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Name : Muhammad hasanainNIM : 04011381419180

Class : GammaLearning issue

a. sign, symptom, and cause ofdiarrhea

Diarrhea is a condition that is classified as the appearance ofloose, watery stools and/or a frequent need to go to the

bathroom. It generally lasts a few days and often disappearswithout any treatment. Diarrhea is a symptom, not a disease. It is defined as passing frequent loose stools. The acute formlasts only a day or two and usually isn't serious, but it can belinked with some other problems. It affects people of all ages,and some types are infectious. The average person may getacute diarrhea 3 to 5 times a year, and long-term effects arerare. Children under 5 years of age experience about 1 to 3episodes of diarrhea every year.

Chronic diarrhea lasts longer than 2 weeks, or shows up as

repeated episodes of diarrhea lasting less than 2 weeks each.An inflammatory bowel condition such as ulcerative colitis orCrohn's disease may be to blame.

Children and infants with diarrhea should be seen by a doctor.

Causes of Diarrhea

People get diarrhea when the feces move too quickly throughthe bowels so that the intestines don't have enough time to pull
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water from the waste to "firm it up."

People get diarrhea for many reasons, including:

not digesting food completely - for example, some peoplecan't digest lactose, the sugar found in milk, while others

may not be able to digest or absorb fat or carbohydrates certain intestinal diseases such as ulcerative colitis and

Crohn's disease bacterial and viral infections such as salmonella or rotavirus,

the most common cause of transient diarrhea in children intestinal parasites, especially when travelling certain medications, such as blood pressure medications and

those containing magnesium radiation or chemotherapyIn functional bowel disorders like irritable bowel syndrome, the muscles that normally move waste along the intestine canspasm, causing diarrhea.

If you think that a medication you're taking is causing the problem, don't stop taking it before talking to your doctor.

Diarrhea isn't always due to things that are eaten or swallowed- emotional stress or turmoil can also bring it on.

Symptoms and Complications of Diarrhea

Your stool will be loose and watery. You may suffer fromabdominal cramping, nausea, or bloating. You may even havea fever, along with chills. If you've had diarrhea for a fewdays, you may feel lightheaded or weak. This comes fromrapidly losing the minerals, sugar, and water that your bodyneeds. Normally, diarrhea won't cause you to lose control ofyour bowels - if this happens, you should consult your doctor.

You may also notice that you're urinating less. This is becauseyour body is losing water through bowel movements instead ofurine. If the diarrhea lasts longer than 48 hours or you have a

fever of 38.5C or higher, or have severe abdominal pain or
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vomiting that prevents fluid replacement by mouth, see adoctor immediately. Acute diarrhea accompanied by fever andstools with blood can be signs of a potentially dangerousinfection or parasite.

Always consult a doctor for a child with diarrhea who hasn'turinated for 6 hours - the child could be dangerouslydehydrated.

b. proportion chemicalsubstance in our body

The elemental composition of the human body can belooked at from the point of view of either masscomposition, or atomic composition. To illustrate bothviews, the adult male human body is approximately57% water, and water is 11% hydrogen by mass but67% by count of atoms. Thus, most of the mass of thehuman body is oxygen, but most of the atoms in thehuman body are hydrogen atoms.Body composition may also be analyzed in terms ofmolecular type (e.g., water, protein, connective tissue, fats (or lipids ) apatite (in bones), carbohydrates (suchas glycogen and glucose) and DNA. In terms of tissuetype, the body may be analyzed into water, fat,muscle, bone, etc. In terms of cell type, the bodycontains hundreds of different types of cells, butnotably, the largest number of cells contained in ahuman body (though not the largest mass of cells) arenot human cells, but consist of bacteria (bacterialcells) residing in the normal human gastrointestinaltract.
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c. drugsA drug is, in the broadest of terms, a chemicalsubstance that has known biological effects on humansor other animals .Foods are generally excluded fromthis definition, in spite of their physiological effects onanimal species.In pharmacology, a drug is "a chemical substance usedin the treatment, cure, prevention, or diagnosis of

