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40 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY

CHAPTER 3

UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

I

INTRODUCTION

This book began with a discussionabout the interaction of the individualand society. We saw that each of us asindividuals, occupies a place orlocation in society. Each one of us hasa status and a role or roles, but theseare not simply what we as individualschoose. They are not like roles a filmactor may or may not opt to do. Thereare social institutions that constrain andcontrol, punish and reward. They couldbe ‘macro’ social institutions like thestate or ‘micro’ ones like the family.Here in this chapter we are introducedto social institutions, and also to howsociology/social anthropology studiesthem. This chapter puts forth a verybrief idea of some of the central areaswhere important social institutions arelocated namely: (i) family, marriage andkinship; (ii) politics; (iii) economics;(iv) religion; and (v) education.

In the broadest sense, aninstitution is something that worksaccording to rules established or at

least acknowledged by law or bycustom. And whose regular andcontinuous operation cannot beunderstood without taking those rulesinto account. Institutions imposeconstraints on individuals. They alsoprovide him/her with opportunities.

An institution can also be viewed asan end in itself. Indeed people haveviewed the family, religion, state or eveneducation as an end in itself.

We have already seen that thereare conflicting and differentunderstandings of concepts withinsociology. We have also been introducedto the functionalist and conflictperspective, and seen how differentlythey saw the same thing, for instancestratification or social control. Notsurprisingly, therefore, there aredifferent forms of understanding ofsocial institutions as well.

Activity 1

Think of examples of how peoplesacrifice for the family, for religion,for the state.

41UNDERSTANDING SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

A functionalist view understandssocial institutions as a complex set ofsocial norms, beliefs, values and rolerelationship that arise in response tothe needs of society. Social institutionsexist to satisfy social needs. Accordinglywe find informal and formal socialinstitutions in societies. Institutionssuch as family and religion areexamples of informal social institutionswhile law and (formal) education areformal social institutions.

A conflict view holds that allindividuals are not placed equally insociety. All social institutions whetherfamilial, religious, political, economic,legal or educational will operate in theinterest of the dominant sections ofsociety be it class, caste, tribe or gender.The dominant social section not onlydominates political and economicinstitutions but also ensures that theruling class ideas become the rulingideas of a society. This is very differentfrom the idea that there are generalneeds of a society.

As you go about reading thischapter, see whether you can thinkof examples to show how socialinstitutions constrain and also offeropportunities to individuals. Noticewhether they impact different sectionsof society unequally. For instance, wecould ask, “How does the familyconstrain as well provide opportunitiesto men and women?” Or “How dopolitical or legal institutions affect theprivileged and dispossessed?”

II

FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND KINSHIP

Perhaps no other social entity appearsmore ‘natural’ than the family. Often weare prone to assume that all families arelike the ones we live in. No other socialinstitution appears more universal andunchanging. Sociology and socialanthropology have over many decadesconducted field research acrosscultures to show how the institutionsof family, marriage and kinship areimportant in all societies and yet theircharacter is different in differentsocieties. They have also shown how thefamily (the private sphere) is linked tothe economic, political, cultural,educational (the public) spheres. Thismay remind you of why there is a needto share and borrow from differentdisciplines, which we have discussed inChapter 1.

According to the functionalists thefamily performs important tasks, whichcontribute to society’s basic needs andhelps perpetuate social order. Thefunctionalist perspective argues thatmodern industrial societies functionbest if women look after the family andmen earn the family livelihood. In Indiastudies however suggest that familiesneed not become nuclear in anindustrial pattern of economy (Singh1993: 83). This is but one example toshow how trends based on experiencesof one society cannot necessarily begeneralised.

The nuclear family is seen as theunit best equipped to handle thedemands of industrial society by the


functionalists. In such a family oneadult can work outside the home whilethe second adult cares for the home andchildren. In practical terms, thisspecialisation of roles within thenuclear family involves the husbandadopting the ‘instrumental’ role asbreadwinner, and the wife assumingthe ‘affective’, emotional role in domesticsettings (Giddens 2001). This vision isquestionable not just because it isgender unjust but because empiricalstudies across cultures and historyshow that it is untrue. Indeed, as youwill see in the discussion on work andeconomy how in contemporaryindustries like the garment export,women form a large part of the labourforce. Such a separation also suggeststhat men are necessarily the heads ofhouseholds. This is not necessarily trueas the box which is given below shows.

Variation in Family Forms

A central debate in India has beenabout the shift from nuclear family tojoint families. We have already seen howsociology questions common senseimpressions. The fact is that nuclear

families have always existed in Indiaparticularly among the deprived castesand classes.

