Hannah Sweet P5

12/2/10

Hannah Sweet P5

12/2/10

The 1st SemesterThe 1st Semester

Table of ContentsTable of Contents

I. Scientific MethodII. MatterIII. SolutionsIV. Physical PropertiesV. ElementsVI. Bohr Atom DiagramsVII. ElectronsVIII. Characteristics of GroupsIX. IonsX. Covalent BondXI. EnergyXII. Forms of EnergyXIII. AccelerationXIV. Machines/ Simple MachinesXV. Heat & Temperature

XVI. WavesXVII. SoundXVIII.ColorXIX. Electromagnetic Wave SpectrumXX. Electricity/ How Lightning Forms

Scientific MethodScientific Method

☺ The Scientific Method is made up of six different parts:1. Observation / Research Question2. Identify Variables3. Make A Hypothesis4. Run The Procedure5. Your Results6. The Conclusion

☺ The first step is what you notice and what you want to find out.☺ Variables include the I.V. (What you change) , the D.V. (A result of

what changes) , and the C.V. (Constant, stays the same).☺ The hypothesis is formed like: If I.V., the D.V.☺ The procedure is the steps that you take in order to run the

experiment.☺ The results is the information that you gathered off your

experiment in a convenient T-Chart and Bar Graph.☺ The last step is just a simple summary of your experiment

including what you learned and the results that happened.

MatterMatter Matter is anything that has mass and takes up

space. There is three types of matter.

1. Solid – Tightly packed together2. Liquid – Flowing freely and touching each other.3. Gas – Flowing freely far apart from each other.

There is also five different phase changes.1.Freezing Point – Liquid to Solid2. Boiling Point/Evaporation – Liquid to Gas3. Melting Point – Solid to Liquid4. Sublimation – Solid to Gas5. Condensation – Gas to Liquid

There is different changes too, Physical and Chemical.1. Chemical – When a new substance is formed.2. Physical – Same substance, different formation.

SolutionsSolutions

This is when one substance gets dissolved in another. There is 2 parts involved in this:

1. Solvent – Does Dissolving2. Solute – Gets Dissolved

A liquid solution is when a liquid dissolves a solid object. (water/tablet, acid/m&m)

Gaseous solutions are when there is a mixture of gases with one gas more than the other. (Air = 80% Nitro, 10% Oxygen, and 10% other gases….)

A Solid or Alloy solutions is a mixture of different solid mixed together to possibly make stronger solids. (Steel = 80% Iron, 20% Carbon; Brass = 90% Copper, 10% Silver)

SOLUTIONS IN DIFFERENT STATES Unsaturated – They can hold more solute. Saturated – Can’t dissolve any more, it’s full! Super Saturated – Overfull with solute.

The largest amount is

the solvent, the smallest is the solute!

MixturesMixtures

Mixtures can be easily separated.*This is when no new substance is formed.*Substances maintain their own properties.

There is two different types of mixtures:I. Heterogeneous – Can see particles.

*EX: Trail Mix, Pizza, TacoII. Homogeneous – Can’t see particles.

*EX: Soda, Kool-Aid, Coffee, Tea

Physical PropertiesPhysical Properties

This describes the physical changes and physical appearances.

You use your senses to describe (sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell)– Malleability: How something can be molded.– Hardness: How hard a substance is.– Conductivity: How well a substance allows heat and electricity to pass through– Viscosity: How thick a fluid is.– Solubility: How well one substance gets dissolved.– Density: How thick a substance is

D = M / V

ElementsElements

♀ Elements are a pure substance found on periodic table. It’s made up of atoms.

♀ Compounds are made up of two or more elements and are found everywhere.

♀ Atoms is the smallest part of the matter.♀ Molecules are a combination of two or more atoms.

Bohr Atom DiagramsBohr Atom Diagrams

Here, you draw the atom and then you draw the orbital waves showing the electrons.