disease or used to otherwise enhance physical ormental well-being. Drugs may be used for a limitedduration, or on a regular basis for chronic disorders. Recreational drugs are chemical substances that affectthe central nervous system, such as opioids orhallucinogens. Alcohol, nicotine, and caffeine are themost widely consumed psychotropic drugs worldwide.They may be used for effects on perception,

consciousness, personality, and behavior. Manyrecreational drugs are also medicinal.Some drugs can cause addiction and habituation andall drugs have side effects. Many drugs are illegal forrecreational purposes and international treaties such asthe Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs exist for the

purpose of legally prohibiting certain substances.A medication or medicine is a drug taken to cure

and/or ameliorate any symptoms of an illness ormedical condition, or may be used as preventivemedicine that has future benefits but does not treat anyexisting or pre-existing diseases or symptoms.

Dispensing of medication is often regulated bygovernments into three categories over-the-counter (OTC) medications, which are available in pharmaciesand supermarkets without special restrictions, behind-

the-counter (BTC), which are dispensed by a
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pharmacist without needing a doctor's prescription, and prescription only medicines (POM), which must be prescribed by a licensed medical professional, usuallya physician.

In the United Kingdom, BTC medicines are called pharmacy medicines which can only be sold inregistered pharmacies, by or under the supervision of a

pharmacist. These medications are designated by theletter P on the label.The range of medicines availablewithout a prescription varies from country to country.

Medications are typically produced by pharmaceutical

companies and are often patented to give the developerexclusive rights to produce them. Those that are not

patented (or with expired patents) are called genericdrugs since they can be produced by other companieswithout restrictions or licenses from the patent holder.

d. proteolic acid-basebalanceda normal balance between production and excretion ofacid or alkali by the body, resulting in a stableconcentration of H+ in body fluids.

a state of equilibrium between acidity and alkalinity of

the body fluids. An acid is a substance capable ofgiving up a hydrogen ion during a chemical exchange,and a base is a substance that can accept it. The

positively charged hydrogen ion (H +) is the activeconstituent of all acids.

Most of the body's metabolic processes produce acidsas their end products, but a somewhat alkaline body

fluid is required as a medium for vital cellularactivities. Therefore chemical exchanges of hydrogen
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ions must take place continuously in order to maintaina state of equilibrium. An optimal pH (hydrogen ionconcentration) between 7.35 and 7.45 must bemaintained; otherwise, the enzyme systems and other

biochemical and metabolic activities will not functionnormally.

e. bio-electricity of cell

bioelectricity, electric potentials and currents produced by or occurring within living organisms.Bioelectric potentials are generated by a variety of

biological processes and generally range in strengthfrom one to a few hundred millivolts. In the electriceel, however, currents of one ampere at 600 to 1,000volts are generated. A brief treatment of bioelectricityfollows. For full treatment, see electricity: Bioelectriceffects. Bioelectricity deals with cell membrane transport

processes that control the formation and dissipation ofion gradients. Ion gradients store energy in form of anelectrochemical potential. This energy can beconverted into other forms of energy. Theelectrochemical potential is available to organisms for

biosynthesis (photosynthesis and respiration),transport of metabolites (absorption and secretion),mechanical work (bacterial flagella rotor, swimming,crawling), and signaling processes (action potentials).Action potentials are a form of information used byelectrically excitable membranes to control theactivity of cells (calcium signaling, musclecontractility) and to support or suppress

communication between cells (release of chemicalsignaling molecules; hormones, neurotransmitters).
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f.

sign, symptom andcause of dehydration

Symptoms

Mild to moderate dehydration is likely tocause: Dry, sticky mouth Sleepiness or tiredness children are likely to be less

active than usual

Thirst Decreased urine output No wet diapers for three hours for infants Few or no tears when crying Dry skin Headache Constipation Dizziness or lightheadedness