The sociologist A.M. Shah remarksthat in post-independent India thejoint family has steadily increased.The contributing factor is theincreasing life expectancy in Indiaaccording to him. It has increasedfrom 32.5 - 55.4 years for men andfrom 31.7 - 55.7 years for womenduring the period 1941 - 50 to1981 - 85. Consequently, theproportion of aged people (60 yearsand above) in the total populationhas increased. “We have to ask”writes Shah — “in what kind ofhousehold do these elderly peoplelive? I submit, most of them live injoint household” (Shah; 1998).

This again is a broad generalisation.But in the spirit of the sociologicalperspective, it cautions us againstblindly believing a common senseimpression that the joint family is fasteroding. And alerts us to the need forcareful comparative and empiricalstudies.Studies have shown how diversefamily forms are found in different

Female headed households

When men migrate to urban areas, women have to plough and manage theagricultural fields. Many a time they become the sole providers of their families.Such households are known as female headed households. Widowhood toomight create such familial arrangement. Or it may happen when men get re-married and stop sending remittance to their wives, children and otherdependents. In such a situation, women have to ensure the maintenance of thefamily. Among the Kolams, a tribal community in south-eastern Maharashtraand northern Andhra Pradesh, a female headed household is an accepted norm.


societies. With regard to the rule ofresidence, some societies are matrilocalin their marriage and family customswhile others are patrilocal. In the firstcase, the newly married couple stayswith the woman’s parents, whereas inthe second case the couple lives withthe man’s parents. A patriarchal familystructure exists where the menexercise authority and dominance, andmatriarchy where the women play amajor role in decision-making in thefamily. While matrilineal societies exist,the same cannot be claimed aboutmatriarchal societies.

Families are Linked to other SocialSpheres and Families Change

Often in our everyday life we look atthe family as distinct and separate fromother spheres such as the economic orpolitical. However, as you will see foryourself the family, the household, itsstructure and norms are closely linkedto the rest of society. An interestingexample is that of the unintendedconsequences of the German uni-fication. During the post-unificationperiod in the 1990s Germanywitnessed a rapid decline in marriage

Notice how families and residences are different

Work and Home


because the new German statewithdrew all the protection and welfareschemes which were provided to thefamilies prior to the unification. Withgrowing sense of economic insecuritypeople responded by refusing to marry.This can also be understood as acase of unintended consequence(Chapter 1).

Family and kinship are thussubject to change and transformationdue to macro economic processes butthe direction of change need not alwaysbe similar for all countries and regions.Moreover, change does not mean thecomplete erosion of previous norms andstructure. Change and continuityco-exist.

How gendered is the family?

The belief is that the male child willsupport the parents in the old age and

the female child will leave on marriageresults in families investing more in amale child. Despite the biological factthat a female baby has better chancesof survival than a male baby the rate ofinfant mortality among female childrenis higher in comparison to malechildren in lower age group in India.

The Institution of Marriage

Historically marriage has been foundto exist in a wide variety of forms in

Sex Ratio in India between 1901-2001

Year Sex Ratio Year Sex Ratio

1901 972 1951 946

1911 964 1961 941

1921 955 1971 930

1931 950 1981 934

1941 945 1991 926

2001 (927)*

* In 2001 the sex ratio of girls in 0-6 group was enumerated as 927

Activity 2

A Telegu expression states:‘Bring-ing up a daughter is likewatering a plant in another’scourtyard’. Find out other suchsayings that are contrary. Discusshow popular sayings reflect thesocial arrangement of a society,

The incidence of female foeticide has led to a sudden decline in the sex ratio. The child sex ratio has declined from 934 per thousand males in 1991 to 927 in2001. The percentage of decline in the child sex ratio is more alarming. Thesituation of prosperous states like Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra and westernUtter Pradesh is all the more grave. In Punjab the child sex ratio has declinedto 793 girls per 1,000 boys. In some of the districts of Punjab and Haryana ithas fallen below 700.


different societies. It has also beenfound to perform differing functions.Indeed, the manner in which marriagepartners are arranged reveal anastonishing variety of modes andcustoms.

right for upper caste Hindu widowswas denied and that the campaign forwidow remarriage was a major issuein the 19th century reform movements.What you are probably less aware isthat today in modern India nearly 10per cent of all women and 55 per centof women over fifty years are widows(Chen 2000:353).

Polygamy denotes marriage tomore than one mate at one time andtakes the form of either: Polygyny (onehusband with two or more wives) orPolyandry (one wife with two or morehusbands). Usually where economicconditions are harsh, polyandry maybe one response of society, since insuch situations a single male cannotadequately support a wife andchildren. Also, extreme povertyconditions pressurise a group to limitits population.