PotassiumP = 15N = 16

Electron ConfigurationsElectron Configurations∆ The reason why we use this is because it saves

us space and its easier to use.∆ When you make a E.C., you should be aware of:

1. Energy level (electron cloud)

2. S, P, D – The type of orbital

3. Number of Electrons – 2, 6, 10 (super scripted)

S D P2 10 6

28 8

1818

2 – 1s²8 – 2s²p8 – 3s²p18 – 4s²3d 4p18 – 5s²4d 5p

6

6

6

6

10

10

EX:

1s²Energy Cloud

Type ofOrbital

Number of electron super-script

Characteristics of GroupsCharacteristics of Groups Metals: These are ductile, shiny, malleable,

and they are good conductors– Lubricants, fertilizers, and photography

Non-Metals: Complete opposite of metals.– Soaps, insulators, and weapons

Noble Gases: Vary stable and takes a lot to bind.– Alloys, jewelry, pipes, cars, bikes, and cleaners

Metalloids: Mix of metals and non-metals.– Chips for phones, cars, laptops, and gaming systems

IonsIons

An atom in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the number of protons.

There is two types: Ionic Bonds is when atoms gain or lose electrons.

They only take place between metals and non-metals. The metals will lose electrons while the non-metal will gain them. A maximum of 3 electrons will be gained or lost.

Valence Bonds is when the electrons in the outermost shell. The reason is that they’re farther away from the nuclease and their bond is weaker.

The Octect Rule says that atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons so, as to have 8 electrons in the outer electron shell.

Ca² P³ = Ca P =

CalciumPhosphide³ ²

Covalent BondCovalent Bond

When electrons are shared between two atoms. This only takes place with non-metals and hydrogen. In order to show covalent bonds, we draw Lewis Atom Diagrams. Must have at least one dot on each side to be full.

Naming the C.B.:

1. Mono2. Di3. Tri

4. Tetra5. Penta6. Hexa7. Hepta…etc…

H ClMonohydrogenMonochloride

HCl

EnergyEnergy

♫ This is the ability to cause change. There is two different types, Potential and Kinetic.

♫ Potential is stored energy.– EX: Holding a book in the air, skier at the top of

the hill, Football player ready to throw.– The Formula:

♫ Kinetic is energy in motion.– EX: Moving car, boy running, girl swimming– The Formula:

M×g×h=PEMass

Gravitation Pull

Height

KE=0.5×m×v²Mass

Velocity

Both are measured in Joules

(J)

Forms of EnergyForms of Energy

☼ Mechanical Energy is the energy to move things.– EX: Pushing a cart, lifting a pencil, writing.

☼ Sound Waves is when waves hit off particles in the air & objects in room to create sound.– Clapping, laughing, clicking on a pen

☼ Thermal is the movement of particles ( in the 3 states). There is the more movement in hotter weather and there is less when it’s cold.– EX: Dancing, Hot Cocoa, Coffee

☼ Nuclear is when atoms split and come back together (Fusion).– EX: Splitting Atoms

☼ Electromagnetic is like sound waves but they don’t stop.– EX: X-Rays, Infrared Rays, MRI scans

☼ The Law of Conservation & Energy is energy isn’t created or destroyed, it changes forms.– EX: Mechanical > Thermal > Sound > Dissapates

AccelerationAcceleration

ж This is an increase of speed.ж NEWTONS LAWS:

¤ Inertia: When the object will do what its doing until you put a force on it.

¤ If there is more mass, then more force is required to move it. (F = m × a)

¤ Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

MachinesMachines

» A simple machine makes work easier for us!» They require two things though, and input and

output.» Input: Force that you apply to a machine.» Output: What the machine does.» Mechanical Advantage is how much work the machine is

doing. The formula is:

» Efficiency is how well a machine does its job. Friction kills efficiency while lubricate can raise efficiency.

MA = of/ifMachine Action

Output force

Input Force

Simple MachinesSimple Machines

₪ There are six different simple machines:1. Wedges: Splitting something.

