heat pumps - technology and environmental impact

HEAT PUMPS TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

IMPACT

HEAT PUMPS – TECHNOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT July 2005: Part 1

This report has been prepared by

Martin Forsén, Swedish Heat pump Association, SVEP, Member of the European Heat Pump Association EHPA.

The Swedish Heat Pump Association would like to thank the following people and organisations for their valuable contributions to this report

European Heat Pump Association

Raphaela Boeswarth, arsenal research, Austria

Xavier Dubuisson, Sustainable Energy Ireland, Ireland

Bengt Sandström, Mid Sweden University, Sweden


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Energy utilisation in the built environment is one of the most important aspects that have to be addressed in the near future. Around 40% of the primary energy use within Europe is related to the building sector. In order to reach the targets of the Kyoto-protocol, the energy utilisation in the built environment has to go through a transition. Up to now most of our space conditioning systems are major contributors to global warming. Environmentally benign heating systems have to be introduced on a large scale in order to reduce the emissions of green house gases. ECO-Labelling of such environmentally benign systems is one way to encourage and guide customers in their choice of products.

One of the most promising technologies to reduce green house gas emissions is provided by electric heat pumps. Heat pumps offer an energy efficient way to provide space heating and preparation of sanitary hot water. Even though technical know-how of the heat pumping technology is well proven, it has not yet reached public recognition worldwide. In Europe, a sustainable market has only been established in small countries like Sweden, Switzerland and parts of Austria. Due to the escalating price of oil and electricity in conjunction with the increase of energy related taxes and growing environmental concern, the market for heat pumps have started to grow in all of Europe.

The word heat pump is a collective term for a wide range of products utilising the same working principle. There are however many different types of heat pumps, all of which most suitable for different applications. Heat pumps are in general divided into different types depending on which heat source and heat sink they are designed for. All types have their own pros and cons as well as environmental impact. The most important aspects to consider during an evaluating of different heat sources are; availability, temperature level, annual temperature fluctuations and investment cost attributed to the choice of heat source. In reality the choice will be limited due to prevailing local conditions.

Ambient air is by far the most common heat source for heat pump applications worldwide. The reason to this is the unlimited availability that enables an uncomplicated and quick installation. In most European climates the temperature of ambient air, changes significantly depending on the time of year. The fact that the performance of a heat pump is reduced as the temperature of the heat source drops, lead to unfavourable characteristics. The performance of an ambient air heat pump will decrease as the heating demand is increasing. At a certain point the temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink will be to great for the heat pump to operate at all and the heat pump has to be stopped. For most ambient air heat pumps this will occur at temperatures in the range of (–15°C)-(-20°C). In cold climates this raises the demand for an auxiliary heating system that is designed for the maximum heat load of the building. Heat pumps are unique in the sense that one and the same appliance are able to provide heating as well as cooling. Bearing in mind that more than 15 000 people died during the heat wave 2003, space cooling is in many parts of Europe not only a matter of comfort, but a necessity for human well being. A major quantity of all air source heat pumps is designed for dual use, heating as well as cooling. Cooling may be achieved by simply reversing the cycle. Small air source heat pumps sold in the southern part of Europe are mainly used for cooling purposes, whereas the same unit sold in the northern part of Europe will be used for heating.

The use of the ground as heat source for heat pumps enables the use of renewable energy stored in the soil or bedrock. The ground serves as seasonal storage of solar energy. At a depth of 0.9-1.5 m the amplitude of temperature change due to changes of outdoor


temperature is damped and delayed. This results in very favourable working conditions for a heat pump extracting energy from the ground. The heat exchanger may either be designed for horizontal installation in the ground soil or a vertical installation. The vertical heat exchangers are most commonly installed in deep boreholes in embedded bedrock. The horizontal loops are generally cheaper to install than the vertical systems. The vertical systems are however requiring much less surface area. The ground may additionally serve as a heat sink for cooling applications or as in some systems, which are designed for ”free-cooling”, provide comfort cooling at almost no electric input at all.

Exhaust air, ground water and surface water (e.g. lake, river or pond) are other examples of commonly used heat sources.

The overall efficiency of a heat pump system, which is called the coefficient of performance (COP), is not only dependent on the efficiency of the appliance. One and the same appliance will generate quite different annual efficiency factors depending on the temperature levels of the heat source and the heat distribution system. An experienced installer is required, in order to achieve appropriate design according to the unique conditions. There is a strong need for competence among the installers in order to develop a successful market. Several markets have experienced periods of bad repute due to the lack of qualified installers. The need for trained installers is well known and has initiated a joint certification project within the European Union. The aim of the project is to develop a general basis for a European certification scheme for heat pump installers and initiate pilot courses in each participating country. Austria and Sweden are already offering several different training options for installers, whereas most other countries are at the stage of developing training courses.

Unit performance is tested according to the European standard EN-14511 by accredited test institutes. Growing interest for the technology has intensified research and development, which has led to significant improvement of the efficiency during the last decade. In comparison to a conventional boiler a highly efficient heat pump system will reduce the use of fossil fuel and reduce hazardous emissions locally. Depending on the generation of electricity emissions do occur at the plant site. Utility plants are however in general generating lower emission rates than small domestic furnaces. The indirect emissions from heat pumps are thus dependent on the efficiency of the heat pump system as well as the efficiency of the plant generating the electricity. Mitigation of emissions is the most pronounced environmental benefit offered by heat pumps. The magnitude of the possible benefits will vary, depending on the local generation of electricity.

Heat pumps do however contribute to direct emissions by means of refrigerant leakage over their lifecycle. In addition to leakage that occurs during operation, losses will occur at demolition of the appliance. The impact of these losses on the environment will depend on the refrigerant in use. The most commonly used refrigerants today are hydroflourocarbons (HFC). These refrigerants have no ozone depletion potential (ODP), but they are contributing to global warming and should therefore be used with care. In order to improve the control of HFCs the European commission has proposed a new directive on restrictive use of F-gases (HFCs, perfluorocarbons or PFCs and sulphur hexafluoride or SF6). In the current version of the proposal (latest amendments 14 October 2004) the directive has been divided into two parts. The first part is dealing with the phase out of R-134a from vehicle air-conditioning. The second part apply to domestic and commercial refrigeration, air-conditioners, heat pumps, fire fighting appliances, health care, etc. The overall aim of the second part of the new directive is to improve the control of HFCs by setting minimum standards for inspection and recovery. Regulations regarding monitoring and reporting on leakage are strengthened, including training and certification of personnel in charge of inspections. Labelling of products is introduced in


order to improve the information to the consumers. The proposal will be sent to the European Parliament for a second reading in the beginning of 2005. A final agreement is not expected before 2006.

Environmental evaluations of heat pump applications need to take into account for indirect emissions related to the generation of electricity that is used to operate the heat pump, as well as direct emissions of the refrigerant. A lot of research has been made on the establishment of an integrated method to calculate the contribution of green house gas emissions from refrigeration and heat pump applications. The most well established method, TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact), was developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the early nineties. A TEWI calculation integrates direct and indirect green house gas emissions over the whole lifetime into a single number expressed in terms of CO2 mass equivalents. The TEWI concept is used in the newly developed criteria for eco-labelling of electrically driven heat pumps under “Der blaue engel” in Germany.

Estimation of CO2-emissions is an essential exercise in the evaluation of environmental performance. There are however other measures to compare the performance of different systems available. The concept of primary energy ratio (PER) is merely the relation between useful energy output divided by necessary energy input. This value gives a direct value of the overall efficiency for a complete system, taking in to account for losses related to the generation of electricity. For a common combustion appliance the PER value is equal to the overall efficiency of the system.


TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 HEAT PUMP TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................. 3

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 3

1.2 The general principle of an electric heat pump......................................................... 3

1.3 The vapour compression cycle .................................................................................... 4

1.4 Alternative cycles – Gas absorption heat pump ........................................................ 5

1.5 Overview of available heat sources for heat pumps and their inherent characteristics ........................................................................................................................... 6

1.5.1 Ambient air............................................................................................................. 6 1.5.2 Exhaust air.............................................................................................................. 7 1.5.3 Ground soil ............................................................................................................. 8 1.5.4 Ground rock.......................................................................................................... 10 1.5.5 Ground water........................................................................................................ 12 1.5.6 Surface water........................................................................................................ 12

1.6 Choice of technology .................................................................................................. 13

1.7 Existing test institutes and test standards for heat pumps ..................................... 14

2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT RELATED TO THE USE OF HEAT PUMPS...... 15

2.1 The TEWI example applied on national basis......................................................... 16 2.1.1 Concluding remarks on TEWI ............................................................................. 17

2.2 Refrigerants ................................................................................................................ 18 2.2.1 Refrigerants and European regulation.................................................................. 18

2.3 Secondary refrigerants .............................................................................................. 19

3 COMPETENCE REQUIREMENTS ................................................................... 20

3.1 Existing schemes for vocational education............................................................... 21

4 EXISTING LABELLING SCHEMES.................................................................. 23

5 SCOPE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS .................................................. 25

5.1 A comparison of primary energy ratio (PER) ......................................................... 26

6 APPLIANCE AND SYSTEM EFFICIENCY ....................................................... 27


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6.1 Tools and methods available for SPF evaluation .................................................... 29

7 EUROPEAN MARKET SURVEY ...................................................................... 29

7.1 Barriers to overcome.................................................................................................. 29 7.1.1 Limited awareness................................................................................................ 29 7.1.2 High initial cost .................................................................................................... 30 7.1.3 Poor perception .................................................................................................... 30 7.1.4 Low energy prices ................................................................................................ 30

7.2 European market statistics........................................................................................ 30


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1 HEAT PUMP TECHNOLOGY

1.1 Introduction Energy utilisation in the built environment is one of the most important aspects that have to be addressed in the near future. Around 40% of the primary energy use within Europe is related to the building sector. In order to reach the targets of the Kyoto-protocol, the energy utilisation in the built environment has to go through a transition. Up to now most of our space conditioning systems are major contributors to global warming. Environmentally benign heating systems have to be introduced on a large scale in order to reduce the emissions of green house gases. ECO-Labelling of such environmentally benign systems is one way to encourage and guide customers in their choice of products.

