Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolithic' and 'Neolithic' and Related Sites in the Sudan:Statistical Analysis and Comparisons with EgyptAuthor(s): Fekri A. HassanSource: The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 4 (1986), pp. 83-102Published by: SpringerStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25130465Accessed: 28/11/2009 17:19

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The African Archaeological Revira,-, 4 (1986), pp. 83-102

Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolithic5 and 'Neolithic5 and related sites in the Sudan: statistical analysis and comparisons with Egypt FEKRI A. HASSAN

Abstract

Assessment of radiocarbon measurements from the central Sudan provides the following calendrical age estimates:

Early Khartoum > 7000- ca 5000 BC.

Early Neolithic Group ca 4900-4450 BC

Middle Neolithic Group ca 4400-3800 BC

Late Neolithic Group ca 3500-2700 BC

These estimates indicate that the early Neolithic settlements in the central Sudan were

established at about the same time as those at Merimda Beni Salama in the Nile Delta and

the Fayum. The Predynastic sites of Upper Egypt are later in age. The Badarian at

Hemamieh is probably coeval with Shaheinab. Available dates on the Badarian are younger

than those for some Khartoum Neolithic sites, but the Badarian is poorly dated.

Resume

L'?valuation de datations au radiocarbone du Soudan Central a fourni les ?ges absolus

suivants:

Early Khartoum >7000 c. 5000 BC

Groupe du N?olithique inf?rieur c. 4900-4450 BC

Groupe du N?olithique moyen c. 4400-3800 BC

Groupe du N?olithique sup?rieur c. 3500-2700 BC

Ces r?sultats indiquent que les habitations n?olithiques au Soudan Central furent ?tablies

? peu pr?s ? la m?me ?poque que celles ? Merimda Beni Salama dans le Delta du Nil et au

Fayoum. Les gisements pr?dynastiques de la Haute Egypte sont plus r?cents. Le Badarien ?

Hemamieh est probablement contemporain de Shaheinab. Les datations disponibles pour le

Badarien sont plus r?centes que celles de certains gisements n?olithiques de Khartoum, mais

le Badarien est mal dat?.

Introduction

Explanations of the origins of food production along the Nile in Egypt must be viewed in

terms of both local cultural developments and contacts with contiguous populations. Arkell

84 Fekri A. Hassan

(1975:34), for example, has proposed that the Khartoum Neolithic was the source of the

Badarian on the basis of similarities in black-topped and rippled pottery, shell fishhooks, and

flat-topped maceheads. The reverse was recently proposed by Trigger (1983:41), who

hypothesized that both sheep/goats and a kind of black-topped pottery had spread south

from Egypt to the central Sudan. He assumed that Shaheinab, the type-site of the Khartoum

Neolithic, was coeval with the Predynastic Gerzean culture of Upper Egypt. An in ter-regional chronological framework now provides a basis for assessing the temporal

feasibility of such cultural contacts and diffusion. Although the number of available dates is

still far from satisfactory, especially for certain key sites in both Egypt and the Sudan, there

are enough dates to establish a preliminary chronological chart. The radiocarbon age measurements for Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic sites have already been listed and

analyzed (Hassan 1985). My aim here is to examine the numerous radiocarbon measure

ments now available from the Holocene sites in the central Sudan in order to provide credible

age estimates for these sites. These estimates will be useful in interpreting the origins and

spread of agriculture in the Nile Valley. Conventional dates were converted to their equivalent tree-ring corrected ages using the

tables of Damon et al. (1974) and Klein et al. (1982). Statistically aberrant dates were

removed, and series of consistent calibrated dates from each site were averaged following the

method described by Long and Rippeteau (1974). Finally, the contemporaneity of sites was

examined using the t-test. Site locations are shown in Figure 1. Dates and corrections for sites

in the central Sudan are presented in Table 1. Those from the Sudanese Desert and from

Nubia are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively.

Terminology and classification

In practice, the terms 'Khartoum Neolithic' or 'Sudanese Neolithic' are used to refer to sites

characterized by the presence of a pottery assemblage including vessels decorated with an

impressed zigzag pattern and by characteristic lithic artifacts and fishing gear. Evidence for

either plant cultivation or herding may be present or absent at these sites. Sites with a pottery

type referred to as 'wavy line' and with no evidence of food production are referred to either as

'Khartoum Mesolithic' or 'Early Khartoum'.

The usage of the term 'Neolithic' thus may be misleading when the origin and spread of

agriculture are discussed. For example, there is no evidence for domestic plants from the

Sudan before the middle of the third millennium BC, and claims for domestic plants at

Kadero have been withdrawn (Marks in lit. 1984). Magid (1984) reported grains of

Pennisetum sp. from Shaqadud dated to ca 2700 BC: these grains may be domestic. Evidence

for domestic animals is available from earlier contexts, as at Umm Direiwa, one of the early Neolithic sites (Haaland 1981).