The Matter of Arranging Marriages:Rules and Prescriptions

In some societies, the decisionsregarding mate selection are madeby parents/relatives; in some othersocieties individuals are relatively freeto choose their own mates.

Rules of Endogamy and Exogamy

In some societies these restrictionsare subtle, while in some others,individuals who can or cannot bemarried, are more explicitly andspecifically defined. Forms of marriagebased on rules governing eligibility/ineligibility of mates is classified asendogamy and exogamy.

Forms of Marriage

Marriage has a large variety of forms.These forms can be identified on thebasis of the number of partners andrules governing who can marry whom.In terms of the number of partners thatcan legitimately enter into matrimony,we have two forms of marriage,namely, monogamy and polygamy.Monogamy restricts the individual toone spouse at a time. Under thissystem, at any given time a man canhave only one wife and a woman canhave only one husband. Even wherepolygamy is permitted, in actualpractice, monogamy is more widelyprevalent.

In many societies, individuals arepermitted to marry again, often on thedeath of the first spouse or afterdivorce. But they cannot have morethan one spouse at one and the sametime. Such a monogamous marriageis termed serial monogamy. Re-marriages on the death of a wife havebeen a norm for men for the most part.But as all of you are aware that the

Activiy 3

Find out about the different waysthat different societies go aboutfinding marriage partners.


Activity 4

Collect different wedding songs anddiscuss how they reflect the socialdynamics of marriages and ofgender relations.

Activity 5

Have you ever seen matrimonialadvertisements? Divide your classinto groups and look at differentnewspapers, magazines and theinternet. Discuss your findings. Doyou think endogamy is still theprevalent norm? How does it helpyou to understand choice inmarriage? More importantly, whatkind of changes in society does itreflect?

Endogamy requires an individualto marry within a culturally definedgroup of which he or she is already amember, as for example, caste.Exogamy, the reverse of endogamy,requires the individual to marry outsideof his/her own group. Endogamy andexogamy are in reference to certainkinship units, such as, clan, caste andracial, ethnic or religious groupings. InIndia, village exogamy is practised incertain parts of north India. Villageexogamy ensured that daughters weremarried into families from villages faraway from home. This arrangementensured smooth transition andadjustment of the bride into the affinalhome without interference of herkinsmen. The geographical distanceplus the unequal relationship in thepatrilineal system ensured that marrieddaughters did not get to see theirparents too often. Thus parting fromnatal home was a sad occasion and isthe theme of folk songs, which depictthe pain of departure.

Father, we are like flocks of birdWe shall fly away; Our flight will belong,We know not to which,Region we will go.Father, my palanquin cannotPass through your palace,(because the door is too small)Daughter, I shall remove a brick(to enlarge the passage for yourpalanquin),You must go to your home.

(Chanana 1993: WS 26)

Rock-a-bye-baby, combs in yourpretty hair,The bridegroom will come soon andtake you awayThe drums beat loudly, the shehnaiis playing softlyA stranger’s son has come to fetch meCome my playmates, come with ourtoysLet us play, for I shall never playagainWhen I go off to the strangers’ house.

(Dube 2001: 94)

Defining Some Basic Concepts,Particularly those of Family,Kinship and Marriage

A family is a group of personsdirectly linked by kin connections,


the adult members of which assumeresponsibility for caring for children.Kinship ties are connections betweenindividuals, established either throughmarriage or through the lines of descentthat connect blood relatives (mothers,fathers, siblings, offspring, etc.)Marriage can be defined as a sociallyacknowledged and approved sexualunion between two adult individuals.When two people marry, they becomekin to one another. The marriage bondalso, however, connects together a widerrange of people. Parents, brothers,sisters and other blood relatives becomerelatives of the partner throughmarriage. The family of birth is calledfamily of orientation and the family inwhich a person is married is called thefamily of procreation. The kin who arerelated through “blood” are calledconsanguinal kin while the kin who arerelated through marriage are calledaffines. As we move on to the nextsection on work and economicinstitutions, you will notice how thefamily and economic life are closelyinterconnected.

III

WORK AND ECONOMIC LIFE

What is Work?

As children and young students weimagine what kind of ‘work’ we will dowhen we grow up. ‘Work’ here quiteclearly refers to paid employment. Thisis the most widely understood sense of‘work’ in modern times.

This in fact is an oversimplified view.Many types of work do not conform tothe idea of paid employment. Much ofthe work done in the informal economy,for example, is not recorded in anydirect way in the official employmentstatistics. The term informal economyrefers to transactions outside thesphere of regular employment,sometimes involving the exchange ofcash for services provided, but alsooften involving the direct exchange ofgoods or services.