Severe dehydration, a medicalemergency, can cause:. Extreme thirst. Extreme fussiness or sleepiness in infants and children;

irritability and confusion in adults. Very dry mouth, skin and mucous membranes


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. Little or no urination any urine that is produced willbe darker than normal

. Sunken eyes. Shriveled and dry skin that lacks elasticity and doesn't

"bounce back" when pinched into a fold. In infants, sunken fontanels the soft spots on the top

of a baby's head. Low blood pressure. Rapid heartbeat. Rapid breathing. No tears when crying. Fever. In the most serious cases, delirium or unconsciousnessUnfortunately, thirst isn't always a reliable gauge of thebody's need for water, especially in children and olderadults. A better indicator is the color of your urine: Clearor light-colored urine means you're well hydrated,whereas a dark yellow or amber color usually signalsdehydration.

signIf you're a healthy adult, you can usually treat mild tomoderate dehydration by drinking more fluids, such aswater or a sports drink (Gatorade, Powerade, others).

Get immediate medical care if you develop severe signsand symptoms such as extreme thirst, a lack of urination,shriveled skin, dizziness and confusion.

Treat children and older adults with greater caution. Callyour family doctor right away if your loved one:

. Develops severe diarrhea, with or without vomiting orfever

. Has bloody or black stool


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. Has had moderate diarrhea for 24 hours or more. Can't keep down fluids. Is irritable or disoriented and much sleepier or less

active than usual. Has any of the signs or symptoms of mild or moderate

dehydrationGo to the nearest hospital emergency room orcall 911 or your emergency medical number ifyou think a child or older adult is severelydehydrated. You can help prevent dehydration

from becoming severe by carefully monitoringsomeone who is sick and giving fluids, such asan oral rehydration solution (CeraLyte, Pedialyte,others), at the first sign of diarrhea, vomiting orfever and by encouraging children to drink plentyof water before, during and after exercise.

Causes

Dehydration occurs when there isn't enough water toreplace what's lost throughout the day. Your systemliterally dries out. Sometimes dehydration occurs forsimple reasons: You don't drink enough because you'resick or busy, or because you lack access to safe drinking

water when you're traveling, hiking or camping.Other dehydration causes include:

Diarrhea, vomiting. Severe, acute diarrhea that is,diarrhea that comes on suddenly and violently can cause a tremendous loss of water andelectrolytes in a short amount of time. If you havevomiting along with diarrhea, you lose even morefluids and minerals. Children and infants are


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especially at risk. Diarrhea may be caused by abacterial or viral infection, food sensitivity, areaction to medications or a bowel disorder.

Fever. In general, the higher your fever, the moredehydrated you may become. If you have a fever in

addition to diarrhea and vomiting, you lose evenmore fluids.

Excessive sweating. You lose water when you sweat.If you do vigorous activity and don't replace fluids asyou go along, you can become dehydrated. Hot,humid weather increases the amount you sweat

and the amount of fluid you lose. But you can alsobecome dehydrated in winter if you don't replacelost fluids. Preteens and teens who participate insports may be especially susceptible, both becauseof their body weight, which is generally lower thanthat of adults, and because they may not beexperienced enough to know the warning signs ofdehydration.

Increased urination. This may be due toundiagnosed or uncontrolled diabetes. Certainmedications, such as diuretics and some bloodpressure medications, also can lead todehydration, generally because they cause youto urinate or perspire more than normal.

Problem analysisa. i. eating spicy foods will cause a variety of disorders of the stomachand digestion. A gastroenterologist said that everyone has differentsensitivities to different spicy foods. It is suggested that has problems withstomach digestion kusunya, for not too often mngkonsumsi spicy dishes

because it can aggravate your digestive problems. Eating spicy food

continuously will cause the fragility of the surface of the stomach and canmake your stomach hurt. Diseases that will arise is eroded ulcer or gastritis


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and inflammation of the stomach lining. The hull is in contact with the spicyfood regularly causes the stomach lining to thin and susceptible to infection,causing heartburn.