Figure 1 Map showing location of radiocarbon-dated sites mentioned in text: 1 Merimda

Beni Salama; 2 Fayum; 3 Hemamieh; 4 Nagada; 5 Hierakonpolis; 6 Afyeh; 7 Wadi Haifa, 8 Dabarosa, Haifa Dcgheim; 9 Dibeira West; 10 Abka; 11 El-Kadada, El-Ghaba; 12 Shaqadud, Umm Direiwa: 13 Kadero, Saggai, Zakiab: 14 [Early] Khartoum; 15 Shaheinab, Sorourab; 16 Nofalab; 17 Islang; 18 Tagra; 19

Guli; 20 Kashm el Girba; 21 Mahal Teglinos; 22 Soleb; 23 Wadi Shaw

(Laqiya): 24 Selima; 25 Wadi Howar (Rahib Wells); 26 Shabona: 27 Rabak.

Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolitkic' and 'Neolithic' sites in the Sudan 85

M EDIT ER RWE AN SEA

1*

2,

^_?a SUDAN 24 0 S*

? 22<

25'

*-->,...

/* ?1

15

16' 17'

26

?12

?>

21

?27 m

Table 1 Radiocarbon chronology of Early

Khartoum,

Khartoum Neolithic and related sites.

Archaeological

Group

Site and Provenance

Lab No.

Radiocarbon

age (bp)

5568 Half-Life

Corrected age (BC)2 Damon et al. Klein et al.

Material1 Reference

Early Khartoum

Tagra

Saggai SI i abona

Shaqadud

Sarurab Kashm cl

Girba(KG-l4)

Khartoum Neolithic

and related sites Uni m Dirciwa I

Umm Dirciwa II

El-Ghaba 27.02,331

Grave 6 Grave 7 (have 25 El-Ushara

11-14

Layer II Layer III

I slang Rabak

Level 2 Level 6 Level 15

Shahcinab

M 485

SUA-68

T-5024

T-5025 T-5026 T-5027

SUA-298 SMU-II86 Q-1536

HAR-3476

HAR-3475

8370+350 8130 ?225 72301100* 74101100:i 72501110:1 732011 !0:|

70501120 6893 + 131 6408?80 9330?I10 9370?ll()

SMIM139 6215175

T-3261 4950180 T-4045 56001110 T-3697 6010190

? 50001300

GIT-6307 50201100 GIF-5506 49901110 GlF-5507 56601120 O IF-5505 56601120 GIF-6305 50001100 GIF-G306 53501100

T-3880 58701110

T-5132

T-5133 T-5134 C-754

C-753 T-3222

T-3223

44901100* 605011001 602011303 54451380 50601450 5260180 5360180

52801120 50901115 37651120 44751210 48901110 38251320 38451145 38101150 45401215 45401215 38231145 42111160 47501140 32451135 49151115 48901145 43151400 38901460 41151150 42201150

6570-5590 6345-5465 6190-5375 5615-5090 3910-3400 4690-4135 5140-4580 4405-3175 4085-3645 3945-3635 4725-4385 4725-4385 3950-3640 4420-3880 5080-4545 3500-2915 5260-4730 5245-4585 4815-3685

'1420-3360

4395-3800 4425-3885

S S S S S s s c s c c

5380-4935 C

S S S S S s s s s s s s s s s c S s

Adanison

et al. 1974 Aclamsou et ai 1974

Canev? 1983 Canev? 1983 Canev? 1983 Canev? 1983

Aclamsou et ai 1982

Marks 1984

Mohammed-Ali 1982

Khabir 1985 Khabir 1985 Marks 1984 Haaland 1981 Haaland 1981 Haaland 1981 Haaland 1981 Geus pers. comm.

Gciis 1982 Gens 1982 Gcus 1982

Geus pers. comm. Gcus pers, comm. El-Anwar 1981 Haaland 1984 Haaland 1984 Haaland 1984

Libby 1955 Libby 1955 Haaland 1979 Haaland 1979

Kadero I (Southern

Midden) Kadero I

(Northern

Midden) Kadero II

T-2I0Q T-2109

SMU-402 KN-2021

KN-2822 KN-2823

T-3260

Zakiab

102X/98y

(15 cm) T-2010

Zakiab 102X/102y (35 cm) T-3050

Noralab Level II T-3700

T-3701 Guli SUA-2II

Shaqadud

Midden

5260190 5030170 5280190 5500170 5610155 5380165 5360160 5360190 5060100 52901100 55201130 5480190 5590170

SMIMI34 5584174

Late Neolithic

Kl-Kcdada

KOD22 Grave 5 KDD22 Grave 100

KDD107 Midden KDD2I Midden KDD76 Grave 3

Shaqadud Cave Level 54 Level 38 Level 16 Level 71

Mahal Tcglinos Khashm cl-Girba

(N-120) (N-125)

GlF-4675 GIF-5213

GIF-5770 GIF-5500 GIF-5771 TX-446

TX-445

4630180 4830150 51701110 47901110 4370100

SMU-1127 4059165 SMU-1I2Q 4123106 SMU-II33 3615100 SMU-1208 40461101

? 3860190 3050190 4410190

'. C =

charcoal;

S = shell

*t-es beyond range of calibration

\ Corrected for

isotopic

fractionatioii

41151155 38551130 41371155 43501190 44751190 42451 HO 42201140 42201160 4540-200 41451160 43901220 43501200 44651190

4395-3000

4090-3650 4400-3060 4530-3995 4560-4390 4415-3905 4425-3005 4425-3005 4725-4305 4395-3000 3940-3660 4540-3945 4555-4170

S S S S S S S S S S S S G

Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Haaland 1981 Haaland 1970 Haaland 1901

Kl Anwar 1901 El Anwar 1901

Adamson et al. 1974

Close 1904

44601195

4605-4130 C

Marks 1904

33901120 36251100 40151150 35801140 55071120

3655-3060 3055-3375 4325-3020 3055-3360 3700-3105

S S S S S

Gcus 1901 Gcus 1901 Gcus 1902 Gcus 1902

Gcus pers. comm.