EX: knife, saw, axe, scissor blades, hoe

2. Pulleys: Graved wheel with rope to lift things. EX: Well, flagpole, crane, tow truck

3. Screws: Holds things together. EX: Jar, bolt, corkscrews, nuts

4. Inclined Plane: Moves from low level to high level. EX: Escalator, stairs, ramp

5. Wheel And Axle: Wheel sits on axle and is able to move. EX: Faucet, cars, quad, wagon

6. Lever: Bar sits on a fixed point.

EX: Hammer, crowbar, bottle opener

Heat and TemperatureHeat and Temperatureф Kinetic Theory of Matter states that the particles

move in matter. There are two ways that particle movement are measured, Temperature and Thermal Energy.

ф Heat is the movement energy from one object to another. There is three ways heat can be transferred.

ф Materials include Conductors and Insulators. Conductors all heat to pass through while Insulators do not.

ф Specific heat is the amount of energy needed to raise one gram of a substance one degree.

ф Formula: SH = c×m×Δ×T

Constant

Mass

Delta

Change in Temp.

Measured in

Joules (J)

WavesWaves

Waves move energy from one point to another.The materials needed are: A medium which is a material to move energy from

one point to another.

Categories: Transverse: Electromagnetic Waves. These travel in

one direction. Longitudinal: Sound waves. These travel two directions.

Mechanical waves require a medium while a electromagnetic wave does not.

Parts of a WaveParts of a Wave

Crest

Trough

Wavelength

Amplitude

Frequency is how often a wave

passes a certain point in a certain amount of time.

SoundSound

Sound is when an object vibrates, or moves back and forth.

Sound is made from air being pushed out through the larynx, or the vocal cords.

Sound is detected by a certain order. First it hits the eardrums, the inner ear, finally it goes through the ear cells called the Cochlea which are a hairy rod that stick up in your inner ear.

Sound travels better in a solid figure because the particles are closer together. It travels faster in the hot weather as well because the particles are moving quicker so they bounce off more than they would in the cold.

More Sound…More Sound…

Pitch is the highness and lowness of sound Intensity depends on the amplitude.

If it’s smaller, the smaller the intensity. If it’s larger, intensity is going to be HUGE.

Infrasound is very low sounds that humans can’t hear it at 20Hz. EX: Tiger roar, giraffes, elephants and other animals.

Ultrasound is extremely high, non-audible even, at 20,000 Hz. EX: Bats, dolphins, submarines, etc….

The Doppler Effect is the close the source of the sound, the more intense it is.

ColorColor

There are 7 major wavelengths in visible light; Red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and purple.BLACK absorbs all colors, while WHITE reflects all.The eye has two types of cells.1. Rod Cells allow us to ID different shades of gray.

2. Cone cells (3) allow us to ID the 3 primary colors.

Women have sharper cone cells then men.

Electromagnetic Wave SpectrumElectromagnetic Wave Spectrum≈ This includes all waves from Radio waves

to Gamma Rays.≈ Light acts in three different ways; Reflect,

Absorption, and Transmission. Reflection is when they bounce back, Absorption is they go into an object, and Transmission is when light passes through something.

≈ Scattering is how light bounces off particles.≈ Materials are classified are in three ways; Transparent you

can see through, Translucent is can see through but no tin detail, Opaque you can’t see through

Electricity Electricity

This is the movement of electrons.Lightning is formed in three steps:1. The build up of electrons.

2. The separation of charges.

3. The release of charge.

Resistance is what slows down the flow of electrons.A ground is a conductor that is placed in the ground for a place for extra electrons to dissipate.

CircuitsCircuits

The electrical circuit is the path that electrons can flow through. There are two types and four parts:

The first is the switch which enables it to power on or off.

The power source is the battery or generator. The electrical device is what’s getting powered. Conductors is the material that electricity passes through. The two types are Series, which only has one path, and

Parallel, which has multiple pathways.

Battery

Switch

Conductor

Power Source

Bye-Bye!Bye-Bye!