Electric heat pumps are one of the most energy efficient ways to provide space heating and preparation of sanitary hot water. Even though technical know-how on the heat pumping technology is well proven, it has not yet reached public recognition worldwide. In Europe, a sustainable market has only been established in small countries like Sweden, Switzerland and parts of Austria. Due to the escalating price of oil and electricity in conjunction with the increase on energy related taxes and growing environmental concern, the market for heat pumps have started to grow in all of Europe.

The energy efficiency of heat pumps is reached at the price of being sensitive to temperature levels of the systems circumscribing the heat pump, i.e. the heat source and heat distribution system. Heat pumps are unique in the sense that one and the same appliance are able to provide heating as well as cooling. Some systems that are designed for “free-cooling” provide comfort cooling at almost no electric input at all. Bearing in mind that more than 15 000 people died during the heat wave 2003, space cooling is in many parts of Europe not only a matter of comfort but a necessity for human well being.

The word heat pump is a collective term for a wide range of products utilising the same working principle. There are however many different types of heat pumps, all of which most suitable for different applications. Heat pumps are in general divided into different types depending on which heat source and heat sink they are designed for. All types have their own pros and cons as well as environmental impact. The following section will present the general principle of heat pumps that is common for all types considered in this study. There after an overview of available heat sources, aspects related to system design and viable efficiency will be given.

1.2 The general principle of an electric heat pump This section serves as an introduction to the vapour compression cycle by a simplified description of an electric heat pump in operation. A heat pump, when used in heating mode, extracts energy from a low temperature heat source and transforms it to energy at a desirable temperature level by the use of a compressor. The compressor requires power input in order to upgrade the energy. The maximum efficiency that may be achieved by a heat pump is defined by the theoretical “Carnot-process” by which the efficiency is only dependent on the temperature level of the heat source and heat sink. The general principal and theoretical efficiency is given a graphical explanation in Figure 1.

1. Energy at low temperature is extracted from the heat source.


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2. The energy extracted from the heat source is transformed to energy at a high temperature level by the compressor. The transformation made by the compressor requires energy in terms of electric power. The required power input to the compressor is related to the temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink.

3. As energy cannot be destroyed the available amount of energy that may be rejected to the heat sink is equal to the sum of the extracted energy from the heat source and the energy input to the compressor.

4. The efficiency of the system is defined as rejected energy divided by the energy input to the compressor. The efficiency of a heat pump is called coefficient of performance (COP)

COP =Heat source

CompressorHeat sink

COP =COP =

T1

Heat source

CompressorHeat sink

Heat source

CompressorHeat sink

Figure 1: Principle of an electric heat pump

T2

)1(21

1

TTTCOPcarnot −

=

The graphical presentation above reveals that the efficiency (COP) of a heat pump in heating mode is always greater than 1. The COP deteriorates by a large temperature difference between the heat sink and the heat source. This stresses the importance to look for an adequate heat source at reasonable temperature level and reduce the temperature where heat rejection is to take place. At present, modern heat pumps operate at a COP in the range of 4-5 at a heat source temperature of 0°C and 35°C heat sink temperature. This means that an electric input of 1 kWhelectricity is transformed to 4-5 kWhheating. In comparison modern condensing boilers may attain approximately 1.07 kWhheating out of 1 kWh energy content of the fuel in use.

1.3 The vapour compression cycle In the following text a brief explanation, on how the general working principal described above is realised in practice, will be given. All heat pumps that are considered in this study use a vapour compression cycle to transport heat from the heat source to the heat sink (heat distribution system). Other cycles exist, but play a minor part and will not be given any thorough explanation in this study.


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Evaporator

Condenser

Electric compressor

Expansion valve

Figure 2: Vapour compression cycle

In principal all heat pumps consist of a condenser, expansion device, evaporator and a compressor. In heating mode, the cycle starts as liquid refrigerant at high pressure exits the condenser. The liquid refrigerant passes through an expansion device, which reduces the pressure of the refrigerant. The refrigerant at low pressure passes through a heat exchanger (evaporator) and absorbs heat from the low-temperature source. The refrigerant evaporates into a gas as heat is absorbed. The gaseous refrigerant then passes through a compressor where it is pressurized, raising its temperature. The hot gas then circulates through a condenser where the heat is removed to the heat sink. As the refrigerant rejects heat, it changes phase back to liquid phase and the process begins again.

1.4 Alternative cycles – Gas absorption heat pump Even though the electric heat pumps are the only ones commercially available on the domestic market at present, there are interesting alternatives that might be introduced in the future. Absorption heat pumps offer a well-established technology that has mainly been used in cooling applications so far. The absorption heat pump is an example of a heat driven heat pump cycle that only require electric input for a liquid pump and the control devices. The COP of an absorption heat pump is however much less than what can be achieved by an electric heat pump, typical COPs range in between 1.4-1.7. The absorption heat pump might however become interesting if strict regulations of the use of HFCs will come in to force, as absorption heat pumps normally do not operate with HFC. Presently there are no commercially available absorption heat pumps for the domestic market, but there is development going on for a natural gas absorption heat pump. This development is aimed especially for countries with the existence of widespread gas grids and favourable gas prices in relation to electricity.


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1.5 Overview of available heat sources for heat pumps and their inherent characteristics

The most important aspects to consider during an evaluating of different heat sources are; availability, temperature level, annual temperature fluctuations and investment cost attributed to the choice of heat source. In reality the choice will be limited due to prevailing local conditions. In this work we restrict the overview to heat sources commonly used for domestic heat pumps.

1.5.1 Ambient air Ambient air is by far the most common heat source for heat pump applications worldwide. The reason to this is the unlimited availability that enables an uncomplicated and quick installation. In most European climates the temperature of ambient air, changes significantly depending on the time of year. The fact that the performance of a heat pump is reduced as the temperature of the heat source drops, lead to unfavourable characteristics. The performance of an ambient air heat pump will decrease as the heating demand is increasing. At a certain point the temperature difference between the heat source and heat sink will be to great for the heat pump to operate at all and the heat pump has to be stopped. For most ambient air heat pumps this will occur at temperatures in the range of (–15°C)-(-20°C). In cold climates this raises the demand for an auxiliary heating system that is designed to cover the maximum heat load of the house. Another disadvantage related to ambient air as heat source is the fact that cold moist air will evoke frost formation on the heat exchanger exposed to ambient air. The frost will eventually induce such a large thermal resistance that the heat exchanger needs to be defrosted. During defrost the heat pump will not be able to provide heat to the inside of the house. Instead the heat exchanger exposed to the ambient air will require heat in order to melt the ice. Defrosting may be acquired by reversing the cycle or simply by an electric cable. Except for very dry climates defrosting is in general required at temperatures around +7°C and below. As defrosting will affect the efficiency negatively, the control of the intervals between each defrost period is of great importance.

kW

Auxiliary heating

Heat output heat pump

Required electric input

-15 °C 10 °C0 °CFigure 3 General characteristics of an air-source heat pump


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An air source heat pump may be designed for heat rejection directly to indoor air (air-air heat pump), or for connection to a hydronic heat distribution system (air-water heat pump). Furthermore the air-air heat pumps may be designed for connection to a ducted air system or heat rejection in a single room. Ducted air systems are widespread in the USA but fairly uncommon in Europe. A disadvantage related to air-air heat pumps are that they may not be used for preparation of sanitary hot water. On the other hand air-air heat pumps are most often reversible, i.e. they are able to operate in cooling mode. As a consequence of the inherent characteristics of an air-air heat pump, these are dominating in the southern parts of Europe where the need for cooling is more pronounced and in buildings without an existing hydronic heat distribution system.

Air-water heat pumps are either designed as a “split-unit” (Figure 4a) or as a compact unit. The split unit is divided in an outdoor part and an indoor part. The outdoor part contains the evaporator and the compressor. The indoor unit contains the condenser and usually an accumulator tank for sanitary hot water. A compact air-water heat pump may either be installed outside, or inside the building. An installation inside the house (Figure 4b) requires air ducts for inlet and outlet. Outside installation have benefit of reducing the space requirements indoors and reduce noise levels.