26751120 27551135 20951155 26561145 24151130

2000-2410 C

2970-2410

C 2310-1735 C

2900-2325

C 2454-2160 C

Marks 1904 Marks 1904 Marks 1904

Marks

1904

Constantini *f a/. 1902

13601100 31201150

1565-925 3465-2005

C C

Vclastro et al. 1960 Vclastro et al. 1960

88 Fekri A. Hassan

The Khartoum Mesolithic

Sites and radiocarbon age determinations related to the Khartoum Mesolithic (with no

evidence of food production) include Tagra, Shabona, Sarurab, Saggai, and the early levels

at Shaqadud. Their dates range from 8370 ? 350 bp (1-1485) at Tagra (Adamson etal. 1974) to 6408 ? 80 bp at Sarurab (Mohammed-Ali 1982). Subsequent determinations from

Sarurab II, yielded estimates of 9370 ? 110 bp (HAR-3475) and 9330 ? 110 bp (HAR 3476), which indicate that Early Khartoum may date back to the tenth millennium bp (Clark

1984:115, Khabir 1985). The ceramic assemblage from Sarurab II includes sherds with wavy line and dotted wavy line motifs, as well as dotted straight line, impressed, zigzag, and linear

and twine impressions (Khabir 1985). Most Khartoum Mesolithic dates are beyond the

range of tree-ring calibration tables, except for a few late ones which range from 6570-5590

BC to 5615-5090 BC (Tab. 1).

The Khartoum Neolithic and related sites

Initially, the Khartoum Neolithic was dated at its type locality?Shaheinab. Additional

dates are now available from many other sites including Umm Direiwa, El-Ghaba, Islang,

Kadero, Zakiab. Nofalab, Rabak, Guli, Shaqadud, and El-Kadada. The dates from some of

these sites are older than those from Shaheinab.

The site of Umm Direiwa (Haaland 1979) yielded three dates from one occupation (Umm Direiwa I), one of which (T-3261) is too young by comparison to the others and is rejected here. The acceptable dates (T-4045, T-3697) provide an average of 4800 ? 100 BC. Another

occupation (Umm Direiwa II) has a single date, which converts to 3825 ? 320 BC, merely

indicating an age somewhere between 4465 and 3185 BC.

El-Ghaba, assigned by Geus (1982, 1983, 1984, pers. comm.) to the Khartoum Neolithic

as known from Shaheinab, yielded four dates from several graves. Two congruent dates

provide an average of 3830 ? 105 BC. Two other dates, also congruent, provide an average of

4540 ? 150 BC. The El-Ghaba graveyard may thus date from about 4500 to 3800 BC. Test

excavations at El-Ushara, a nearby site with similar ceramics (Geus pers. comm.) provided two consistent dates averaging 4000 ? 105 BC.

The fishing camp at Islang Island (El-Anwar 1981 ) dates to 4745 ?140 BC, and may be

contemporaneous with Umm Direiwa I and El Ghaba.

The site of Rabak (Kosti), about 200 km south of Khartoum, preserves deposits with a

maximum depth of 150 cm (Haaland 1984. El-Mahi and Haaland 1984). The oldest level is

dated to 6020 ? 130 bp (T-5134). A middle level was dated to 6050 ? 100 bp (T-5133), and

an upper level to 4490 ? 100 bp (T-5132). All these dates were corrected for isotopic fractionation. Regression analysis of uncorrected and corrected dates from Kadero, Zakiab,

Umm Direiwa, and Shaheinab (Haaland 1984:40) provides a correlation coefficient of 0.965

for the following relationship:

corrected date= 0.88 X uncorrected date + 990

The pottery from the early levels at Rabak is very similar to that of the Khartoum

Neolithic. At the deepest level a few sherds of 'wavy line' pottery were recovered. The

Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolithic3 and Neolithic3 sites in the Sudan 89

ceramics from the younger levels show great simlarities with the Jebel Moya tradition. The

subsistence regime reflected in the materials recovered from the early levels indicates

exploitation of Nilotic resources and cattle herding. The date from the upper level (Level 2) at Rabak is tree-ring calibrated to 3215 ? 135 BC.

The two dates from the lower levels (Levels 6 and 15) are very similar, and the averaged corrected date is 4905 ? 90 BC. It should be recalled that the Rabak dates are also corrected

for isotopic fractionation. Since most other dates are not yet corrected in this manner, it may be useful for comparative purposes to compute an uncorrected age for the lower levels at

Rabak. The resultant figure, 4445 BC, suggests that the site is slightly older than Kadero I

North, and as old as El-Ghaba.

Shaheinab was first dated by Libby (1955) who obtained two dates (C-754, C-753) with

large standard errors. The dates provide corrected ages of 4315 ? 400 and 3890 ? 460 BC,

respectively. Two dates (T-3222, T-3223) by Haaland ( 1979) are very similar and provide an

average of 4165 ? 105 BC. The average of all four dates is 4160 ? 100 BC.