ii. we know that limits the ability of spicy and sour which each person is

different, so the limit is to be the benchmark of how the level of taste that issafe for the body. For the mother understood, more advisable to consumefoods that are under the limits of spicy and sour owned so as not to be badfor the body. Limits the ability of each person to hold spicy and sour could

be one of the indicators that can be used to see the extent to which the bodyis able to adapt to the taste level.

iii. spicy foods can speed up the movement in intestines that facilitate theoccurrence of diarrhea. Consumption of spicy food too often can cause thesurface of the hull to become brittle and susceptible to injury. spicy foodscan lead to some parts of the tongue allergy so your appetite is reduced

because of the inconvenience. Spicy foods can also disrupt sleep patterns.

iv. I think the food was spicy because of the effects caused by spicy chilicapcaisin containing substances in these foods.

v.

b. i. To maintain healthy, normal human being should consume at least 2liters of water a day or 8 glasses a day. And for smokers to be more thanthat. Much water is needed to replace the fluid that comes out of the body,such as urine, sweat, respiration and secretion.

ii. 1. Making brain cells become inactive. When someone shortage of watersupply, then he will become dehydrated. Dehydration can cause decreased

brain water and oxygen intake which should flow to the brain is reduced.This resulted in brain cells become dormant and not growing, it can evenshrink.2. Lowering the concentration of brain has a composition consisting of aliquid, and when the brain does not get enough water intake, it will disruptcognitive function (intelligence). The brain is unable to perform cognitivefunctions would make a person forgetful, distracted, to slow.3. It causes hallucinations and even death. Dehydration can cause mildsymptoms such as thirst, headache, sore throat, body heat, fatigue, rapid

pulse, color dark urine, or severe symptoms such as hallucinations and evendeath.4. Causes of bladder infections. Prone to bladder infections, because the

bacteria can not get out due to lack of drinking water. The symptoms of a

bladder infection may be a slight temperature rise, pain during urination, afeeling can not hold pee, there is tenderness over the pubic bone, and in fact


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there may be blood in the urine. For more women are advised to drink plentyof water, because of the shorter length of the urinary tract in men. Consumelots of water can help the bacteria out of the urinary tract and reduce the riskof bladder infections.5. Make your skin dull. Lack of drinking water can also make the skin

becomes dull. This is because the skin capillary blood flow was not optimal.6. Disruptive renal function. Lack of drinking water can interfere withkidney function. Therefore, drink enough water every day, because watercan help ease the process of forming kidney stones decay component, whichin the end came out with urine during urination.

iii. multiply the intake of vitamin A for eye health, drink lots of water,consumption of fruits instead of carbohydrates, and less meat and fat inorder not to accumulate in the abdomen.If we often do the same thing and routine, we need the added distraction of

plain yogurt with fresh fruit could be an option in the hour snack.Enjoy lunch menu complete and nutritionally balanced, then for dinner witha menu of salads and enough extra pieces of chicken or fish.We need to do a little exercise for the muscles of the shoulders, back,abdomen, and legs, a time to stop by the gym to exercise tredmill orstationary bike / cross trainer so that blood circulation more smoothly andmuscles are not tense. Besides routine brisk walking / jogging 30 minutes aday, will make the body become fitter.In order for the brain to think the maximum, try to include carbohydrates at

breakfast time, just in the form of 1 sheet of whole wheat bread or oatmeal plus a fruit.Provide potted greenery near our desks to give relaxation to the eyes thatwork so hard in front of a computer screen.

iv.

c. i. Lifestyle factors Feelings of fatigue often have an obvious cause,such as:

Alcohol use or abuse

Caffeine use

Excessive physical activity

Inactivity

Lack of sleep

Unhealthy eating habits

Psychological conditions Fatigue is a common symptom of mental health problems, such as:

. Anxiety. Depression
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. Grief

. Stress

Medical conditions Unrelenting exhaustion may be a sign of a medicalcondition or underlying illness, such as:

. Acute liver failure

. Anemia

. Cancer

. Chronic fatigue syndrome

. Chronic kidney disease

. COPD

. Emphysema

. Heart disease. Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid)