Figure 4a air-water heat pump split version (IVT) 4b compact version (Viessmann)

1.5.2 Exhaust air The use of exhaust air as heat source for heat pumps is restricted to buildings with mechanical ventilation systems. Installation of mechanical ventilation systems involves significant interference in the building. When it comes to retrofitting, this is a costly operation and consequently exhaust air heat pumps are merely a solution for buildings with existence of mechanical ventilation. The heat source itself offers favourable working conditions for the heat pump as the temperature level of the exhaust air is in the range of +20°C. The drawback however, is that the availability is limited to the airflow through the ventilation system. For a typical single family house this limits the heat output of an exhaust air heat pump in the range of 2 kWheating. An exhaust air heat pump for space conditioning will thus in almost all cases require additional heating. In order to overcome the drawback of the limited heat output some


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exhaust air heat pumps are designed for dual heat sources. These hybrid systems may be designed for connection to a shallow borehole, horizontal ground coil (Figure 5) or ambient (outdoor) air. Some exhaust air heat pumps are designed solely for sanitary hot water heating.

Figure 5: Exhaust air heat pump with shallow ground collector (source IVT)

1.5.3 Ground soil The use of ground soil as heat source for heat pumps enables the use of renewable energy stored in the ground. The ground serves as seasonal storage of solar energy. At a depth of 0.9-1.5 m the amplitude of temperature change due to changes of outdoor temperature is damped and delayed. This results in very favourable working conditions for a heat pump extracting energy from the ground. The ground may additionally serve as a heat sink for cooling applications. A ground source heat pump utilising ground soil as heat source may be designed for direct evaporation or as an indirect system where a secondary refrigerant is used as heat carrier.

Direct evaporation system: A direct evaporation system, often referred to as direct expansion system, circulates the refrigerant in the ground coil. The advantages of direct evaporation systems are:

• Reduction of temperature loss

• Avoidance of circulation pump

Disadvantages:

• In comparison to indirect systems, the direct evaporation systems require higher refrigerant charge.

• May not be used for passive (free) cooling.

• Potential technical problems related to sufficient lubrication of the compressor exists

Indirect ground soil system: The indirect ground soil systems make use of a secondary refrigerant (anti freeze solution) as energy carrier in the ground coil. The advantages of indirect ground soil systems are:

• Minimize the charge of refrigerant.

• May be used for passive cooling.

• Simplified installation


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Disadvantages:

• Thermal losses are introduced, as the system requires an additional heat exchanger.

• Require a circulation pump.

Heating system

Evaporator

Condenser

Domestic hot waterHeating system

Evaporator

Condenser

Domestic hot water

Figure 6: Indirect ground soil system

Insulation

Depth

0.9-1.5m

Insulation

Depth

0.9-1.5m

Figure 7: Ground coil configuration

At the beginning of the heating season the ground temperature adjacent to the coil, will be greater than the ambient air temperature. As heat is continuously extracted from the ground soil during the heating season, the temperature of the ground will decrease and in most cases the soil closest to the coil will freeze. The freezing process enables extensive heat extraction, as the soil undergo phase change. The frost formation around the coil enhances thermal conductivity of the soil. The thermal conductivity of the ground soil has significant impact on the design of the collector. The thermal conductivity of ground soil is mainly dependent on


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the water content of the soil, the higher water content, the higher thermal conductivity. The use of ground soil as heat source for heat pump applications has negligible influence on the vegetation above. Flowering might be delayed up to two weeks due to low ground temperatures. During summertime the temperature of the ground will be naturally recovered if the collector is properly designed. One of the drawbacks of horizontal ground coils are that a correct collector design in general requires a large surface area. This restricts the use in many areas around cities where available surface area is limited. The “slinky-coil” offers an alternative to the basic horizontal coil and reduce the required surface area to some extent.

Figure 8 Slinky-coil

1.5.4 Ground rock For the last decade there has been a growing interest in using ground rock as heat source for heat pumps. A lot of research and development have been performed in order to improve the knowledge base for the design of such systems. Most of the benefits associated with ground soil systems are valid for the ground rock systems. Ground rock systems however require much less surface area and have consequently become the preferred choice in dense populated areas where space is limited. Ground rock systems may be designed for direct expansion or as an indirect system. A typical system for this type of application is shown in Figure 9.


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Bedrock

Soil layer

Bedrock

Soil layer

Figure 9 Ground rock heat pump

In most cases the establishment of a borehole for a heat pump application requires permission from local authorities. General drilling restrictions might prevail in water protection areas and in the surroundings of tunnels. The most frequently used technique for drilling in rock is called down the hole hammer (DTH). Compressed air is fed through the drilling pipes down to a hammer at the bottom. The hammer is driven by the compressed air. The technique is suitable for drilling depths up to the range of 200 meters. The diameter of the borehole is usually 115 mm or 140 mm. The drilling equipment must be designed for drilling and mounting of lining and moreover, be able to move on different surfaces without damaging sensitive garden areas. The main aspects that influence the required borehole depth are thermal conductivity of the bedrock, undisturbed ground temperature, and annual heat extraction from the ground.

In order to obtain a high level of quality and lifetime of a ground rock system, and to protect the ground water many countries have developed standards or regulations for ground rock systems. Normbrunn 97 is a Swedish norm that has been developed by Geological Survey of Sweden (SGU) in collaboration with the Swedish Heat Pump Association and the two drilling organizations, Geotec and Avanti. Normbrunn 97 consists of requirements for the borehole itself and in addition requirements on the equipment and competence of the drillers. A collector is lowered into the borehole when the drilling is completed. Even though many different types of collectors exist, the single- and double U-pipes are predominant. The U-pipes are most commonly manufactured by high density polythene, PEM, Ø 40 mm, for 6 bars, and has a welded U bottom piece

General requirements for components used in bedrock systems are that all components need to be made of corrosion-proof material (e.g. copper-coated, synthetic material, stainless steel materials), which resist the hydro-chemical elements (e.g. heavily mineralised water). Where possible no joints should be used. In all cases a leak test should establish the tightness of the collector.


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Layer of ground soil

Tight lid

Welded jointBedrock

minimum 2 meterslining pipe Seal between

lining pipe and bedrock

Steal lining Layer of ground soil

Tight lid

Welded jointBedrock

minimum 2 meterslining pipe Seal between

lining pipe and bedrock

Steal lining

Figure 10 Configuration according to Normbrunn 97

1.5.5 Ground water In areas where ground water is abundant and uncomplicated to access this can be used as heat source as well. In these systems, ground water is extracted from a well and circulated through the cold side of the heat pump. The ground water can either be used directly by circulation through the evaporator, or indirectly by use of an intermediate heat exchanger. The use of an intermediate heat exchanger is preferred in most cases as ground water might cause corrosion or clogging of the evaporator. After leaving the heat exchanger the cold ground water is brought back to the ground by an injection well. It is important to separate the two wells properly in order to avoid thermal shortcutting. Due to risk of clogging and restricted authorization in many countries ground water is not widely used.

1.5.6 Surface water Lakes are excellent heat storages for solar energy. Heat that is absorbed by the surface during summertime may be used for heat extraction during wintertime. The number of installations in lakes is however relatively small and mostly restricted to larger applications. One famous installation is located at The Castle of Drottningholm, the home of the Swedish royal family.

The most common sea- or lake heat collector, is basically designed like the surface soil heat collector. The collector is lowered to the bottom of the lake and secured by anchors. The anchors are counteracting the lifting power of the ice produced around the collector pipe. In order for a lake heating unit to be considered, a few conditions have to be fulfilled:

- The house should be near the sea or a lake, with rights to access the water.

- The place for the collector must be freed of activities, i.e. no fishing, anchoring etc.

- The water cannot be rapid flowing and must be deep enough not to freeze to the bottom.


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Heating system

Heat pump

Sanitary hot water

l t

Weights for Collector with

plastic pipes anchoring

Figure 11 System for utilisation of lake water

1.6 Choice of technology All different types of heat pumps previously described, have been developed for different applications and adjusted to the predominant local conditions. As a consequence the choice of heat pump technology is quite different in the northern part of Europe from the southern part. In the northern part of Europe, the need for heating is dominating. Cooling of domestic households are only required during a few weeks during summertime. Whereas cooling is a necessity in the southern part and heating is restricted to a few months of the year. Except for climatic differences, geological variations will influence the choice of technology. As for example ground rock heat pumps are not viable in areas constituting of bedrock with low thermal conductivity or areas where the bedrock is covered by a deep layer of soil. Ground rock heat pumps have already reached a significant market share in Sweden and are being promoted in rest of Europe as one of the most efficient systems. Among its benefits ground rock heat pumps offer a relatively high and stable temperature throughout the whole year. They have small space requirements and are able to provide comfort cooling as well. The main disadvantage to ground rock heat pumps is that drilling costs are generally high. The table below generalise the use of the different types of heat pumps in Europe.

Type of heat pump

Most common capacity range Application

Dominantregion

Air-air 3 - 5 kW Heating + cooling Southern Europe*Air-water 4 - 40 kW Heating Central EuropeExhaust air 2 - 3 kW Heating SwedenGround rock 5 - 40 kW Heating + free cooling Northern + centralGround soil 5 - 25 kW Heating Northern + centralLake water 15 - 40 kW Heating * Main application is cooling


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1.7 Existing test institutes and test standards for heat pumps Sweden

SP, the Swedish National Research and Testing Institute located in Borås is host for the IEA Heat Pump Centre (HPC). HPC is an information and coordination centre for IEA heat pump related activities. SP is a well established research and testing centre with close collaboration to the Swedish heat pump market actors. SP operates an accredited test laboratory for heat pump testing according to EN-14511. In addition to performance testing, SP is marketing its own heat pump quality label “P-label”.