The southern midden at Kadero I is dated by three measurements (Krzyaniak 1982), which provide a corrected average of 4015 ? 85 BC. The corrected age of the northern

midden is also dated by three dates to 4330 ? 95 BC, A nearby occupation (Kadero II)

yielded a single date which corrects to 4220 ?140 BC.

The site of Zakiab (Haaland 1978,1981 ) yielded two similar dates which give an average of

4345 ? 125 BC. The site at Nofalab, north of Omdurman, provided two dates (El-Anwar

1981). The dates are similar and average 4230 ? 130 BC. Guli (Adamson et al. 1974) yielded a single date which gives a corrected age of 4350 ? 200 BC.

At Shaqadud, on the western fringe of the Butana, where a long sequence is also recorded

(Marks 1984, Marks et al. 1982, Magid 1984), one date is available for an early component

(Midden, level 18) equivalent to Khartoum Neolithic. The date (SMU-1134) yields a

corrected age of 4460 ? 195 BC. Three other dates (Marks 1984) on a younger occupation

(SMU-1127, 1128, 1208) are congruent and provide an average of 2695 ? 75 BC. A single date from a higher level (SMU-1133) provides a corrected date of 2095 ? 155 BC (The dates

used here are those reported by Marks [1984], which supplant previously published

versions).

El-Kadada, north of Shendi, a Neolithic occupation (Geus 1982, 1983), provided five

dates. One of these (5170 ? 110 bp) is too old by comparison with the others and may belong to an early occupation (Geus pers. comm.). There are also graves below the level dated to

5170 bp. The four acceptable dates average 3530 ? 60 BC.

Late sites in eastern Sudan, not related to the Khartoum Neolithic, include Mahal

Teglinos in Kassala (Constantini et al. 1982) with a corrected date of 2415 ? 110 BC (N-120), and Khashm el-Girba (Valastro et al. 1968) which yielded two dates of 3120 ? 150 BC and

1360 ? 100 BC. The age estimates of sites with two or more dates were tested for significant differences

using the t-test. This revealed that the Khartoum Neolithic sites belong to three chronologi cal groups.

The early group consists of Umm Direiwa I and and the early graves at El-Ghaba; the

single date from Islang falls between those of Umm Direiwa and El-Ghaba. The two dates

from the lower levels of Rabak without correction for isotopic differentiation are not

statistically different from the average of the three sites above mentioned. The estimated ages

90 Fekri A. Hassan

of the four sites in the early group are as follows (note that the Rabak and Umm Direiwa dates

are based on corrections for isotopic differentiation):

Rabak 4905 ? 90 BC (two dates) Umm Direiwa I 4800 ? 100 BC (two dates)

Islang 4745 ? 140 BC (one date) El-Ghaba 4540 ? 150 BC (two dates).

The second group of sites with two dates or more includes Shaheinab, Kadero I, Zakiab,

and Nofalab. The t-test showed that the two series from Kadero I are significantly different at

the 0.05 level of probability, but similar at the .01 level. This also applies to Zakiab and

Kadero I-South. Otherwise all sites are similar at the 0.05 level. The average age for these

sites is about 4200 BC. The late graves at El-Ghaba and El-Ushara seem to belong to this

phase.

The single dates on the Guli site and Kadero II are not significantly different from the

average dates of the middle Neolithic group, and are thus regarded as belonging to the same

time interval. The estimated ages of the sites of the middle group are as follows:

Guli 4350 ? 200 BC (one date) Zakiab 4345 ? 125 BC (two dates) Kadero I-North 4330 ? 95 BC (three dates) Nofalab 4230 ? 130 BC (two dates) Kadero II 4220 ? 140 BC (one date) Shaheinab 4160 ? 100 BC (four dates)

Kadero I-South 4015 ? 85 BC (two dates) El-Ushara 4000 ? 105 BC (two dates) Late El-Ghaba 3830 ? 105 BC (two dates).

Dated sites attributed to the late Neolithic group in the central Sudan include El-Kadada

and Shaqadud Cave. Their estimated ages are:

El-Kadada 3530 ? 60 BC (four dates)

Shaqadud Cave 2695 ? 75 BC (three dates).

The discovery of El-Kadada provided the first evidence for a Neolithic culture post-dating the Khartoum Neolithic (Geus 1984:44-5). Some graves at El-Kadada and isolated finds of

wavy line sherds show a local variant of the Khartoum Neolithic. The El-Kadada Neolithic

itself is characterised by a large variety of vessel shapes decorated with parallel lines of dots as

well as fine incision. Rippled and combed surfaces are also represented. The fauna, unlike

that of the older Khartoum Neolithic, shows a high frequency of sheep and goats (Geus

1984:47). In the Shaqadud Midden, the upper 40 cm contain late Neolithic (pre-Meroitic) artifacts.

The deposits overlie 'a dense accumulation of burnished sherds which are comparable to the

Shaheinab Neolithic' (Marks et al. 1982:38). The artifact assemblage from the top unit of the

midden is comparable with much of the material in the cave. According to Marks et al.

