seedlings is a prerequisite for good initial crop growth that results inoptimum vegetative growth that gets finally transformed into the potential economic yield.
Healthy growth of the plant from the beginning also ensures better use efficiency of scarceand costly inputs like water, nutrients and better tolerance to both biotic and abiotic stresses.
Advantages of growing seedlings in plastic trays under protected structures:
· Seeds germinate properly.
· Mortality of seedlings is very rare,
· There is no loss of expensive seeds of hybrids.
· There is adequate space for each seedling to grow properly.
· Equal and healthy growth of each seedling.
· Damage due to pests and diseases are very rare.
·
Seedlings do not wither during transport.· Promotes better root growth.
· Damage to roots is very rare during shifting and planting.
· Hassle free planting.
· Facilitates uniform maturity of the crop.
Protective structure for seedling production
Seedlings of ornamental crops are being grown in low cost poly houses and net houses. Themainframe can be of steel pipes, wooden poles or even granite stone pillars. Poly houses are
clad with 200 micron UV stabilized polythene sheet on the roof and the sides are covered
with 40 mesh insect-proof nylon net. A retractable (50%) shade net is provided below the
roof to be used during the days of bright sunlight and high temperature. Foggers may also be provided to bring down the temperature during summer days. The mainframe can also be
erected with wooden poles or granite stone pillars bringing down the expenditure further.
In recent years net houses are becoming popular to raise the seedlings. Granite stone pillars of
6 to 8 feet long are erected as the mainframe of the net house. The roof is generally covered
with a shade net and the sides are covered with the insect proof net. However, it is advisable
to cover the roof also with the insect proof net above the retractable shade net to have better
control over the entry of insect vectors like white flies which may be carried by the air
currents and gain entry into the greenhouse. Further it is essential to harden the seedlings
before transplanting. A retractable shade net will be useful to regulate the shade in the
greenhouse depending on the light levels prevailing in the greenhouse. Plastic pipes of ¾ inchare bent in arch shape over the nursery beds and are covered with a plastic sheet to protect the
seedlings from rain as and when required.This structure provides adequate light, shade and humidity and also protects the seedlings
from thrips and white flies that spread the virus diseases. Individual farmers can also growvegetable seedlings in plastic trays on a small scale in a low-cost net house measuring about
20 feet long, 10 feet wide and 8 feet high in their farms.
Plug Trays
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Plug trays are also called as pro-trays (propagation trays). The most commonly used are 98-
celled trays . The dimensions of the trays are generally 54 cm in length and 27 cm in width
with a cavity depth of 4 cm. These trays are made of polypropylene and are re-usable up tofive to six times depending on the care with which they are handled. Before using every time
it is necessary that these trays are thoroughly washed and disinfected with a fungicide. Theholes at the bottom of the cells control the moisture properly. Equal spaced cells facilitate
equal growth of the seedlings.
Coir dust (Coco peat)
Well decomposed and sterilized commercial growing medium is better as the incidence of
seedling diseases is less or nil and it contains in it right amount of moisture to support seed
germination. The most commonly used growing medium is coir dust (coco peat), which is
steam sterilized to prevent nursery diseases. Coco peat is a by-product of coir industry and it
has high water holding capacity. It should be well decomposed, sterilized and supplemented
with major and micro nutrient sources before using it as the growing medium. Neem cake
enriched with Trichoderma (100:1) is applied @ 100 kg per tonne of the medium to prevent
seedling diseases.
Technique of raising seedlings
Fill the seedling tray with appropriate growing medium such as coco peat or vermin compost
+ sand mixed in equal proportion. About 1-1.25 kg of coco peat is required to fill one 98-
celled tray. Make a small depression for sowing (0.5 cm) by fingertip or a dibbler in the
center of the cell. Sow one seed per cell and cover the cells with the coco peat. Irrigation isnot required before or after sowing till seeds germinate if coco peat having adequate moisture
is used as the medium. Keep about 10 trays one over the other for 3 to 6 days, depending onthe crop. Cover the entire stack of trays with a polyethylene sheet to ensure conservation of
moisture and warmth that hastens germination. Care must be taken for spreading the trayswhen the seeds start sprouting. The tray