We can define work, whether paidor unpaid, as the carrying out of tasksrequiring the expenditure of mental and

There was no occupation, which Tiny’s Granny had not tried at some stage ofher life. From the time she was old enough to hold her own cup she had startedworking at odd jobs in people’s houses in return for her two meals a day andcast-off clothes. Exactly what the words ‘odd jobs’ mean, only those know whohave been kept at them at an age when they ought to have been laughing andplaying with other children. Anything from the uninteresting duty of shakingthe baby’s rattle to massaging the master’s head comes under the category of‘odd jobs’ (Chugtai 2004:125).

Find out more about the various kinds of ‘work’ done from your ownobservation or literature or even films. Discuss.


Kind of Works

physical effort, which has as its objectivethe production of goods and servicesthat cater to human needs.

Modern Forms of Work and Divisionof Labour

In pre-modern forms of society mostpeople worked in the field or cared forthe livestock. In the industriallydeveloped society only a tiny pro-portion of the population works in

agriculture, and farming itself hasbecome industrialised — it is carried onlargely by means of machines rather

Activity 6

Find out the proportion of Indianswho are in rural based occupations.Make a list of these occupations.


People seeking jobs in factorieswere trained to perform a specialisedtask and receive a wage for this work.Managers supervised the work, fortheir task was to enhance workerproductivity and discipline.

One of the main features of modernsocieties is an enormous expansion ofeconomic interdependence. We are alldependent on an immense number ofother workers-stretching right acrossthe world- for the products and servicesthat sustain our lives. With fewexceptions, the vast majority of peoplein modern societies do not produce thefood they eat, the houses they live in orthe material goods they consume.

than by human hand. In a country likeIndia, the larger share of the populationcontinues to be rural and agriculturalor involved in other rural basedoccupations.

There are other trends in India too,for instance an expansion of the servicesector.

One of the most distinctivecharacteristics of the economic systemof modern societies is the existence of ahighly complex division of labour. Workhas been divided into an enormousnumber of different occupations inwhich people specialise. In traditionalsocieties, non-agricultural workentailed the mastery of a craft. Craftskills were learned through a lengthyperiod of apprenticeship, and theworker normally carried out all aspectsof the production process frombeginning to end.

Activity 7

Find out whether there has been ashift to the service sector in Indiain recent times. Which are thesesectors?

Activity 9

Make a list of the food that you eat,the materials that were used to makethe houses you live in, the clothesyou wear. Find out how and whomade them.

Modern society also witnesses ashift in the location of work. Beforeindustrialisation, most work took placeat home and was completed collectivelyby all the members of the household.Advances in industrial technology,such as machinery operating onelectricity and coal, contributed to theseparation of work and home. Factoriesowned by capitalist entrepreneursbecame the focal point of industrialdevelopment.

Transformation of Work

Industrial processes were broken downinto simple operations that could beprecisely timed, organised andmonitored. Mass production demandsmass markets. One of the mostsignificant innovations was the

Activity 8

Have you seen a master weaver atwork? Find out how long one pieceof shawl may take to make?


Discuss the two forms of production in the two sets of visualsCloth production in a factory


Threshing of paddy in a village


construction of a moving assembly line.Modern industrial production neededexpensive equipment and continuousmonitoring of employees throughmonitoring or surveillance systems.

Over the last decades there has beena shift to what is often called ‘flexibleproduction’ and ‘decentralisation ofwork’. It is argued that in this periodof globalisation, it is the growingcompetition between firms andcountries that makes it essential forfirms to organise production suiting thechanging market conditions. Toillustrate how this new system operatesand what the implications may be forthe workers, read the quote from astudy of the garment industry inBangalore.

The industry is essentially part of along supply chain, and the freedomof manufacturers is to that extentextremely limited. There are, in factmore than a hundred operationsbetween the designer and the finalconsumer. In this chain, only15 are in the hands of themanufacturer. Any seriousagitation for a rise in wages wouldlead manufacturers to shift theiroperations to other localities,beyond the reach of unionists...whether it is the payment of theexisting minimum wage, or itssubstantial revision upwards, whatis important is to enlist the supportof the retailer in order to create thenecessary pressure upon thegovernment and local agencies fora higher wage structure and itseffective implementation. Thus the

vision here is that of the creation ofan international opinion forum(Roy Choudhury 2005 :2254).

Read the above given report carefully.Notice how the new organisation ofproduction and a body of customersoutside the country have altered theeconomics and the politics ofproduction.

IV

POLITICS

Political institutions are concerned withthe distribution of power in society. Twoconcepts, which are critical to theunderstanding of political institutions,are power and authority. Power is theability of individuals or groups to carryout their will even when opposed byothers. It implies that those who holdpower do so at the cost of others. Thereis a fixed amount of power in a societyand if some wield power others do not.In other words, an individual or groupdoes not hold power in isolation, theyhold it in relation to others.