(1982:39), the chronology of these top layers 'places the cultural materials in the "late"

Neolithic of which so very little is known. Geus refers to it as Phase 2, Arkell as Pan-grave

and, perhaps, it is comparable to Middle Kerma\ Mohammed-Ali and Marks (1984) also

Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolithic' and 'Neolithic' sites in the Sudan 91

remark that the cave ceramics show clear similarities with slightly earlier pottery found to the

east in the Gash Delta (Fattovich, Marks and Mohammed-Ali 1984). So far the only

published date for the Gash Group is that from Mahal Teglinos, 2415 ? 130 BC. Dates of

3120 ? 150 and 1360 ? 100 BC have also been obtained at Khashm el-Girba, along the

Atbara River west of the Gash (Valastro et al. 1968). According to Fattovich, Marks and

Mohammed-Ali (1984:179), the Gash Group is a member of the Kassala Phase which also

includes sites of the Butana Group west of the Atbara and midway between Atbara and

Kassala. On the basis of eight dates these authors suggest that the phase lasted from the

fourth to the end of the second millennium BC.

The average dates from El-Kadada and Shaqadud firmly date the central Sudan late

Neolithic there from ca 3500 to ca 2700 BC. A single date from Shaqadud Cave (SMU-1133) of 2095 ? 155 BC suggests that the late Neolithic may have lasted throughout the second

millennium BC.

The Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a comparative chronology

The earliest Khartoum Neolithic sites, ca 4900-4400 BC, are as old as the site of Merimda

Bcni Salama in the Delta, which is firmly dated to 4800 BC. In the Fayum, the early Neolithic

sites date from about 5200 to 4500 BC but, unlike Merimda, there is no evidence in these sites

for domesticates (Ginter et al. 1982). In Upper Egypt, the Badarian is the oldest archaeologi cal unit with evidence for pottery and food production. The available dates suggest that it

dates to about 4400-4000 BC. This assignment is based on two radiocarbon determinations

from Hemamieh (Hassan 1984c). There are no dates yet from any other Badarian site.

The initial attribution by Hays (1976) of the Khattara sites in the Nagada region to the

Badarian was erroneous. It was based on the presence of a few rippled pottery sherds, but

rippled pottery has been found in the Badari region in Nagada II levels. Further exacava

tions, sequence dates, and seriation by the Washington State University Expedition under

my direction indicate that the early settlements in the Nagada region are late Nagada I

(Hassan 1981, 1984a-c, Hassan and Matson in press). At Hierakonpolis (Hoffman 1982,

1984), early occupations, perhaps dating as far back as the Badarian, were revealed in a test

pit at the edge of the floodplain. Excavation of these sites and radiocarbon age determina

tions are eagerly awaited. There are also no dates for the predynastic site at El-Kab

(Demuyunck and Vermeersch, 1978), which is attributed to the Badarian.

It may be concluded that the Badarian is probably younger than the early group of

Khartoum Neolithic sites, but coeval with the middle group. The earliest pottery in Upper Egypt seems to be that associated with the Tarifian, an

industry pre-dating Nagada I (Ginter et al. 1982). The only date on this industry provides an

estimate of about 5200 BC. The Tarifian may thus overlap with early Khartoum and the

Fayum early Neolithic.

The site of Shaheinab, dating to about 4200 BC, was most probably coeval with the

Badarian, and certainly older than the Gerzean. There is thus no chronological justification for assuming that the domestication of sheep/goat or cattle was introduced into the Sudan

from Upper Egypt during the Gerzean.

92 Fekri A. Hassan

The Eastern Sahara and the Nile

Recent investigations in the Egyptian Sahara (Wendorf and Schild 1980, Schild and

Wendorf 1984) and the Sudanese Desert (Kuper 1981, Gabriel and Kropelin 1984) indicate

that the earliest food-producing communities emerged in the desert regions in the sixth

millennium BC. if not earlier. Dates from Laqiya, Rahib Wells and Selima in the Sudanese

Desert (Tab. 2) range from the sixth to the fourth millennium BC. Date SMU-773, with its

large standard error, is here rejected. The two dates from Wadi Shaw (Laqiya) overlap for

the period ca 5700 BC.

There is also good evidence from the eastern and central Sahara for severe aridity during the fifth millennium be (Wendorf and Hassan 1980, Williams 1984). It is most likely that the

droughts and unpredictability associated with this mid-Holocene aridity provided a stimulus

for a population movement from the deserts to the Nile Valley (Hassan 1984d). The desert

Neolithic people may have moved from various regions and settled in widely scattered places

along the main Nile. This model is consistent with observed similarities between the lithic

assemblages from Nagada and Kharga Oasis (Hassan and Holmes 1985), between the

assemblages from Nabta Playa and the post-Shamarkian Neolithic, and between assem

blages from the Great Sand Sea and the Fayum Neolithic (Wendorf and Schild 1984:428). The movement from the eastern Sahara into the Nile Valley was probably followed by

limited population shifts and a more significant exchange of cultural traits down and up the

Nile. Development of river and land transport by means of boats and asses, together with the

expansion of trade, were perhaps responsible for intensification of contracts from the

Gerzean (Nagada II) onwards.

Contact between the Nilotic peoples and their Sanaran neighbours before the fifth

millennium BC was not altogether absent. It was most probably the actual movements of

desert farmers and herders that led to an amalgamation of Neolithic traits with those of the

pre-existing Nilotic traditions.