Austria arsenal research is an independent public research institute owned by majority by the Austrian Republic. arsenal research is operating an accredited testing centre for heat pump testing. The laboratory comprise of test facilities for all types of heat pumps including a test rig for direct expansion systems. Arsenal plays an active role in vocational education of installers. In addition to training courses, arsenal is the accredited certification body for certification of heat pump installers in Austria.

The Netherlands

The TNO-MEP Centre for Development and Testing of Heat Pumps provides service to developers, suppliers, end-users and consultants in the field of heat pumps. TNO operates an accredited test laboratory and support actors on the heat pump market by offering help in product development, labelling and certification of equipment and systems. TNO has a strong position, both nationally and internationally, in the fields of refrigeration and heat pumps.

France CETIAT (Centre Technique des Industries Aérauliques et Thermiques) is a French technical centre for testing of boilers, ventilation, air conditioning and heat pump appliances. CETIAT is located in Lyon and approved by EUROVENT.

Switzerland The Swiss test institute is Buchs Heat-pump checking and testing centre The heat pump testing centre is situated in Buchs. The testing centre offers the possibility for testing air/water, water/water and brine/water heat pumps. This testing centre has a significant influence on the quality of the products.

Germany TÜV is the German accredited test laboratory.

EN-14511 Heat pump performance data should be measured and recorded according to the European test standard EN-14511. This standard supersedes the EN 255 standard. EN-14511 include terms and definitions, test conditions, test methods and requirements for air conditioners, liquid chilling packages and heat pumps with electrically driven compressors for space heating and cooling.


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2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT RELATED TO THE USE OF HEAT PUMPS With the exception of a few technologies, the majority of all life cycle assessments carried out on systems for space conditioning or generation of electricity by combustion, confirm that most of the environmental impact stems from the appliance/plant in operation (IEA 2002, Spath, Mann 2000, Halozan et al 1999). Environmental evaluations of heat pump applications need to take into account for indirect emissions related to the generation of electricity that is used to operate the heat pump, as well as direct emissions of the refrigerant. A lot of research has been made on the establishment of an integrated method to calculate the contribution of green house gas emissions from refrigeration and heat pump applications. The most well established method, TEWI (Total Equivalent Warming Impact), was developed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the early nineties. A TEWI calculation integrates direct and indirect green house gas emissions over the whole lifetime into a single number expressed in terms of CO2 mass equivalents.

)()()( GWPmLEFEnGWPmLnTEWI demolitionannual ××+××+×××=

direct emissions at demolition

direct emissions due to leakage

Indirect emissionsrelated to electricity generation

Where

n equipment lifetime [year]

L annual leakage rate [%]

m refrigerant charge [kg]

GWP global warming potential [kg CO2/kg refrigerant]

Eannual annual energy use [kWh/year]

EF emission factor driving energy [kg CO2/kWh]

Ldemolition refrigerant losses during demolition [%]

TEWI example: Domestic ground source heat pump supporting a single family house with an annual heat load of 24 000 kWhheating. Annual electric input, based on a seasonal performance factor of 3, 8 000 kWh.

Heat pump: NIBE Fighter 1230

Labelled heat output: 6 kW

Refrigerant charge: 1.8 kg R-407c

GWP R-407c: 1530 kg CO2/kg refrigerant (Appendix II, Table 2)

Equipment lifetime: 15 years

*Annual leakage rate 2%

Refrigerant losses during demolition: 15 %

Annual electric energy input 8 000 kWh


15

Electricity emission factor 0.47 kg CO2/kWhelectricity

826 kg CO2 56 400 kg CO2 413 kg CO2

][63957)15308.115.0()47.0000815()15308.102.015( 2COkgTEWI =××+××+×××=

Comments: Indirect emissions related to the generation of electricity (97.8%) are in this particular example, by far the largest contributor to green house gas emissions. It is however difficult to draw any general conclusion from this example as the emission factor related to the generation of electricity may vary in a fairly wide range depending on the source of electricity generation. The example was based on 1992 average emission data for EU-12 (Michorius, 1996).

*Direct emissions of refrigerants in air-conditioners and unitary heat pumps have been estimated in a study performed at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA (Sand et al 1997). These estimates were 4% annual leakage for the technology available in 1997 and estimated to drop to 2% by 2005.

2.1 The TEWI example applied on national basis It is evident that different technologies, used for electricity generation, will have different impact on the indirect emissions for any electric appliance. In countries like Norway, where almost 100% of the electricity is generated by hydropower, the total equivalent warming impact is only marginal. At the other end of the scale, in countries that are heavily dependent on fossil fuel for generation of electricity, will consequently end up at significantly higher TEWI. In order to disclose these differences, the TEWI example above has been applied to national emission factors in Europe. The results from the calculations are presented in Table 1 and Figure 12. The national emission factors given by Sand et al 1997 were used as a basis for the calculations. The results reveal a striking difference in green house gas emissions, for one and the same appliance and identical efficiency (seasonal performance factor), due to the differences in power supply. The results underline the importance of using an accurate emission factor. The use of inappropriate emission factor may lead to wrong conclusions. The fifth column in Table 1 point out that the indirect emissions of green house gases stands for the predominant part of the TEWI. These emissions are directly influenced by the efficiency of the system. Refrigerants with low GWP values will, in general, only lead to a reduction of the TEWI if the efficiency of the system is maintained. A reduction of the direct emissions will however, lead to further reductions of green house gases in countries that are benefiting of low emission factors.


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Country kg CO2/kWhelec TEWI [kg CO2]direct emissionsdue to leakage [%]

indirect emissions [%]

direct emissionsat demolition [%]

Norway 0,005 1 839 44,9 32,6 22,5Sweden 0,04 6 039 13,7 79,5 6,8Switzerland 0,08 10 839 7,6 88,6 3,8France 0,09 12 039 6,9 89,7 3,4Austria 0,22 27 639 3,0 95,5 1,5Finland 0,24 30 039 2,8 95,9 1,4Belgium 0,29 36 039 2,3 96,6 1,1European Average 0,47 57 639 1,4 97,8 0,7Spain 0,48 58 839 1,4 97,9 0,7Italy 0,59 72 039 1,1 98,3 0,6Germany 0,61 74 439 1,1 98,3 0,6Turkey 0,62 75 639 1,1 98,4 0,5Netherlands 0,64 78 039 1,1 98,4 0,5Portugal 0,64 78 039 1,1 98,4 0,5U.K. 0,64 78 039 1,1 98,4 0,5Ireland 0,7 85 239 1,0 98,5 0,5Denmark 0,84 102 039 0,8 98,8 0,4Greece 0,98 118 839 0,7 99,0 0,3Luxenbourg 1,08 130 839 0,6 99,1 0,3

Table 1 TEWI calculation example applied to national electricity emission factors

kg CO2 equivalents

020 00040 00060 00080 000

100 000120 000140 000

Nor

way

Sw

eden

Sw

itzer

land

Fran

ce

Aus

tria

Finl

and

Bel

gium

Eur

opea

nA

vera

geS

pain

Italy

Ger

man

y

Turk

ey

Net

herla

nds

Por

tuga

l

U.K

.

Irela

nd

Den

mar

k

Gre

ece

Luxe

nbou

rg

European average

Figure 12 Calculated TEWI based on national emission factors

2.1.1 Concluding remarks on TEWI The TEWI concept is well known and has been up to discussion in numerous publications. In recent years a refined version called life cycle climate performance (LCCP) is gaining attention. The LCCP is extending the system boundary to take into account for indirect emissions of green house gases related to manufacturing and installation of the equipment. These emissions are evidently not uncomplicated to estimate and require thorough studies.


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The LCCP concept is an ambitious attempt to bring in higher accuracy to studies of the environmental impact of refrigeration and heat pump applications.

2.2 Refrigerants The working fluid in a heat pump must be chosen with consideration of a number of different aspects. Some of the working fluids that have been used extensively in heat pumps have been discovered to have severe impact on the environment and have therefore been subject to international phase out schemes and strict regulation. The refrigerant must fulfil a number of requirements, of which the most essential are reviewed below.

• Chemical stability The refrigerant has to be completely stabile within the system and ideally quickly decompose to harmless substances in the atmosphere.

• Environmental impact, health and safety Environmental impact due to direct emissions (leakage) must be kept at minimum level. The use of flammable and toxic refrigerants is limited due to strict regulation and reluctance from the industry.

• Thermodynamic properties Freezing temperature: well below normal operating conditions Critical point and boiling point temperatures has to be appropriate for the application. Reasonable operating pressures are preferred in order keep costs at a minimum High volumetric refrigeration capacity is beneficial

• Practical characteristics High oil solubility is in general preferred Compatibility with common construction material Low cost

Heat pump type RefrigerantAir-air R-410a, R-407cAir-water R-134a, R-407c, R-410a, R-290, R-744Exhaust air R-134a, R-290Brine water R-134a, R-407c, R-404a, R-410a

Table 2 Most commonly used refrigerants

2.2.1 Refrigerants and European regulation In the beginning of the twentieth century the refrigeration industry was restricted to the use of ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide or water. None of these refrigerants were at that time viable for use for domestic appliances. The lack of an adequate refrigerant was seen as the most important barrier to overcome. In 1928, Thomas Midgley and his associate Albert Henne were assigned to find a non flammable and non toxic refrigerant. Just two years later, at a meeting of the American Chemical Society, presented Midgley the new refrigerant, later known as R-12. The presentation was quite sensational as Midgley proved the desired characteristics by inhaling the refrigerant and then extinguished a candle as he exhaled (McLinden, Didion, 1987). The introduction of R-12, which is a chloroflurocarbon (CFC), served as the take off for the refrigeration industry and the vast use of CFCs and later on HCFCs.