. Hypothyroidism (a thyroid disorder)

. Obesity

. Restless legs syndrome

. Sleep apnea

ii. The most common cause of diarrhea is a virus that infects the gut. Theinfection usually lasts for two days and is sometimes called "intestinal flu" or "stomach flu. " Diarrhea may also be caused by

Infection by bacteria (the cause of most types of food poisoning) Infections by other organisms Eating foods that upset the digestive system Allergies to certain foods Medications Radiation therapy

Diseases of the intestines (Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis) Malabsorption (where the body is unable to adequatelyabsorb certain nutrients from the diet) Hyperthyroidism Some cancers Laxative abuse Alcohol abuse Digestive tract surgery Diabetes Competitive runningDiarrhea may also follow constipation, especially for people who haveirritable bowel syndrome.
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Symptoms of diarrhea can be broken down into uncomplicated (or non-serious) diarrhea and complicated diarrhea. Complicated diarrhea may be asign of a more serious illness.

Symptoms of uncomplicated diarrhea include:

. Abdominal bloating or cramps. Thin or loose stools. Watery stool. Sense of urgency to have a bowel movement. Nausea and vomitingIn addition to the symptoms described above, the symptoms of complicateddiarrhea include:

. Blood, mucus, or undigested food in the stool. Weight loss. Fever

iii. If you have a mild case of diarrhea, you can just let it run its course, oryou can treat it with an over-the-counter medicine. Common brand namesinclude Pepto-Bismol, Imodium A-D, and Kaopectate, which are availableas liquids or tablets. Follow the instructions on the package.

In addition, you should drink at least six 8-ounce glasses of fluid per day.Choose fruit juice without pulp, broth, or soda (without caffeine) . Chicken

broth (without the fat), tea with honey, and sports drinks are also goodchoices. Instead of drinking liquids with your meals, drink liquids between

meals. Drink small amounts of fluids frequently.

iv. characteristics of fatigue

in metal alloys, when there are no macroscopic or microscopicdiscontinuities, the process starts with dislocation movements, whicheventually form persistent slip bands that become the nucleus of shortcracks.Macroscopic and microscopic discontinuities as well as component designfeatures which cause stress concentrations (holes, keyways, sharp changes ofdirection etc.) are common locations at which the fatigue process begins.Fatigue is a process that has a degree of randomness (stochastic) , oftenshowing considerable scatter even in well controlled environments.Fatigue is usually associated with tensile stresses but fatigue cracks have

been reported due to compressive loads.[7]The greater the applied stress range, the shorter the life.Fatigue life scatter tends to increase for longer fatigue lives.Damage is cumulative. Materials do not recover when rested.Fatigue life is influenced by a variety of factors, such as temperature, surface finish, metallurgical microstructure, presence of oxidizing or inert

chemicals, residual stresses, scuffing contact (fretting) , etc.Some materials (e.g., some steel and titanium alloys) exhibit a theoretical
http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-nausea-vomitinghttp://www.webmd.com/drugs/drug-11084-imodium+oral.aspxhttp://www.webmd.com/drugs/drug-525-kaopectate+1-d++loperamide++oral.aspxhttp://www.webmd.com/balance/caffeine-myths-and-factshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_finishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual_stresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frettinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titaniumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frettinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residual_stresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_finishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dislocationhttp://www.webmd.com/balance/caffeine-myths-and-factshttp://www.webmd.com/drugs/drug-525-kaopectate+1-d++loperamide++oral.aspxhttp://www.webmd.com/drugs/drug-11084-imodium+oral.aspxhttp://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-nausea-vomiting


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fatigue limit below which continued loading does not lead to fatigue failure.

