Health and Environmental Effects Health and Environmental Effects of Air Pollutionof Air Pollution

David Cole

U.S. EPA, OAQPS

Research Triangle Park, NC

Air Quality Management ProcessAir Quality Management Process

Implement Control StrategiesEvaluate Air Quality

- Air Quality Assessments•Emissions Inventory Data

•Ambient Air Monitoring Data

Choose Control Strategies

-Voluntary programs / Outreach

-Some strategies may be regulatory

Determine NecessaryEmissions Reductions

Set Air Quality Goals

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Titles of the Clean Air ActTitles of the Clean Air Act

• Title I—National Ambient Air Quality Standards, Hazardous Air Pollutants(SIP, NSR and Technology Standards)

• Title II—Mobile Sources• Title III— Emergency Powers and Tribal

Authority, Public Involvement

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Titles of the Clean Air Act (cont.)Titles of the Clean Air Act (cont.)

• Title IV—Acid Deposition• Title V—Operating Permits• Title VI—Stratospheric Ozone

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NAAQSNAAQS

• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) –

– Primary standard set to protect public health

– Secondary standard set to protect public and

welfare

• State Implementation Plans – State plans to attain

or maintain NAAQS

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NAAQS (cont.)NAAQS (cont.)

• New Source Review and Prevention of Significant

Deterioration (PSD) permits part of SIPs

• Title V Permits take all requirements from SIPs,

technology standards, New Source Performance

Standards (NSPS), etc., combines in one permit

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Six Six ““Criteria PollutantsCriteria Pollutants””of the NAAQSof the NAAQS

• Ozone (O3)

• Particulate matter

– Coarse particles (PM10)

– Fine particles (PM2.5)

• Carbon Monoxide (CO)

• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

• Lead (Pb)7

Ground-level Ozone is… Ground-level Ozone is…

• Primary component of smog

• Sometimes called “bad ozone” to distinguish from “good ozone”

– Both types of ozone have same chemical composition (O3)

– “Good ozone” occurs naturally in upper portions of Earth’s atmosphere, forms layer that protects life from sun's harmful rays

– “Bad ozone” at ground level is harmful to breathe

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• Not emitted directly into air

• Forms when emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) “cook” in sun

– Emissions from industrial facilities, electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical solvents are major man-made sources of NOx and VOCs

Ground-level Ozone (cont.)Ground-level Ozone (cont.)

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• Mainly a summertime pollutant—sunlight and hot weather accelerate formation

• Ozone levels can be high in both urban and rural areas, often due to transport of ozone, or NOx and VOC emissions that form ozone

Ground-level Ozone (cont.)Ground-level Ozone (cont.)

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• Ozone can penetrate deep into lungs and can– Interfere with breathing outdoors– Irritate airways, causing coughing, sore or scratchy

throat, pain when breathing deeply, shortness of breath– Increase asthma attacks and use of asthma medication– Inflame and damage lung lining by injuring cells– Increase susceptibility to respiratory infection – Aggravate chronic lung diseases such as asthma,

emphysema and bronchitis

Ozone and HealthOzone and Health

• Repeated exposure can cause permanent lung changes, long-term health effects, lower quality of life

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Ozone Health Impacts: Ozone Health Impacts: ““ Pyramid of Effects Pyramid of Effects””

Susceptible and vulnerable groups include

– People with lung disease such as asthma

– Children– Older adults– People who are more

likely to be exposed, such as outdoor workers

Proportion of Population AffectedProportion of Population Affected

Severity of Effects

Many scientific studies have linked ozone exposure to serious health outcomes such as emergency department visits, hospitalizations for respiratory causes, mortality

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Ozone and the EnvironmentOzone and the Environment• Ground-level ozone also associated with significant environmental

impacts

• Absorbed by leaves of plants, where it can

– Visibly injure leaves, affecting appearance of vegetation in national parks, recreation areas and cities

– Interfere with ability of sensitive plants to produce and store food, leading to reduced growth, biomass production and/or yields

– Increase plant susceptibility to diseases, insects, harsh weather, other pollutants, and competition

– Reduce or change diversity of plant species, damaging ecosystem

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Particulate Matter: What is It?Particulate Matter: What is It?

A complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets

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Fine ParticlesCombustion, gases to particlesSulfates/acidsNitrateAmmoniumOrganicsCarbonMetalsWater

Sources:Coal, oil, gasoline, diesel, wood combustionTransformation of SOx, NOx, organic gases including biogenicsHigh temperature industrial processes (smelters, steel mills)Forest fires

Exposure/Lifetime:Lifetime days to weeks, regional distribution over urban scale to 1000s of km

Inhalable Coarse ParticlesCrushing, grinding, dustResuspended dusts (soil, street dust)Coal/oil fly ashAluminum, silica,iron-oxidesTire and brake wearInhalable Biological Materials (e.g., from soils, plant fragments)Sources:Resuspension of dust tracked onto roadsSuspension from disturbed soil (farms, mines, unpaved roads)Construction/demolitionIndustrial fugitivesBiological sourcesExposure/Lifetime:Coarse fraction (2.5-10) lifetime of hours to days, distribution up to 100s km

PM Components: fine and coarsePM Components: fine and coarse

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• Larger particles (> PM10) deposit in the upper respiratory tract

• Smaller, inhalable particles (≤ PM10) penetrate deep into the lungs

• Both coarse PM10 and fine PM2.5 can penetrate to lower lung

• Deposited particles may accumulate,

react, be cleared or absorbed

Particulate MatterParticulate Matter

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Heath Effects of Particle PollutionHeath Effects of Particle Pollution• Particles can cause both respiratory and cardio-vascular

health problems, including – Aggravated asthma – Increases in respiratory symptoms like coughing and difficult or

painful breathing – Chronic bronchitis – Decreased lung function – Changes in heart rate and heart rate variability– Cardiac arrhythmias– Heart attacks– Premature death

• Types of studies– Epidemiology/Field– Controlled human exposure– Animal

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lung function changes, immune cell responses, heart rate or heart rate variability responses

Asthma attacks, medication use, symptoms

Doctor visits

Hospital Admissions

Death

PM Health Impacts: PM Health Impacts: ““Pyramid of EffectsPyramid of Effects””

Some groups are at greater risk• People with heart or lung diseases

– Diseases make them vulnerable

– May include people with diabetes

• Older adults – May have undiagnosed disease

• Children– Bodies still developing

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Particle pollution also impairs visibilityParticle pollution also impairs visibility

• “Visibility” degree to which atmosphere is transparent to visible light

• Particle pollution – Degrades the visual

appearance and perceived color of distant objects to an observer

– Reduces range at which distant objects can be distinguished from background

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Historical PerspectiveHistorical Perspective

• For many years, urban visibility impairment has been the best understood effect of particulate matter

London – December 1952

New York City – Thanksgiving Day 1966 Los Angeles21

Urban visibility is valued across the country . . . Urban visibility is valued across the country . . .

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Fine particles continue to impact Fine particles continue to impact visibility todayvisibility today

Chicago, < 10 ug/m3 PM2.5, 8/16/00 Chicago, 35 ug/m3 PM2.5, 8/26/00

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CURRENT NAAQS CURRENT NAAQS   Primary Standards Secondary Standards

Pollutant Level Averaging Time Level Averaging Time

Carbon Monoxide

9 ppm (10 mg/m3)

8-hour

None 35 ppm (40 mg/m3)

1-hour

Lead 0.15 µg/m3 Rolling 3-Month Average Same as Primary

Nitrogen Dioxide

100 ppb 1-hour Same as Annual Primary

0.053 ppm (100 µg/m3)

Annual (Arithmetic Mean)

Particulate Matter (PM10)

150 µg/m3 24-hour Same as Primary

Particulate Matter (PM2.5)

15.0 µg/m3 Annual (Arithmetic Mean)