This notion of power is fairlyinclusive and extends from family eldersassigning domestic duties to theirchildren to principals enforcingdiscipline in school; from the GeneralManager of a factory distributing workamong the executives to political leadersregulating programmes of their parties.The principal has power to maintaindiscipline in school. The president of apolitical party possesses power to expela member from the party. In each case,an individual or group has power to theextent to which others abide by theirwill. In this sense, political activities orpolitics is concerned with ‘power’.


But how is this ‘power’ applied toachieve its aim? Why do people complywith others’ commands? Answers tothese questions could be found withreference to a related concept of‘authority’. Power is exercised throughauthority. Authority is that form ofpower, which is accepted as legitimate,that is, as right and just. It isinstitutionalised because it is based onlegitimacy. People in general accept thepower of those in authority as theyconsider their control to be fair andjustified. Often ideologies exist that helpthis process of legitimation.

Stateless Societies

Empirical studies of stateless societies bysocial anthropologists over sixty yearsago demonstrated how order ismaintained without a moderngovernmental apparatus. There wasinstead the balanced oppositionbetween parts; cross-cutting alliances,based on kinship, marriage andresidence; rites and ceremonies involvingthe participation of friends and foes.

As we all know, the modern statehas a fixed structure and formalprocedures. Yet are not some of theinformal mechanisms mentioned aboveas features of stateless societies presentalso in state societies?

The Concept of the State

A state exists where there is a politicalapparatus of government (institutionslike a parliament or congress, plus civilservice officials) ruling over a giventerritory. Government authority isbacked by a legal system and by the

capacity to use military force toimplement its policies. The functionalistperspective sees the state asrepresenting the interests of all sectionsof society. The conflict perspective seesthe state as representing the dominantsections of society.

Modern states are very differentfrom traditional states. These states aredefined by sovereignty, citizenshipand, most often, ideas of nationalism.Sovereignty refers to the undisputedpolitical rule of a state over a giventerritorial area.

The sovereign state was not at firstone in which citizenship carried with itrights of political participation. Thesewere achieved largely throughstruggles, which limited the power ofmonarchs, or actively overthrew them.The French Revolution and our ownIndian independence struggle are twoinstances of such movements.

Citizenship rights include civil,political and social rights. Civil rightsinvolve the freedom of individuals tolive where they choose; freedom ofspeech and religion; the right to ownproperty; and the right to equal justicebefore the law. Political rights includethe right to participate in elections andto stand for public office. In mostcountries governments were reluctantto admit the principle of universalfranchise. In the early years not onlywomen, but a large section of the malepopulation was excluded as holding acertain amount of property was aneligibility criterion. Women had to waitlonger for the vote.

The third type of citizenship rightsare social rights. These concern the


prerogative of every individual to enjoya certain minimum standard ofeconomic welfare and security. Theyinclude such rights as health benefits,unemployment allowance, setting ofminimum level of wages. Thebroadening of social or welfare rightsled to the welfare state, which wasestablished in Western societies sincethe Second World War. States of theerstwhile socialist countries hadfar-reaching provision in this sector. Inmost developing countries, this wasvirtually non-existent. All over theworld today these social rights arebeing attacked as liabilities on the stateand hindrances to economic growth.

Nationalism can be defined as a setof symbols and beliefs providing thesense of being part of a single political

community. Thus, individuals feel asense of pride and belonging, in being‘British’, ‘Indian’, ‘Indonesian’ or‘French’. Probably people have alwaysfelt some kind of identity with socialgroups of one form or another — forexample, their family, clan or religiouscommunity. Nationalism, however, onlymade its appearance with thedevelopment of the modern state.Contemporary world is marked both bya rapid expansion of the global marketas well as intense nationalist feelingsand conflicts.

Sociology has been interested in thebroader study of power, not just withthe formal apparatus of government. Ithas been interested in the distributionof power between parties, betweenclasses, between castes, and between

Activity 10

Find out when women got voting rights in different countries. Why do you thinkthat despite the right to vote and the right to stand for public office, women areso inadequately represented? Will power in its wider sense be a useful conceptto understand this under-representation in the Parliament and other bodies?Does the existing division of labour within families and households impactwomen’s participation in political life? Find out why there is a demand for 33per cent reservation for women in the Parliament?

Activity 11

Collect information about differentstates doing away with socialrights. Find out what explanationis given for this. Discuss andsee whether you can see therelationship between the economic,political and social spheres.