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In 1973, Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina presented a theory that CFCs would deplete the ozone layer. The work of Rowland and Molina awarded them with the Nobel Prize in 1995 and led to the international agreement to phase out the use of CFCs in the Montreal Protocol 1987 and later on in the amendments to include the reduction of HCFCs. The use of substances that deplete the ozone layer in the EU is regulated by regulation no. 2037/2000. It differs from the Montreal Protocol and its Amendments in that it specifies: an accelerated HCFC phase-out schedule bans on use or compulsory recovery of CFCs and HCFCs, and leak control. By now the use of CFC in heat pumps is phased out and since 1 January 2004 the use of HCFC is prohibited in the production of all air-conditioning and heat pump systems.

As the use of ozone depleting substances is already profoundly covered by international regulation, focus is now set to reduce emissions of hydrofluorocarbons (HFC). The HFCs were introduced as a substitute of the CFCs and HCFCs. HFC is a group of substances that have no detrimental effect on the ozone layer, but contribute to global warming. The European commission has proposed a new directive on restrictive use of F-gases (HFCs, perfluorocarbons or PFCs and sulphur hexafluoride or SF6).

In the current version of the proposal (latest amendments 14 October 2004) the directive has been divided into two parts. The first part is dealing with the phase out of R-134a from vehicle air-conditioning. The second part apply to domestic and commercial refrigeration, air-conditioners, heat pumps, fire fighting appliances, health care, etc. The overall aim of the second part of the new directive is to improve the control of HFCs by setting minimum standards for inspection and recovery. Regulations regarding monitoring and reporting on leakage are strengthened, including training and certification of personnel in charge of inspections. Labelling of products is introduced in order to improve the information to the consumers.

The proposal will be sent to the European Parliament for a second reading in the beginning of 2005. A final agreement is not expected before 2006. After adoption, member states will have 18 months to transpose the directive. The regulation will come into force on the twentieth day after its publication in the Official Journal of the European Union.

2.3 Secondary refrigerants The detrimental environmental impact related to emissions of common refrigerants, has emphasized the need to reduce the refrigerant charge in refrigeration and heat pump applications. An indirect system allows for compact design and simplified installation in many cases. Significant reductions of refrigerant charge may be achieved, especially in refrigeration systems for supermarkets and ground source heat pump systems. The downside to indirect systems is that an additional heat exchanger and a distribution pump are needed. In order to protect the equipment from freezing, the secondary refrigerant has to be chosen in respect of minimum operation temperature and the freezing point of the secondary refrigerant. Water is an excellent secondary refrigerant, but as most indirect heat pump applications will operate at temperatures below 0°C, pure water is only applicable to applications with exceptionally favourable operation conditions. This raises the need to look for an anti-freeze solution, with adequate properties.

Design of the secondary loop and choice of secondary refrigerant requires special attention in order to reduce energy losses and avoid risks of malfunction.


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Design aspects • Care has to be taken in order to avoid large pressure drop. An excessive pressure drop

will require additional energy for circulation.

• Indirect systems require a buffer tank of appropriate volume to allow for density changes, due to temperature differences of the secondary refrigerant.

• The design of the secondary loop has to enable purging of air out of the system. Trapped air is one of the most common reasons to insufficient flow in the secondary loop.

• Sufficient insulation is required to avoid condensation and enable required resistance to fire in the case flammable fluids are used.

Property aspects • High specific heat of the secondary refrigerant is favourable, since this will enable

efficient energy use, as the temperature difference and volume flow may be kept low.

• Low viscosity will reduce pumping power and enable high heat transfer coefficient.

• High heat transfer coefficient will reduce thermal losses in heat exchangers.

• Toxic secondary refrigerants may cause damage to environment and health if a leakage occur.

• Flammable liquids require fire resistive pipe insulation.

• Some secondary refrigerants may become highly corrosive in the presence of oxygen. Risk of corrosion is reduced by the use of corrosion inhibitors.

The most commonly used secondary refrigerants in domestic heat pump applications are aqueous solutions of ethylene glycol, propylene glycol and ethyl alcohol. From technical and environmental view secondary refrigerants should be used with care. In central and southern parts of Europe systems could well be designed for temperatures above 0 °C and thus enabling the use of water. During the last few years a new concept to avoid secondary refrigerants has been developed in Austria. The concept is developed for vertical ground heat exchangers and introduces a CO2-thermosyphon (Rieberer et al 2005). The thermosyphon is operating as a refrigeration cycle on its own. The inherent CO2 evaporates during heat extraction in the lower part of the thermosyphon and condensates as the evaporator of the heat pump cools it. The system is self-circulating and will thus not need any circulation pump as an ordinary indirect system. The drawback of the system is that it is not possible to use for free-cooling.

3 COMPETENCE REQUIREMENTS European heat pump markets are developed in very different stages. Sweden and Austria started to develop their markets some thirty years ago and have by now established a self-sustaining market. The markets in these countries have up to now gone through a number of upturns and periods of decline. Even though the reasons for market decline have been different it has sometimes been related to lack of installer know-how. The fact that a heat pump application is more complicated than most other space conditioning systems raises the demand for competence.


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An installer needs a mixture of skills, which are normally covered by different professions (electricians, plumbers and HVAC technicians). The overall efficiency of the system is very much dependent on accurate design of the heat source and proper integration with the heat distribution system and other auxiliary systems. The lack of qualified installer has been recognised as one of the greatest barriers on some of the emerging markets in Europe. From experience it is known that poor installation may have a dramatic negative effect on the market as a whole. The markets in Sweden and Austria have, at times, suffered severely from poor installations leading to bad repute for the trade. Actors on these markets have learned from this experience and initiated different training schemes.

The need for education of installers is well recognised in all of Europe and has resulted in a joint European project with participation from Sweden, Austria, Ireland, Slovenia, Czech Republic, U.K., France, Italy, Switzerland and The European Heat Pump Association. The aim of the project (European Certified Installer, 2002) is to develop and initiate training programmes, on all emerging markets, based on experience from the most developed countries. The project will establish European curricula for training courses and develop a European certification scheme.

3.1 Existing schemes for vocational education Training of installers are in one way or the other available in most of the European countries. There are however vast variations of quality level in the training and requirements for examination. The following section presents an overview of existing schemes for vocational education in Europe.

Austria The training program for installers started in the year 2001. Since the implementation of the training facility at Arsenal Research, more than 130 installers and electricians have attended the course. Arsenal is the accredited certification body for certification of installers. In order to comply with the requirements for certification, the installers must be actively working in the field of heat pumps and regularly take part in further education in the field of heat pumps. Furthermore they have to keep record of all written complaints and provide complete planning documentation for one installation every three years. Up to now more than 30 installers have complied for certification and the program is gradually gaining more interest. Feedback from the trainees has been extremely positive.

Switzerland The Winterthur testing and training centre provides vocational education for heat pump designers and installers. After fulfilled training course and verification of one installation an installer may apply for publication on a list of certified installers. In Switzerland training of drillers has been given high priority and as a result Switzerland has implemented a certification program for drilling companies. In order to attain certification the companies have to verify the quality of the equipment, relevant competence of the employees and provide necessary authorization. The certification is valid for 3 years, during which the company is obliged to take part in further education.

Sweden In Sweden, there are many actors offer training of installers and drillers. In addition to the education offered by The Swedish Heat Pump Association (SVEP) in collaboration with Mid Sweden University, the major national manufacturers, The Swedish Society of Heating and


21

Ventilation and a national vocational education centre (IUC) offer training courses for heat pump installers. The perhaps most well-established and renowned programme is the one offered by SVEP and Mid Sweden University.

Even though regular students at Mid Sweden University take part in the course, the main target group for the Swedish education programme is active installers. The duration of the training course is 5 days. There is however a distance learning option, that has become the most viable alternative for most installers. The compulsory part of the distance learning course includes a one-day seminar and a practical laboration. Exercises, supervision and examination are available on the Internet. The syllabus of the course encompasses environmental topics, building constructions and refrigeration and heat pump technologies. Much effort is put into the general knowledge of heating and cooling load calculation, system design, control strategies, maintenance and legislation.

France There is no official education standard covering the whole scope of heat pumps; nevertheless, there are education standards for cooling and/or air conditioning, mainly for tertiary sectors. People who have attended these courses have acquired a strong basis for the fast acquisition of complementary knowledge about heat pump systems.

Official education standard offered by French National Education Department

• A 2-year vocational education allows people to install, commission and maintain systems for cooling and air conditioning

In addition there are short training courses (from 1 to 5 days), which are mainly provided by manufacturers and private or semi-private organisations. Each of them provides 5 to 20 short training units focusing on air conditioning and cooling. Among these training units, there are only a few that focus specifically on heat pumps (< 10). Manufacturers are generally adapting the training according individual experience e.g.