The Khartoum Neolithic of the Central Sudan clearly shows some continuities with Early Khartoum (Clark 1984). In Nubia, similarities between the Abka Neolithic sites and older

final Palaeolithic sites in the same region (Shiner 1968) also indicate continuity of Nilotic

traditions.

The A-Group: chronology and Egyptian connections

Two dates (TF-47 and TF-48) from the A-Group site at Afyeh AFH-7 (Kusumgar et al. 1963)

provide a calibrated average of 3025 ? 120 BC. However, another date from Afyeh AFH-1

(Fairhall et al. 1966) provides a much older date of 4535 ? 205 BC (U W-30). A corrected date

of 3415 ? 120 BC was also obtained from measurements on several fractions of cow hide from

site SJE 277/65:4 at Haifa Degheim from a 'Classic' A-Group context (Olsson 1972:251). Dates on Terminal A-Group include 3295 ? 120 BC (U-835/6) from Haifa Degheim, and

3155 ? 145 BC (U-2426) and 2805 ? 115 BC (U-2425/2491 )irom Dibeira site SJE 340. The

acceptable dates for the Classic A-Group yield an average of 3240 ? 70 BC and those for the

Terminal A-Group yield an average of 3070 ? 70. The chronological range of the A-Group is

thus from about 3400 to 2900 BC.

In Egypt, Nagada II is dated to ca 3450 BC at Nagada South Town and 3550 BC at

Table 2 Radiocarbon chronology of Desert Neolithic sites in the Sudan.

Archaeological

Group

Site and Provenance

Lab No.

Radiocarbon age (bp)

5560 Half-Life

Corrected

age (BC)2 Damon et al. Klein et al.

Material1 Reference

Sudanese

Desert

Neolithic

Wadi Shaw

(Laqiya)

Wadi Ho war (Rahib Wells)

Sel i in a

KN-3034 KN-3000

SMU-773

6550165 74901300 47001500

KN-2930 4850160 KN-2962 5500100

SMU-954 63001130 SMU-955 59401100

54201110 36501110 44551195 52521160 40201120

5730-5245

7075-5705

3065-3300

4670-4125

5620-5010

5205-4560

S i? O S S c c

Close 1904 Close 1904 Close 1900 Kuper 1901 Kupcr 1901

Close 1900 Close 1900

'. S = shell; C =

charcoal;

O

= ostrich eggshell

*t-=:

Beyond calibration

range

Table 3 Radiocarbon chronology of

Neolithic:

and post-Palaeolithic sites in Nubia

Archaeological

Group

Site and Provenance

Lab No.

Radiocarbon

age (bp) Corrected

age (BC)2

5568 Half-Life Damon et ai Klein et ai

Material1 Reference

Shamarkian

Abkan

Abka Neolithic

Neolithic Post-Shamarkian

Neolithic

Khartoum -Variant

VVadi Haifa Site DIW'2 Dibcira

West

DW-51 Abka

32, U

32,

L

Abka 9, L2

9, L4 9, L4 9, L5 9,L6

Wadi

Haifa

WHW-5 South

Buhen

Wadi Haifa, WHW-7

Daba rosa

D1W-50 Wadi

Haifa Dibcira

West 5

Solcb,

12

Solch,

13

WSU-176 77001120

SMU-582

M-794

M-795 M-798 M-801

M-802

M-803 M-804 WSU-103

8860190 91751400 94501400

I3551200(R)

45001350 44701300 59601400

82601400(R)

5220150

WSU-110 51201100 WSU-147 48001120 1-864 61371300

WSU-174 56001200

WSU-103 5220150

TX-1155 65401110

P-721 P-722

6195170 6125170

32301360 31901320 48301400 40701135 39601145 35901150 50151305 '14751270 '10701135 54101140 50701115 5005190

3795-2550 3785-2430 5360-4390 4325-3805 4135-3670 3860-3360 5540-4445 4915-3940 4325-3805

5825-5290

C C S S > C S ? s c s c c c c ()

5320-4945 C 5285-4915 C

Wendorf 1968

Close 1980

Crane and Griflcn 1960 Crane and Griflcn 1960 Crane and Griffon I960 Crane and Griflcn 1960 Crane and Griffen I960 Crane and Griflcn I960 Crane and Griflcn I960

Chatters 1968 Chatters 1968 Chatters 1968 Kantor 1965 Wendorf 1968 Wendorf 1968 Valastro et ai 1978

Stuckcnralh

&

Ralph 1965 Stuckcnrath & Ralph 1965

Final Qadan

Khartoum Variant Classic A-Group A-Group Terminal A-Group

Wadi Haifa Site 605'1

Wadi Haifa AS I6-V-19 Haifa Dcghcim

SJF,227/65:4

A fey eh

AFH7, 150 AFH7, 157 AFII1

Haifa Dcghcim SJE277/49.12

Dibcira

SJK340/SEII:5 SJE340/SEII.-4

WSU-190 60301200

U-022,1

U-2429> 3685190

U-2492J

U-019," U-010,

U-007

and

U-006

TF-40 TF-47

UW-30 U-835 U-034 U-2426

U-2425,

4655100 42901120 43001115 46601100 4555175 4440190 4160155

'. C = charcoal; S =

shell;