Characteristics of diarrhea

Frequent loose, watery stools Abdominal cramps Abdominal pain Fever Bleeding Lightheadedness or dizziness from dehydrationv. Many people believe that the definition of a normal defecation is having 1movement each day , but that is not true for everyone. There is no rule forfrequency of defecation, but the general range is from 3 times a day to 3

times a week. Less than 3 defecation a week may indicate constipation , andmore than 3 watery stools a day could indicate diarrhea .

d. 1. Neurally mediated (reflex) syncope refers to a reflex responsethat, when triggered, gives rise to vasodilatation and/or bradycardia;however the contribution of each of these two factors to systemichypotension and cerebral hypoperfusion may differ considerably. Thetriggering events might vary considerably in individual patients. The

classical vasovagal syncope is mediated by emotional or orthostatic stressand can be diagnosed by history taking. Carotid sinus syncope is definedas syncope which, by history, seems to occur in close relationship toaccidental mechanical manipulation of the carotid sinuses, and which can bereproduced by carotid sinus massage. Situational syncope refers to thoseforms of neurally mediated syncope associated with specific scenarios (forexample, micturition, coughing, defaecating, etc). Often, however, neurally mediated reflex syncopes have non classical presentations. These formsare diagnosed by minor clinical criteria, exclusion of other causes forsyncope (absence of structural heart disease) and positive response to tilttesting or carotid sinus massage. Examples of non classical vasovagalsyncope include episodes without clear triggering events or premonitorysymptoms. Orthostatic hypotension refers to syncope in which the upright position (most often the movement from sitting or lying to an upright position) causes arterial hypotension. This occurs when the autonomicnervous system is incapacitated and fails to respond to the challengesimposed by upright position. A second major cause is volume depletion inwhich the autonomic nervous system is itself not deranged, but is unable tomaintain blood pressure due to decreased circulating volume. Note thatvasovagal syncope can also be provoked by standing (for example, soldiers

fainting on parade), but these events are grouped under neurally

mediated(reflex) syncope.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_limithttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/od/blackstoolredstool/f/Should-You-Have-A-Daily-Bowel-Movement.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/od/blackstoolredstool/f/Should-You-Have-A-Daily-Bowel-Movement.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-constipation.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-diarrhea.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-diarrhea.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/library/glossary/bldef-constipation.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/od/blackstoolredstool/f/Should-You-Have-A-Daily-Bowel-Movement.htmhttp://ibdcrohns.about.com/od/blackstoolredstool/f/Should-You-Have-A-Daily-Bowel-Movement.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue_limit


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Cardiac arrhythmias can cause a decrease in cardiac output, whichusually occurs irrespective of circulatory demands. Structural heart disease can cause syncope when circulatorydemands outweigh the impaired ability of the heart to increase its output.Steal syndromes are rare, but can cause syncope when blood supply is

diverted from the brain to another organ (the most common example is theso called subclavian steal syndrome).

ii. Anything that causes a fight or flight response in the body can causecold sweats. There are four basic causes we should be concerned about:

pain

lack of oxygen

fear

low blood sugar (hypoglycemia)

iii. The starting point for evaluation of syncope is the initialevaluation that consists of history taking and physical examination,including orthostatic blood pressure measurements and standardelectrocardiogram The initial evaluation may lead to certain diagnosis, or suspecteddiagnosis that needs to be confirmed by appropriate diagnostic tests, or nodiagnosis

The strategy of evaluation varies according to the severity andfrequency of the episodes and the presence or absence of heart disease In general, the absence of suspected or certain heart disease excludesa cardiac cause of syncope Conversely, the presence of heart disease is a strong predictor of acardiac cause of syncope and virtually includes all cardiac syncopes, but itsspecificity is low as about half of patients with heart disease have a non cardiac cause of syncope. Determining the mechanism of syncope is a prerequisite for advising

patients with regard to prognosis, and to developing an effectivemechanism specific treatmentMost patients with syncope require only reassurance and educationregarding the nature of the disease and the avoidance of triggering events

iv. There is no specific treatment of cold sweats. To make them go away,you must treat the underlying cause. For example, if shortness of breath iscausing cold sweats, helping the victim to breathe better should help dry theskin.

Cold sweats are not the problem; they are the sign of the problem.