Activity 12

Collect information of events thatshow the growth of global inter-connectedness as well as instancesof divisions along ethnic, religious,national conflicts. Discuss howpolitics and economics may have apart to play in them.


communities based on race, languageand religion. Its focus is not just on whatmay be called specifically politicalassociation, such as state legislatures,town councils and political parties butalso associations such as schools,banks and religious institutions whoseaims are not primarily political. Thescope of sociology has been wide. Itsrange has extended from the study ofinternational movements (such aswomen or environmental) to villagefactions.

V

RELIGION

Religion has been a subject of studyand reflection for a very long time. InChapter 1, we have seen howsociological findings about society aredifferent from religious reflections. Thesociological study of religion is differentfrom a religious or theological study ofreligion in many ways. One, it conductsempirical studies of how religionsactually function in society and itsrelationship to other institutions. Two,it uses a comparative method. Three, itinvestigates religious beliefs, practicesand institutions in relation to otheraspects of society and culture.

The empirical method means thatthe sociologist does not have ajudgemental approach to religiousphenomena. The comparative methodis important because in a sense itbrings all societies on level with eachother. It helps to study without biasand prejudice. The sociologicalperspective means that religious lifecan be made intelligible only by relating

it to domestic life, economic life andpolitical life.

Religion exists in all knownsocieties, although religious beliefs andpractices vary from culture to culture.Characteristics that all religions seemto share are:

´ set of symbols, invoking feelings ofreverence or awe;

´ rituals or ceremonies;´ a community of believers.

The rituals associated with religionare very diverse. Ritual acts may includepraying, chanting, singing, eatingcertain kinds of food (or refraining fromdoing so), fasting on certain days, andso on. Since ritual acts are orientedtowards religious symbols, they areusually seen as quite distinct from thehabits and procedures of ordinary life.Lighting a candle or diya to honour thedivine differs completely in itssignificance from doing so simply tolight a room. Religious rituals are oftencarried out by an individual in his/herpersonal everyday life. But all religionsalso involve ceremonials practisedcollectively by believers. Regularceremonials normally occur in specialplaces — churches, mosques, temples,shrines.

Religion is about the sacred realm.Think of what members of differentreligions do before entering a sacredrealm. For example covering one’s head,or not covering one’s head, taking offshoes, or wearing particular kind ofclothes, etc. What is common to themall is the feeling of awe, recognitionand respect for a sacred places orsituations.


Sociologists of religion, followingEmile Durkheim, are interested inunderstanding this sacred realm whichevery society distinguishes fromthe profane. In most cases, thesacred includes an element of thesupernatural. Often the sacred qualityof a tree or a temple comes with thebelief that it is sacred precisely becausethere is some supernatural force behindit. However, it is important to keep inmind that some religions like earlyBuddhism and Confucianism had noconception of the supernatural, but didallow sufficient reverence for things andpersons which they considered sacred.

Studying religion sociologicallylets us ask questions about therelationship of religion with other socialinstitutions. Religion has had a veryclose relationship with power andpolitics. For instance periodically inhistory there have been religiousmovements for social change, likevarious anti-caste movementsor movements against genderdiscrimination. Religion is not just amatter of the private belief of anindividual but it also has a publiccharacter. And it is th is public characterof religion, which has an importantbearing on other institutions of society.

We have seen how sociology looksat power in a wide sense. It is thereforeof sociological interest to look at therelationship between the political andreligious sphere. Classical sociologistsbelieved that as societies modernised,religion would become less influentialover the various spheres of life. Theconcept secularisation describes thisprocess. Contemporary events suggesta persisting role of religion various

aspects of society. Why do you thinkthis is so?

A pioneering work by Max Weber(1864-1920) demonstrates howsociology looks at religion in itsrelationship to other aspects of socialand economic behaviour. Weber arguesthat Calvinism (a branch of ProtestantChristianity) exerted an importantinfluence on the emergence and growthof capitalism as a mode of economicorganisation. The Calvinists believedthat the world was created for the gloryof God, meaning that any work in thisworld had to be done for His glory,making even mundane works acts ofworship. More importantly, however,the Calvinists also believed in theconcept of predestination, which meantthat whether one will go to heaven orhell was pre-ordained. Since there wasno way of knowing whether one hasbeen assigned heaven or hell, peoplesought to look for signs of God’s will inthis world, in their own occupations.Thus if a person in whatever profession,was consistent and successful in his orher work, it was interpreted as a signof God’s happiness. The money earnedwas not to be used for worldlyconsumption; rather the ethics ofCalvinism was to live frugally. Thismeant that investment becamesomething like a holy creed. At theheart of capitalism is the concept ofinvestment, which is about investingcapital to make more goods, whichcreate more profit, which in turncreates more capital. Thus Weber wasable to argue that religion, in this caseCalvinism, does have an influence oneconomic development.