Same as Primary

35 µg/m3 24-hour Same as Primary

Ozone 0.075 ppm (2008 std) 8-hour Same as Primary

0.08 ppm (1997 std) 8-hour Same as Primary

0.12 ppm 1-hour Same as Primary

Sulfur Dioxide

75 ppb 1-hour 0.5 ppm (1300 µg/m3)

3-hour

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NAAQS Reviews: Status Update(as of March 9, 2015)

Ozone LeadPrimary

NO2

Primary SO2

Secondary NO2 and

SO2

PM CO

Last Review Completed

(final rule signed)Mar 2008 Oct 2008 Jan 2010 Jun 2010 Mar 2012 Dec 2012 Aug 2011

Recent or Upcoming

Major Milestone(s)1

August 2014Final REAs

Final PA

Nov 25, 2014Proposed rule

Oct 1, 2015 2

Final rule

May 2014Final PA

Dec 2014 Proposed decision

June 2014Final IRP

January 20152nd Draft ISA

Spring 2015REA Planning

Document

October 2014Final IRP

Summer 20151st Draft ISA

Fall 2015REA Planning

Document

Summer 2015Draft IRP

Winter 2015/2016Draft IRP TBD3

1 IRP – Integrated Review Plan; ISA – Integrated Science Assessment; REA – Risk and Exposure Assessment; PA – Policy Assessment2 Bold and underlined dates indicate court-ordered or settlement agreement deadlines3 TBD = to be determined

Additional information regarding current and previous NAAQS reviews is available at: http://www.epa.gov/ttn/naaqs/

AppendixAppendixEnvironmental Effects Environmental Effects of Nitrogen and Sulfurof Nitrogen and Sulfur

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Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur

• Acid Deposition: Combinations of NOx and/or SOx emissions react to form acidic compounds in atmosphere, deposited onto ecosystems

• Nutrient Enrichment: Deposited NOx can act as fertilizer where nitrogen historically limited; can cause imbalances in ecosystems

• Mercury methylation: Sulfur enrichment can increase mercury bioaccumulation in wildlife

• Climate change: Nitrous Oxide (N2O) is potent greenhouse gas

• NOx and SOx in the air can be directly toxic to plants

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Sources of Nitrogen and Sulfur

• Burning of fossil fuels in vehicles and stationary sources

• Agriculture: fertilizers and livestock.• Natural emissions from microbiological

processes• Biomass burning

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Nitrogen & Sulfur Sources & Effects

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Nitrogen & Sulfur Sources & Effects

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Surface Water AcidificationSurface Water Acidification

• Direct effects– Decreases in pH (i.e. increases acidity) and lowers acid

neutralizing capacity (ANC)

– Increases Aluminum concentrations

• Indirect effects– watershed-scale impacts, such as nitrogen saturation, forest

decline, or soil acidification

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Biological Effects of Acid RainBiological Effects of Acid Rain

• Terrestrial– Decline of red spruce trees (eastern U.S.), sugar maple

(central and western PA) – Tree decline: poor crown condition, reduced tree

growth, unusually high tree mortality

• Aquatic– Susceptible fish and macro-invertebrates cannot

survive, reproduce or compete in acidic waters (zooplankton, mayfly, fathead minnow)

– High acidity and aluminum levels disrupt salt and water balance in fish, causing red blood cells to rupture and blood viscosity to increase, resulting in a lethal heart attack

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Nitrogen EnrichmentNitrogen Enrichment

Atmospheric N depositionNOx, NHx, Other Nr

Nr effects onterrestrial ecosystems

Nr effects on estuarine ecosystems

Fertilizer•Land runoff•Soil leaching (Nr)

Waste water effluent (Nr)

Atmospheric N deposition causes a cascade of ecological effects at multiple scales

• At smallest scale, increased growth of individual species• Not all species can take advantage of additional N; some lose

competitive advantage• Causes a suite of terrestrial and aquatic ecological problems

including biodiversity losses, community shifts, eutrophication, and harmful algal blooms

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Ecological Indicators of EutrophicationEcological Indicators of Eutrophication

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