O = ostrich eggshell

*\ With ceramics considered to

be Neolithic (Schild et al. 1960:703)

'\-ss Beyond calibration range

\ With pottery (Shiner 1960:603)

- 6175-5310 C Shiner I960

21051140 2310-1090 Wood Olsson 1972 34151120 3760-3155 Cowhide Olsson 1972

29651170 3350-2655 C Kusutngai *f<?/. 1963 30001165 3365-2070 C Kusuiitgai et al. 1963

45351205 4725-4305 C Fairhall et at. 1966 32951120 3635-3005 Cowhide Olsson 1972

31551145 3400-2095 C Olsson 1972 20051115 2940-2560 C Olsson 1972

96 Fekri A. Hassan

Hierakonpoiis (Hassan 1985). Nagada III is placed at approximately 3300 BC followed by the First Dynasty dated to about 3150 BC and lasting until about 2800 BC (Hassan 1980,

1985, Kemp 1980). The A-Group thus seems to have been coeval with the later part of

Nagada II and to have lasted into the period of the First Dynasty. The A-Group was later than the post-Shamarkian Neolithic, for which two dates from sites

DIW-50 and DIWr-4 (Tab. 3) provide an average of 4150 ? 120 BC. Dates on the Khartoum

Variant Neolithic from Soleb indicate an age of about 5000 BC and are older than those for

the A-Group. However, the A-Group may have overlapped with the Abkan, with acceptable dates of about 3200 BC, and the late Neolithic of the Sudan (cf. Trigger 1976:31-39), which is

dated to about 3530 ? 60 BC at El-Kadada and 2695 ? 75 BC at Shaqadud (see above). This

agrees in general with the conclusions reached by Nordstrom (1972:28-29) on the basis of

ceramics and other artifacts. According to Nordstrom, the 'Classic' A-Group corresponds

mosdy with Nagada III, and the Terminal A-Group to the transition between Nagada III

and the First Dynasty. Nordstrom also identifies an Early A-Group which corresponds to a

late Nagada I, and to the early and developed stages of Nagada II.

Similarities between the A-Group and the indigenous Neolithic cultures suggests that the

A-Group was not a result of a migration of Predynastic Egyptians as Adams (1970:272) concluded. The chronology supports the hypothesis that the Abkan and the Khartoum

Variant both contributed to the development of the A-Group (Trigger 1983:42). Fur

thermore, the rise of provincial rulers in Nubia during the time of the A-Group (Williams

1980) is consistent with information now available on the existence of Neolithic communities

in central Sudan and Nubia dating at least a thousand years before the A-Group. The rise of the Pharaonic dynasties in Egypt began ca 3150 BC (Hassan, 1980, Kemp

1980), but it was preceded by a series of kings commanding large provinces in Upper and

Lower Egypt. These kings most probably date back to the beginning of the Final Predynastic

period (Nagada III) dated ca 3300 BC.

Final remarks

This survey of radiocarbon dates and the critical examination of their validity and corrected

values (Fig. 2) indicates that Neolithic developments (though not necessarily of the same

subsistence regime) along the Nile in the Sudan were as old as those in Upper Egypt and

Nubia; and that regional developments with sustained traditions characterize various

cultural provinces. The boundaries between these provinces could not have been impervious to outside influences; and contacts both up and down the Nile are likely. The search for a

single source of agricultural diffusion or a single province where kingship emerged and then

spread is apparently futile. Cultures and ethnic entities are historical artifacts of mutable and

transient character responding to the incessant forces of internal change, and to the

inevitable infiltration of ideas, artifacts, and individuals from neighbouring groups. In addition to the theoretical issues raised here and the importance of providing adequate

models of the causes, routes, modes, and mechanisms of diffusion between the various

cultural provinces of the Nile and the Sahara, there are several methodological considera

tions that should not be ignored. First, the number of dates so far available is woefully small, and thus any interpretations based on chronology are tentative. Single dates are almost

useless at the level of temporal resolution required (? 50 years). At least three dates from any

?c 3000

DYNASTY I

I^SE'^tH:-: :r--r--^,..-.,.,.^--^fi TERMINAL PREOYNASTOIC

ma&?&si n ) E nA K o N pot. is

4000 5000

??AOST-SHAMARK1AN

-0

f?IffiM EARLY FAYUM gg^] NEOLITHIC

???&

O TARIFtAN

THE DELTA THE FAYUM UPPER EGYPT

NUBIA

m&?zn SHAOAOUO

LATE NEOLITHIC

EARLY NEOLI THIC

MIDDLE

NEOLITHIC

Figure 2 Chronological chart of Neolithic sites of central Sudan and of Neolithic and Prcdynastic sites of Egypt and Nu statistical range (within two standard deviations) of weighted averages. Scale to the left is in tree-ring calibrated years BC.

THF SUDAN

bia. The chart shows

98 Fekri A. Hassan

single occupation or occurrence are necessary for a reliable estimate of the time-range ofthat

occupation. Second, many of the dates reported are on shell. The dates are apparently

satisfactory on the basis of age determinations on modern shell (Geus pers. comm.), but a

determination of the age of a modern shell by Burleigh (1982) indicates that the shell was

older by about 150 years than expected. Accordingly, paired shell/charcoal dates from the

same occurrence are also required to evaluate the reliability of the shell dates. There is also a

need to correct shell dates for istotopic fractionation. Such corrections have been reported by Canev? ( 1983) and Haaland ( 1984). The choice of charred material for dating should also be

considered. Charred wood from trees, for example, may be significantly older than charred

grain.