Religion cannot be studied as aseparate entity. Social forces alwaysand invariably influence religiousinstitutions. Political debates, economicsituations and gender norms willalways influence religious behaviour.Conversely, religious norms influenceand sometimes even determine socialunderstanding. Women constitute halfof the world’s population. Sociologicallytherefore it becomes important to askwhat relationship this vast segment ofhuman population has with religion.Religion is an important part of societyand is inextricably tied to other parts.The task of sociologists is to unravelthese various interconnections. Intraditional societies, religion usuallyplays a central part in social life.Religious symbols and rituals are oftenintegrated with the material and artisticculture of society. Read the extractwhich is given below in the box to get asense of how sociology studies religion.

VI

EDUCATION

Education is a life long process,involving both formal and informalinstitutions of learning. Here we arehowever confining ourselves only toschool education. We are all aware howimportant getting admission into aschool is. We also know, for many of us,school is a step towards highereducation and finally employment. Forsome of us it may mean acquiring somenecessary social skills. What is commonin all cases is that there is a felt needfor education.

Sociology understands this need asa process of transmission/commu-nication of group heritage, common toall societies. There is a qualitativedistinction between simple societiesand complex, modern societies. In thecase of the former there was no needfor formal schooling. Children learnt

Many extraneous factors have affected the traditional lives of the religiousspecialists. The most important of these are the growth of new employment andeducational opportunities in Nasik... after Independence, the way of life of thepriests has been changing fast. Now the sons and daughters are sent to school,and are trained for jobs other than traditional ones… Like all places of pilgrimage,Nasik also gave rise to supplementary centres around religious activities. It wasa normal routine for a pilgrim to take home the sacred water of the Godavari ina copper pot. The coppersmiths provided these wares. The pilgrims also boughtwares, which they took home to be distributed as gifts among their relatives andfriends. For long Nasik was known for its proficient craftsmen in brass, copperand silver... Since the demand for their wares is intermittent and uncertain,not all the adult males can be supported by this occupation... Manycraftsmen have entered industry and business-both small and large scale(Acharya 1974: 399-401).


customs and the broader way of life byparticipating in activities with theiradults. In complex societies, we sawthere is an increasing economic divisionof labour, separation of work fromhome, need for specialised learning andskill attainment, rise of state systems,nations and complex set of symbols andideas. How do you get educatedinformally in such a context? Howwould parents or other adultsinformally communicate all that has tobe known to the next generation?Education in such a social context hasto be formal and explicit.

Furthermore modern complexsocieties in contrast to simple societiesrest on abstract universalistic values.This is what distinguishes it from asimple society that depends onparticularistic values, based on family,kin, tribe, caste or religion. Schools inmodern societies are designed topromote uniformity, standardisedaspirations and universalistic values.There are many ways of doing this. Forexample one can speak of ‘uniformdress for school children’. Can youthink of other features that promotestandardisation?

For Emile Durkheim, no society cansurvive without a ‘common base-acertain number of ideas, sentimentsand practices which education mustinculcate in all children indiscriminately,to whatever social category they belong’(Durkheim 1956: 69). Educationshould prepare the child for a specialoccupation, and enable the child tointernalise the core values of society.

The functionalist sociologist thusspeaks in terms of general socialneeds and social norms. For thefunctionalists, education maintainsand renews the social structure,transmits and develops culture. Theeducational system is an importantmechanism for the selection andallocation of the individuals in theirfuture roles in the society. It is alsoregarded as the ground for provingone’s ability and hence selectiveagency for different status accordingto their abi l i t ies. Recal l ourdiscussion on the functionalistunderstanding of roles andstratification in Chapter 2.

For the sociologists who perceivesociety as unequally differentiated,education functions as a main

Discuss the visuals


stratifying agent. And at the sametime the inequality of educationalopportunity is also a product of socialstratification. In other words we go todifferent kinds of schools depending onour socio-economic background. Andbecause we go to some kind of schools,we acquire different kind of privilegesand finally opportunities.

For instance some argue thatschooling ‘intensifies the existing dividebetween the elite and the masses.’Children going to privileged schoolslearn to be confident while childrendeprived of that may feel the opposite(Pathak 2002:151). However, there aremany more children who simply cannotattend school or drop out. For instancea study reports :

You are seeing some children in theschool now. If you come during thecultivation season you may seealmost zero attendance from the SCand ST children. They all take somehousehold responsibilities while theparents are out to work. And the girlchildren of these communitiesseldom attend school as they dovarious kinds of work both domesticand income generating. A 10 yearold girl picks dry cow dung to sellfor example (Pratichi 2002:60).