• General training for installers who have no air conditioning background (e.g. electrician)

• Complementary training specifying in air conditioning for an electrician (especially for split systems)

• Complementary short training of electrical part for plumber

Accreditedcertification scheme

Inofficialcertification/licencingcourses

Training offeredby manufacturers

Austria yes no yesCzech Repulic no no yesFrance no no yesGermany no no yesIreland no no yesSlovenia no no yesSweden no yes yesSwitzerland no yes yesUnited Kingdom no no yes


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Table 3 Existing training schemes

4 EXISTING LABELLING SCHEMES There are already at present a few eco-labelling schemes for heat pumps in operation in Europe. The eco-labelling scheme for the Nordic countries is administered by SIS-Miljömärkning in Sweden. In addition to the labelling schemes there are three quality-labelling schemes. One of the quality labelling scheme is administered by the Swedish National Testing and Research Institute (SP). SP is labelling heat pumps under the P-label. The other two are the D-A-CH label and the French Promotelec.

Quality-label France There is a label called “Promotelec” , which is managed by the private Promotelec Association (to which EDF belongs). This label ensures that houses (individual or collective) have a sufficient level of electrical comfort. Requirements must be met for electrical systems and installation. For houses equipped with heat pump systems, the heat pump must have a minimum level of performance according to the type of heat pump. If the performances are certified by the EUROVENT Association, or are published in a testing report issued by an independent laboratory, retained values are those given by the manufacturers; if not, there is a degradation coefficient depending on the technology of the heat pump. An independent company gives the label to the house after a check.

Sweden Quality labels for the heat pump There are two labelling systems in Sweden presently, the P-mark, which is a quality label and the Swan which is an eco-label. 1. The P-mark The P–mark is a quality label that has been developed by the SP Swedish National Testing and Research Institute together with Swedish heat pump associations and manufacturers. To receive the label the product must fulfil: Efficiency requirements (COP at certain operating points)

Efficiency requirements for preparing sanitary hot water (if applicable)

The Swedish Refrigeration Code

The Swedish Building Regulations

Noise levels according to the Swedish Building Regulations

Demands for CE-marking, both for electricity and pressure vessels

Demands on the information in the manuals and installation instructions

Demands on the quality of the manufacturing; this is controlled by surveillance inspections.

2. The Swan The Swan is the official Nordic ecolabel, introduced by the Nordic Council of Ministers.The Swan label demonstrates that a product is a sound environmental choice. The green symbol is


23

available for more than 100 product groups for which it is felt that ecolabelling is needed and will be beneficial. The Swan checks that products fulfil certain criteria using methods such as samples from independent laboratories, certificates and control visits.

Noise

The refrigerant

The secondary refrigerant

Plastic details

Surface treatments

Packaging material

Efficiency

The information material

Requirements on efficiency

Requirements on competent retailers and installers

Germany There are two eco labelling criteria for different types of heat pumps available under “Der Blaue Engel”. One is for absorption and adsorption heat pump systems or combustion engine driven compressors. The criteria applies to factory manufactured units for space heating with a rated thermal output of up to 70 kWheating.

The criteria sets requirements for:

The GWP (global warming potential) of the refrigerant

Emissions of NO2, CO and dust

Energy efficiency

Auxiliary power demand

Test institutes

Test methods

The second criteria has been established for electrically driven heat pumps.

The criteria sets requirements for:

TEWI (Total equivalent warming impact) of the system

Calculation of seasonal performance factor

The manual and guidelines

Test methods

Test institutes

It is interesting that this criteria sets requirements for TEWI, which then takes in to account for energy efficiency of the appliance, refrigerant leakage, environmental impact of the refrigerant as well as the environmental impact from generation of electricity.


24

DACH – Germany D, Austria A, Switzerland CH, The German spoken countries, Germany, Austria and Switzerland have agreed on common criteria for a quality label for heat pump units. The criteria which is called DACH-Gütesiegel, covers air-water heat pumps, water-water heat pumps, brine-water heat pumps as well as exhaust air heat pumps and direct evaporation heat pumps. The criteria sets requirements for:

Energy efficiency

Operating range

Manual

Warranty

Service capability

Availability of spare parts

The DACH-label is perhaps the most renown label for heat pumps in Europe at present.

5 SCOPE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS Energy efficiency and mitigation of climate change are of highest priority in many international collaboration projects. There is a great opportunity for substantial savings of energy usage in the built environment. As infrastructure, technology level, climate, economics and competence are at very different levels within the EU, policies, incentives and choice of technology will have to depend on the local conditions. A European environmental labelling scheme for heat sources will only become successful if there is an inherent flexibility that enables considerations for local conditions.

The most obvious environmental benefits a heat pump offer the end user is perhaps the complete avoidance of local emissions from combustion. Depending on the generation of electricity emissions do occur at the plant site. Utility plants are however in general generating lower emission rates than small domestic furnaces. The indirect emissions from a heat pump are thus dependent on the efficiency of the plant generating the electricity. Comparison of CO2-emissions

Reducing the use of fossil fuel is one of the most efficient ways to mitigate the emissions of carbon dioxide. Replacement of old, low performing, gas boilers and oil boilers is therefore of high priority. A shift to heat pump technology will under most circumstances be efficient, but as the following calculations will show, the magnitude of the possible benefits vary depending on the electric emission factor (kg CO2/kWhelectricity).

General assumption: Annual heat demand 20 000 kWh.

Scenario a (low electricity emission factor): A heat pump providing 20 000 kWhheating at seasonal performance factor 3, electricity generated at an emission factor of 0.1 kg CO2/kWhelectricity is compared to conventional gas and oil boilers at annual efficiencies of 70%-90%.


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kg CO2

Gas boiler 70% 6000Gas bioler 80% 5250Gas boiler 90% 4667Heat pump SPF 3 667CO2-savings 85-88%

kg CO2

Oil boiler 70% 8000Oil boiler 80% 7000Oil boiler 90% 6222Heat pump SPF 3 667CO2-savings 89-92%

Table 4a, b Emissions savings low electricity emission factor

Scenario b (EU Average electricity emission factor): A heat pump providing 20 000 kWhheating at seasonal performance factor 3, electricity generated at an emission factor of 0.47 kg CO2/kWhelectricity is compared to conventional gas and oil boilers at annual efficiencies of 70%-90%.

kg CO2

Gas boiler 70% 6000Gas bioler 80% 5250Gas boiler 90% 4667Heat pump SPF 3 3133CO2-savings 32-47%

kg CO2


Table 5a, b Emissions savings EU average electricity emission factor

Scenario c (high electricity emission factor):

A heat pump providing 20 000 kWhheating at seasonal performance factor 3, electricity generated at an emission factor of 0.9 kg CO2/kWhelectricity is compared to conventional gas and oil boilers at annual efficiencies of 70%-90%.

Comments on the potential of mitigating CO2-emissions A conclusion from the different scenarios described above is that the introduction of electric heat pumps will in most, but not all, cases result in substantial reductions of CO2-emissions. All grid losses, direct emissions due to refrigerant leakage and emissions due to transport of natural gas and heating oil were neglected in the calculations above.

5.1 A comparison of primary energy ratio (PER) Estimation of CO2-emissions is an essential exercise in the evaluation of environmental performance. There are however other measures to compare the performance of different systems available. The concept of primary energy ratio (PER) is merely the relation between useful energy output divided by necessary energy input. This value gives a direct value of the overall efficiency for a complete system, taking in to account for losses related to the generation of electricity. For a common combustion appliance the PER value is equal to the overall efficiency of the system. Annual PER for a gas boiler is in the range of 0.8-0.9. The PER for a heat pump application is equal to the seasonal performance factor times overall

kg CO2

Gas boiler 70% 6000Gas bioler 80% 5250Gas boiler 90% 4667Heat pump SPF 3 6000CO2-savings -28-0%'

kg CO2


Table 6a, b Emission comparison high electricity emission factor


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efficiency for generation of electricity. Figure 13 is providing a comparison of PER for different SPFs, electricity generation efficiency and common boiler efficiencies.

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

0,3 0,4 0,5

Efficiency power generation

PER

Boiler 70%Boiler 80%Heat pump SPF 3Heat pump SPF 4

European average 0.38

Figure 13 PER comparison

PER

Boiler 70% 0,7Boiler 80% 0,8SPF 3 1,14SPF 4 1,52Efficiency power generation 0,38

Table 6 PER comparison based on average european efficiency

6 APPLIANCE AND SYSTEM EFFICIENCY The simplified calculation of CO2-emissions and PER highlights the potential for substantial improvement that might be achieved by a wide introduction of high performing heat pump systems. It is in this respect interesting to discuss viable efficiencies for heat pump systems of today and tomorrow.

The overall efficiency of a heat pump system is not only dependent on the efficiency of the appliance. One and the same appliance will generate quite different annual efficiency factors depending on the temperature levels of the heat source and the heat distribution system. An experienced installer is required, in order to achieve appropriate design according to the unique conditions. An appliance of high efficiency will of course be a precondition for a high performing system. SP, the Swedish National Research and Testing Institute perform appliance testing at regular intervals. Figure 14, 15 outlines the development of appliance efficiency.


27

Figure 14 Appliance efficiency 1992, 1994, 1995, 1998

Figure 15 Appliance efficiency 1986, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2004


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6.1 Tools and methods available for SPF evaluation The efficiency of heat pumps are published by the manufacturers at specific operating conditions defined by the standard EN 14511 or the former EN 255. These values together with information on climate, heat demand and temperature levels of the heat source and heat distribution system enable an estimation of the seasonal performance factor. A number of heat pump manufacturers provide this kind of calculation tool as sales support. A national research project in Sweden (Forsén, Lundqvist 2005) has presented a common basis for design and energy performance calculations for heat pump systems. The major heat pump manufacturers have taken part in the project that has been founded by the actors on the Swedish heat pump market together with the Swedish Energy Agency.