Recognizing cold sweats when they happen can help identify a problem before it gets too bad.
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e.

f. i. 1. Pregnancy. Because a woman's circulatory system expands rapidlyduring pregnancy, blood pressure is likely to drop. This is normal, and blood

pressure usually returns to your pre-pregnancy level after you've given birth.

Heart problems. Some heart conditions that can lead to low blood pressure include extremely low heart rate (bradycardia), heart valve problems, heart attack and heart failure. These conditions may cause low blood pressure because they prevent your body from being able to circulateenough blood.

Endocrine problems. Thyroid conditions such as parathyroiddisease adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease), low blood sugar(hypoglycemia) and, in some cases, diabetes can trigger low blood pressure.

Dehydration. When you become dehydrated, your body loses morewater than it takes in. Even mild dehydration can cause weakness, dizzinessand fatigue. Fever, vomiting, severe diarrhea, overuse of diuretics andstrenuous exercise can all lead to dehydration. Far more serious ishypovolemic shock, a life-threatening complication of dehydration. It occurswhen low blood volume causes a sudden drop in blood pressure and areduction in the amount of oxygen reaching your tissues. If untreated, severe

hypovolemic shock can cause death within a few minutes or hours.

Blood loss. Losing a lot of blood from a major injury or internal bleeding reduces the amount of blood in your body, leading to a severe dropin blood pressure.

Severe infection (septicemia). Septicemia can happen when aninfection in the body enters the bloodstream. This condition can lead to alife-threatening drop in blood pressure called septic shock.

Severe allergic reaction (anaphylaxis). Anaphylaxis is a severe and potentially life-threatening allergic reaction. Common triggers of

anaphylaxis include foods, certain medications, insect venoms and latex.Anaphylaxis can cause breathing problems, hives, itching, a swollen throatand a drop in blood pressure.

Lack of nutrients in your diet. A lack of the vitamins B-12 and folate cancause a condition in which your body doesn't produce enough red blood cells(anemia), causing low blood pressure.

2. 1. Lose extra pounds and watch your waistline2. Exercise regularly3. Eat a healthy diet

4. Reduce sodium in your diet5. Limit the amount of alcohol you drink


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ii.iii.

iv.

g. i. ii. 1. oss of body fluids from prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, sweating orhigh fever (dehydration). High levels of blood sodium. Kidney failure, or kidney disorders Diabetes insipidus or diabetic coma Drugs such as: androgens, corticosteroids, estrogens, and certaindiuretics.

2. Many people do not notice any symptoms of hyperchloremia, unlessthey are experiencing very high or very low levels of chloride in their blood. Dehydration, fluid loss, or high levels of blood sodium may benoted. You may be experiencing other forms of fluid loss, such as diarrhea,

or vomiting when suffering from hyperchloremia.You may be a diabetic, and have poor control over your blood sugar levels(they may be very high).

iii. 1. you have type 1, you may not have given yourself enough insulin.If you have type 2, your body may have enough insulin, but it is not aseffective as it should be.You ate more than planned or exercised less than planned.You have stress from an illness, such as a cold or flu.You have other stress, such as family conflicts or school or dating problems.

You may have experienced the dawn phenomenon (a surge of hormones thatthe body produces daily around 4:00 a.m. to 5:00 a.m.).

2. Shortness of breath, Breath that smells fruity, Nausea and vomiting Verydry mouth.

iv.

v. 1. AntibioticsDiarrhea or vomitingUsing too much laxative, which can cause diarrhea
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Chronic kidney diseaseDiuretic medicines (water pills), used to treat heart failure and high blood

pressureEating disorders (such as bulimia) Low magnesium level and Sweating

2. The most important clinical effect of hyperkalemia is related to electricalrhythm of the heart. While mild hyperkalemia probably has a limited effecton the heart, moderate hyperkalemia can produce EKG changes (EKG is anelectrical reading of the heart muscles), and severe hyperkalemia can causesuppression of electrical activity of the heart and can cause the heart to stop

beating.

vi.

vii.vii.
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