The above report indicates howgender and caste discriminationimpinges upon the chances ofeducation. Recall how we began thisbook in Chapter 1 about a child’s

chances for a good job being shapedby a host of social factors. Yourunderstanding of the way socialinstitutions function should help youanalyse the process better now.

Discuss the visual

Activity 13

A study of a kindergarten suggested that children learn that:´ ‘work activities are more important than play activities’.´ ‘work includes any and all teacher-directed activities.’´ ‘work is compulsory and free time activities are called play’ (Apple 1979:102).

What do you think? Discuss.


GLOSSARY

Citizen : A member of a political community, having both rights and dutiesassociated with that membership.

Division of Labour : The specialisation of work tasks, by means of whichdifferent occupations are combined within a production system. All societieshave at least some rudimentary form of division of labour. With thedevelopment of industrialism, however, the division of labour becomes vastlymore complex than in any prior type of production system. In the modernworld, the division of labour is international in scope.

Gender : Social expectations about behaviour regarded as appropriate forthe members of each sex. Gender is seen as a basic organising principle ofsociety.

Empirical Investigation : Factual enquiry carried out in any given area ofsociological study.

Endogamy : When marriage is within a specific caste, class or tribal group.

Exogamy : When marriage occurs outside a certain group of relations.

Ideology : Shared ideas or beliefs, which serve to justify the interests ofdominant groups. Ideologies are found in all societies in which there aresystematic and engrained inequalities between groups. The concept ofideology connects closely with that of power, since ideological systems serveto legitimise the differential power which groups hold.

Legitimacy : The belief that a particular political order is just and valid.

Monogamy : When marriage involves one husband and one wife alone.

Polygamy : When marriage involves more than one mate at one time.

Polyandry : When more than one man is married to a woman.

Polygyny : When more than one woman is married to a man.

Service Industries : Industries concerned with the production of servicesrather than manufactured goods, such as the travel industry.

State Society : A society which possesses a formal apparatus of government.

Stateless Society : A society which lacks formal institutions of government.

Social Mobility : Movement from one status or occupation to another.

Sovereignty : The undisputed political rule of a state over a given territorialarea.


EXERCISES

1. Note what are the marriage rules that are followed in your society.Compare your observations with that made by other students in theclass. Discuss.

2. Find out how membership, residence pattern and even the mode ofinteraction changes in the family with broader economic, political andcultural changes, for instance migration.

3. Write an essay on ‘work’. Focus on both the range of occupations, whichexist and how they change.

4. Discuss the kind of rights that exist in your society. How do they affectyour life?

5. How does sociology study religion?

6. Write an essay on the school as a social institution. Draw from both yourreading as well as your personal observations.

7. Discuss how these social institutions interact with each other. You canstart the discussion from yourself as a senior school student. And moveon to how you are shaped by different social institutions. Are you entirelycontrolled or can you also resist and redefine social institutions?

READINGS

ACHARYA, HEMLATA. 1974. ‘Changing Role of Religious Specialists in Nasik —The Pilgrim City’, in ed. RAO, M.S. An Urban Sociology in India : Readerand Source Book, Orient Longman, New Delhi, pp. 391-403.

APPLE, MICHAEL W. 1979. Ideology and Curriculum. Routledge and Kegan Paul,LONDON.

CHUGTAI, ISMAT. 2004. Tiny’s Granny in Contemporary Indian Short Stories;Series 1. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi.

DUBE, LEELA. 2001. Anthropological Explorations in Gender : Intersecting Fields.Sage Publications, New Delhi.

DURKHEIM, EMILE. 1956. Education and Sociology. The Free Press, New York.

PATHAK, AVIJIT. 2002. Social Implications of Schooling : Knowledge, Pedagogyand Consciousness. Rainbow Publishers, Delhi.

PRATICHI. 2002. The Pratichi Education Report. Pratichi Trust, Delhi.


ROY CHOUDHURY, SUPRIYA. 2005. ‘Labour Activism and Women in theUnorganised Sector : Garment Export Industry in Bangalore’, Economicand Political Weekly. May 28-June 4. pp. 2250-2255.

SHAH, A.M. 1998. Family in India : Critical Essays. Orient Longman, Hyderabad.

SINGH, YOGENDRA. 1993. Social Change in India : Crisis and Resilience.Har-Anand Publications, New Delhi.

UBEROI, PATRICIA. 2002. ‘Family, Kinship and Marriage in India’, in Student’sBritannica, India. Vol.6, pp.145-155. Encyclopedia Britannica Private Ltd,New Delhi.

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