The IEA Heat Pump Programme has an ongoing Annex (IEA Annex 28) aiming at the establishment of a test procedure that will provide the necessary output for reliable calculation of seasonal performance factor. The second aim of the project is to develop a simplified method for seasonal performance calculation.

A new regulation related to calculation of seasonal performance factor (Energiesparverodnung Nr 42, 2005) came in to force in Upper Austria 1 July 2005. The new regulation stipulates guidelines on how to estimate “jahres arbeits zahl (JAZ)” for heat pump systems. The method is based on the norm published by Vereinung Deutche Ingenerung (VDI 4650) and is compulsory to use for application of available heat pump subsidies in Upper Austria.

7 EUROPEAN MARKET SURVEY The market for heat pumps is, so far, only well established in a small number of countries (Sweden, Switzerland and Austria). Other countries like Germany, the Netherlands and France show a great potential, but have not yet been able to gain a self-sustaining market. There are a number of countries, within the European Union, that face a real challenge in meeting their Kyoto targets. Heat pumps present a technology that has proven to be very effective in reducing green house gas (GHG) emissions. The need for exchange of technical know-how is however vast, which raises the need for international collaboration. In order to facilitate international collaboration by promoting awareness and proper deployment of heat pump technology, the European Heat Pump Association (EHPA) was founded in 2000. The Association is primarily for all legally constituted organisations in the European Union. Organisations in the European Free Trade Association and aspirant states to the European Union may become associate members.

In many of the European countries it is expected that the heat pump market will annually increase by 10% or more during the next decade. Few countries expect a smaller increase. The attitude of the authorities to the use of heat pumps differs substantially between countries. However, in many countries heat pumps are valued as an important means of saving energy and reducing the emission of CO2 and they have become an important factor in overall energy and environment planning and policy. In the most ambitious countries the expected annual growth of the heat pump market in the period 2000-2010 is in the range 15-40%.

7.1 Barriers to overcome 7.1.1 Limited awareness The limited awareness by decision makers, the public, authorities and politicians dealing with energy matters is due to a lack of professional information at all levels. It is worth mentioning


29

that whereas such renewable energy sources as wind, solar, biomass and photo voltaic are well known alternatives, because of effective information campaigns and authority support, only modest emphasis has been placed on the energy saving and environmental potential of heat pump systems.

7.1.2 High initial cost High initial costs are in many cases a barrier, in spite of the fact that the overall lifetime cost of the system is very satisfactory. Those promoting and marketing heat pump systems may here be facing a pedagogical, or educational challenge. In addition to marketing arguments, environmental and comfort benefits of heat pumps should be stressed and valued.

7.1.3 Poor perception Poor perception has occasionally had a detrimental effect on the heat pump market. This has mainly been the result of a fast growing market, which has tempted incompetent vendors and installers to enter. This has, in some instances and in combination with some brands not meeting a reasonable efficiency and quality standard, led to frustrated buyers and a setback in sales. This situation has arisen in several European countries, often in conjunction with energy saving initiatives and programmes.

If initiatives aimed at increasing the future use of heat pumps in Europe are to be successful, steps must be taken to avoid that such situations are repeated. These steps include the training and certification of installers and marketing personnel. They should also include the establishment of a heat pump labelling programme, as a guarantee of energy efficiency performance and environmental benefits.

It is believed that a simple method of calculating heat pump system savings in terms of energy and cost could be a useful tool for heat pump sellers, who should be able to give a heat pump buyer reliable and relevant information. The development of such a method should therefore be considered.

7.1.4 Low energy prices

Low energy prices, which do not fully reflect the external cost of the different energies, are a significant barrier in some European countries. This is often related to the fact that even if a heat pump system is economically competitive, the energy cost difference may be too small to decide for the heat pump system. This is in spite of other benefits that a heat pump system offers, such as reduced CO2 emissions, more comfort etc. This barrier can only be overcome by offering incentives, grants, renewable energy tax benefits for heat pumps, exempted or reduced CO2 taxes etc.

7.2 European market statistics Sweden is by far the most developed market for heat pumps. The market in Sweden has shown a strong increase every year during the last decade. Other markets like Germany, France, Finland, Switzerland, Austria and Norway are however starting to increase the number of sales and there are significant signs of a growing interest for the technology from large European companies. One of the largest Swedish manufacturers IVT, was purchased by BBT Thermotechnik GMBH (part of the BOSH-group) in 2004. The large Danish company Danfoss acquired another of the leading Swedish manufacturers Thermia, as late as June 2005.


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The official market statistics for countries in Europe that are revealed below have been compiled by the European Heat Pump Association (EHPA) and presented in the form of tables and diagrams. The statistics are based on an inquiry that was sent to 23 European countries and refers to the situation 2003. As the quality of the statistical data provided differ considerably, the EHPA has decided to only publish the statistics from 8 countries that are considered to be reliable. Unfortunately the survey lacks information from Southern Europe.

General remarks

Results

• Total sales of space heating heat pumps: Minimum185.000 pieces (including exhaust air and reversible air-air heat pumps)

• Sweden clearly dominating market: 68.100 pieces, 60% of them heating only heat pumps (without heat recovery heat pumps)

• Market increase > 100%: Finland and The Netherlands

• Ground source heat pumps are dominating systems in most countries

• Reversible heat pumps are dominating systems in Norway (94%) and Finland (59%); mostly air-to air heat pumps primarily used for heating purposes

8 6 9 5 3 7

3 9 6 0 0 12 0 0 0 16 50 0

2 4 4 06 8 4

51 9 57

1 557

9 74 5 5 0 0 0

9 0 0 0 4 70 0

2 2 3 0

1 3 0 0

5 0 10

5102 5

15

3 6 0 0 18 0

0 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 000 70 000

Austria

Bulgaria

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Netherlands

Norway

Sweden

Switzerland

EHPA Heat Pump Statistics 2003: Sales Figures Space Heating

Heating only HPs (w ithout heat recovery)

Heat recovery HPs

Reversible HPs

Figure 16 Sales figures space heating


31

5 129

277

3 234

3 100500

36 000

2 440

1 557

2 396

1 152

6 197

3 600

5 400

2 230

360

11

525

4202 555

0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 35 000 40 000

Austria

Bulgaria

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Netherlands

Norway

Sweden

Switzerland

EHPA Heat Pump Statistics 2003: Sales Figures Heating Only(without heat recovery heat pumps)

Air/waterWater/waterBrine/waterDir. expan./water or dir. cond.Total Bulgaria / NL

Figure 17 Sales figures heating only

73 6031 660

360 000

10 087

10 204

92 919

3 858

68 00011 000

23 0006 000

11 000

33 227

0 50 000 100 000 150 000 200 000 250 000 300 000 350 000 400 000

Austria

Bulgaria

Estonia

Finland

France

Germany

Netherlands

Norway

Sweden

Switzerland

EHPA Heat Pump Statistics 2003: Stock of installed systems for space heating

Heating only (without heatrecovery)Heat recovery

Reversible heat pumps

Figure 18 Stock of installed systems for space heating


32

Abbreviations CFC chlorofluorocarbon

COP coefficient of performance

DTH down the hole hammer

EDF Electricité de France

EHPA European Heat Pump Association

GHG green house gas emission

GWP global warming potential

HCFC hydroclorofluorocarbon

HFC hydrofluorocarbon

HPC Heat Pump Centre

HVAC heating ventilation and air conditioning

IEA International Energy Agency

IUC Installatörernas Utbildningscentrum

JAZ jahres arbeits zahl=SPF

LCCP life cycle climate performance

PER primary energy ratio

SPF seasonal performance factor

TEWI total equivalent warming impact

VDI Vereinung Deutsche Ingenerung

References Forsén, M., Lundqvist, P., ”A novel design tool for heat pump systems” 8th International Energy Agency, Heat Pump Conference 2005, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 30 May- 2 June.

Halozan, et al (1999). ”Environmental benefits of heat pumping technologies”, Analysis Report HPC – AR6.

IEA (2002), The International Energy Agency - Implementing Agreement for Hydropower Technologies and Programmes “Environmental and Health Impacts of Electricity Generation”, June 2002.

McLinden, M. O., Didion, D. A. “Quest for alternatives – A molecular approach demonstrates tradeoffs and limitations are inevitable in seeking refrigerants” ASHRAE Journal December 1987.

Michorius, J., Ducth Electricity Generation Board, 1996.

Rieberer, R., Mittermayr, C., Halozan, H.,“CO2-thermosyphons as heat source systems for heat pumps – 4 year of market experience” ” 8th International Energy Agency, Heat Pump Conference 2005, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, 30 May- 2 June.


33

Spath, P., Mann, M., (2000). „Life Cycle Assessment of a Natural Gas Combined-Cycle Power Generation System”. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden Colorado 80401-3393.

Sand et al (1997). “Energy and Global Warming Impacts of HFC Refrigerants and Emerging Technologies”, Oak Ridge National Laboratory 1997.