The analytical approach to radiocarbon dating adopted here underscores the importance of tree-ring corrections not only to ensure a standard unit of measurement (the calendrical

year), but also to facilitate correlation with historical dates. Averaging, when appropriate

using statistical weighting, provides greater temporal precision. Continued reference to

individual dates with no regard to the magnitude of the standard deviation, as if radiocarbon

dates represent a point in time rather than a temporal range, can lead to faulty interpreta tions. It should also be noted that the temporal range of averaged dates represents a

probabilistic range, not the duration of occupation. A further problem that should be considered in establishing a chronology of food

producing communities concerns the kind of evidence used to infer food production. Lack of

domestic plants or animals may be a result of seasonal activities emphasizing utilization of

wild resources by food-producing communities, lack of preservation, or inadequate retrieval

methods. Also, lack of archaeological sites may be a result of geological circumstances during or after the occupation of the site. It is therefore important to investigate sites in a regional context in order to detect permanent/seasonal settlement patterns, to assess the impact of site

forming processes on preservation, and to ensure that adequate retrieval methods are

employed.

Summary

Critical evaluation, tree-ring calibration, and statistical analysis of radiocarbon dates from

Khartoum Mesolithic, Khartoum Neolithic, and related sites in the central Sudan provide a

chronological framework for interpreting local developments of post-Palaeolithic cultures

and connections with Egypt (Fig. 2). The dates so far available, reported here in tree-ring corrected years BC, suggest that the Early Khartoum (Khartoum Mesolithic) dates from

>7000 BC to 5000 BC. Sites with Neolithic ceramics analogous to those from Shaheinab

include an early phase which is represented at Umm Direiwa I, Islang, El Ghaba, and

Rabak, dated from ca 4900 to 4450 BC. Shaheinab itself, and other related sites including

Kadero, Zakiab, and Nofalab, date from ca 4400 to 3800 BC. Late Neolithic sites include El

Kadada which is dated to ca 3500 BC and Shaqadud, ca 270ff BC.

Cultural continuities in the central Sudan and Nubia from Early Khartoum to the

Khartoum Neolithic indicate that the Neolithic traits were amalgamated with previously established traditions. The droughts of the mid-Holocene were apparently responsible for

the movement of Neolithic groups from various localities to many places along the course of

the Nile both in Egypt and the Sudan. This would explain the establishment of widely

Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolithic' and 'Neolithic3 sites in the Sudan 99

separated Neolithic communities in the Nile Delta and the Fayum, Upper Egypt. Nubia, and

the Sudan during more or less the same time interval, namely from about the close of the sixth

millennium BC to about 4400 BC. The Chronometrie data now available provide no reason to

suspect that agriculture was initated at a single cradle along the Nile and then transmitted

elsewhere.

Both the late manifestations of the Neolithic at El-Kadada and the A-Group are coeval

with the interval represented by Nagada II and Nagada III. The A-Group was coeval with

the later part of Nagada II and lasted until the beginning of the First Dynasty in Egypt. It is

likely that indigenous development toward provincial states happened simultaneously both

in Nubia and Egypt.

Acknowledgements

I am most grateful to Isabella Canev?, F. Geus, Randi Haaland. A. E. Marks, Peter Shinnie.

and Fred Wendorf who read and commented on a preliminary version of this paper. Their

comments were particularly useful in clarifying the position of various sites in the archaeolo

gical sequence. Canev?, Geus, Haaland, Marks and Mohammed-Ali also provided references and information on radiocarbon dates. I also thank David and Laurel Phillipson for careful and incisive editing of the text.

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102 Fekri A. Hassan

Postscript

Information was kindly communicated by R. Haaland in April 1986, while this paper was in

press. Corrections for isotopic fractionation of age measurements from Zakiab, Kadero I

(southern midden), Umm Direiwa I, and Shaheinab are now available, together with

additional measurements with corrections for isotopic fractionation of 5550 ? 90 bp for

Shaheinab (T-3699) and 5860 ? 80 bp (T-5726) for level 3 at Rabak. These data provide the

following average age estimates in calendrical years for sites with known corrections for

isotopic fractionation (cf, p. 90):

Rabak, lower levels (15, 6) 4905 ? 90 BC (two dates)

Rabak, upper level (3) 4740 ? 120 BC (one date) Umm Direiwa I 4800 ? 100 BC (two dates) Zakiab 4780 ? 90 BC (two dates) Shaheinab 4560 ? 70 BC (three dates)

Kadero I-South 4400 ? 60 BC (two dates). Sites with corrections for isotopic fractionation thus indicate that the temporal range of the

early and middle Khartoum 'Neolithic' groups is from about 4900 to 4400 BC, con

temporaneous with the early occupations in the Nile Delta and the Fayum. Shaheinab is

certainly older than the Gerzean and late Amratian, but is either coeval with or slightly older

than Hemamieh. There are also no apparent temporal gaps within the sequence of early and

middle Khartoum 'Neolithic' sites.