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Appendix I Direct Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) relative to carbon dioxide (for gases for which the lifetimes have been adequately characterised). GWPs are an index for estimating relative global warming contribution due to atmospheric emission of a kg of a particular greenhouse gas compared to emission of a kg of carbon dioxide. GWPs calculated for different time horizons show the effects of atmospheric lifetimes of the different gases.

Gas Lifetime (years)

Global Warming Potential (Time Horizon in years)

20 yrs 100 yrs 500 yrs

Carbon dioxide CO2 1 1 1 Methanea CH4 12.0 b 62 23 7

Nitrous oxide N2O 114 b 275 296 156

Hydrofluorocarbons HFC-23 CHF3 260 9400 12000 10000

HFC-32 CH2F2 5.0 1800 550 170 HFC-41 CH3F 2.6 330 97 30 HFC-125 CHF2CF3 29 5900 3400 1100

HFC-134 CHF2CHF2 9.6 3200 1100 330 HFC-134a CH2FCF3 13.8 3300 1300 400 HFC-143 CHF2CH2F 3.4 1100 330 100

HFC-143a CF3CH3 52 5500 4300 1600 HFC-152 CH2FCH2F 0.5 140 43 13 HFC-152a CH3CHF2 1.4 410 120 37 HFC-161 CH3CH2F 0.3 40 12 4

HFC-227ea CF3CHFCF3 33 5600 3500 1100 HFC-236cb CH2FCF2CF3 13.2 3300 1300 390 HFC-236ea CHF2CHFCF3 10 3600 1200 390

HFC-236fa CF3CH2CF3 220 7500 9400 7100 HFC-245ca CH2FCF2CHF2 5.9 2100 640 200 HFC-245fa CHF2CH2CF3 7.2 3000 950 300

HFC-365mfc CF3CH2CF2CH3 9.9 2600 890 280 HFC-43-10mee CF3CHFCHFCF2CF3 15 3700 1500 470

(Source IPCC Climate Change 2001 Synthesis Report Contribution by WG I)


35


1

PART 2 Part 2 constitutes of national heat pump market analysis for 9 European countries. Members of the EHPA and participants in the European project European Certified Heat Pump Installer have provided the reports that serve as a ground for this section. The national reports describe the overall heat market as well as major stakeholders, drivers and barriers to overcome. Inquiries on national market statistics have been sent to competent associations and organisations.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Austria ................................................................................................................................ 5

1.1 Heating systems.......................................................................................................... 5 1.2 Energy prices.............................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Development of the market ........................................................................................ 6 1.4 Building standards...................................................................................................... 8 1.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology................................................ 9 1.6 What were the main barriers to overcome ................................................................. 9 1.7 Way to success ......................................................................................................... 10 1.8 Strategies by the Government .................................................................................. 11 1.9 Strategies of utilities................................................................................................. 11 1.10 Strategies of the Manufacturers................................................................................ 12 1.11 Current situation....................................................................................................... 14

1.11.1 Heat pump market ............................................................................................ 14 1.11.2 Quality assurance: ............................................................................................ 15 1.11.3 Certified installers ............................................................................................ 16 1.11.4 Monitoring........................................................................................................ 16

1.12 Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 16 1.13 Subsidies for heat pumps.......................................................................................... 17 1.14 Investment costs – running costs.............................................................................. 18 1.15 Perspectives.............................................................................................................. 18

2 Germany ........................................................................................................................... 20 2.1 Heating systems........................................................................................................ 20 2.2 Energy prices............................................................................................................ 20 2.3 Development of the Market...................................................................................... 21 2.4 Building standards.................................................................................................... 24 2.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology.............................................. 25 2.6 Strength of the current heat pump market................................................................ 25 2.7 What were the main barriers to overcome?.............................................................. 25 2.8 Main barriers of the current market.......................................................................... 26 2.9 Way to success ......................................................................................................... 26 2.10 Strategy..................................................................................................................... 28

2.10.1 Info-systems ..................................................................................................... 28 2.10.2 Public relation .................................................................................................. 28 2.10.3 Congresses, special conferences and action weeks.......................................... 28 2.10.4 Limits ............................................................................................................... 29

2.11 Current market situation........................................................................................... 29 2.12 DACH quality label.................................................................................................. 31 2.13 Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 31 2.14 Comparison of heating costs .................................................................................... 32 2.15 Perspectives.............................................................................................................. 32

3 Switzerland....................................................................................................................... 33 3.1 Heating systems........................................................................................................ 33 3.2 Energy prices............................................................................................................ 33 3.3 Development of the market ...................................................................................... 33 3.4 Building standards.................................................................................................... 34 3.5 Why had the heat pump technology prospects in the eighties ................................. 35


2


3

3.6 What were the main barriers to overcome ............................................................... 35 3.7 Way to success ......................................................................................................... 36

3.7.1 Foundation era (1992 – 1994) .......................................................................... 37 3.7.2 Consolidation phase (1995 – 1997).................................................................. 37 3.7.3 Professionalism (1998 – 2000)......................................................................... 37 3.7.4 Heat pumps for replacement market (since 2001) ........................................... 37 3.7.5 Utilities ............................................................................................................. 38

3.8 Current situation....................................................................................................... 39 3.8.2 Heat pump associations.................................................................................... 40 3.8.3 AWP Swiss Heat Pump Association................................................................ 40 3.8.4 Swiss Geothermal Association......................................................................... 40 3.8.5 Quality assurance ............................................................................................. 40

3.9 Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 41 3.10 Subsidies for heat pumps.......................................................................................... 41 3.11 Perspectives.............................................................................................................. 42

4 The Czech republic........................................................................................................... 43 4.1 Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 43 4.2 Heat Pump Market Development in the Czech Republic ........................................ 44 4.3 Current Situation ...................................................................................................... 44 4.4 Technical Description of the Most Frequent Technologies ..................................... 46 4.5 Usual distribution channels ...................................................................................... 46 4.6 Education.................................................................................................................. 46 4.7 Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 46

5 France ............................................................................................................................... 47 5.1 Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 47

5.1.1 Development of the market .............................................................................. 47 5.2 Current situation....................................................................................................... 48 5.3 Application of heat pumps ....................................................................................... 50 5.4 Common distribution channels................................................................................. 50

5.4.1 For domestic applications................................................................................. 50 5.4.2 Commercial applications.................................................................................. 51

5.5 Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 51 5.6 Qualification Certificate for persons ........................................................................ 51

5.6.1 Description of the current situation.................................................................. 51 5.7 Quality label for heat pumps .................................................................................... 52

5.7.1 Description of the current situation.................................................................. 52 5.8 Literature .................................................................................................................. 53

6 Ireland............................................................................................................................... 54 6.1 Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 54

6.1.1 Development of the market .............................................................................. 54 6.2 Current situation....................................................................................................... 55 6.3 Common distribution channels................................................................................. 57

6.3.1 For domestic applications................................................................................. 57 6.4 Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 57 6.5 For people installing a heat pump ............................................................................ 57

7 Slovenia............................................................................................................................ 59 7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 59 7.2 Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 60

7.2.1 Development of the market .............................................................................. 60 7.3 Current situation....................................................................................................... 61


4

7.3.1 Weather conditions........................................................................................... 61 7.3.2 Energy situation................................................................................................ 62 7.3.3 Heat distribution systems ................................................................................. 63 7.3.4 Use of ground water ......................................................................................... 63 7.3.5 Refrigerants ...................................................................................................... 63 7.3.6 Market actors.................................................................................................... 64 7.3.7 Governmental support ...................................................................................... 64

7.4 Common distribution channels................................................................................. 64 7.4.1 For domestic applications................................................................................. 64

7.5 Vocational Education for installers .......................................................................... 65 7.6 Existing specialised heat pump training................................................................... 65

8 United Kingdom............................................................................................................... 66 8.1 Current Market Situation.......................................................................................... 66

8.1.1 Development of the market .............................................................................. 66 8.2 Current situation....................................................................................................... 66 8.3 Technical description of the most common technologies ........................................ 68

8.3.1 Water/Water ..................................................................................................... 68 8.3.2 Brine/Water ...................................................................................................... 68 8.3.3 Exhaust air........................................................................................................ 68 8.3.4 Air/Air .............................................................................................................. 68 8.3.5 In-building heat pumps..................................................................................... 68

8.4 Common distribution channels................................................................................. 69 8.5 Vocational Education ............................................................................................... 69

9 Sweden ............................................................................................................................. 70 9.1 Heating Systems....................................................................................................... 70 9.2 Energy prices............................................................................................................ 70 9.3 Heat pump market development .............................................................................. 71 9.4 Building standards.................................................................................................... 73 9.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology.............................................. 73 9.6 What were the main barriers to overcome ............................................................... 73 9.7 Way to success ......................................................................................................... 74 9.8 Current situation market situation ............................................................................ 76 9.9 Electrical power generation...................................................................................... 78 9.10 Future perspectives................................................................................................... 78

1 AUSTRIA

1.1 Heating systems Central and Northern Europe, including Austria have hydronic heat distribution systems. The majority of these hydronic heat distribution systems in the 80’s had been sized and designed for supply/return water temperatures of 90/70°C, i.e. temperatures exceeding the temperature level of heat pumps. Heating was carried out mainly with fossil fuel fired boilers. In the seventies, only some new buildings had low-temperature or occasionally floor heating systems installed. Air conditioning was only common in large commercial buildings.

1.2 Energy prices

Figure 1 Development of the energy prices for mineral oil products in Austria 1970-2002 (EVA, 2003)

Figure 2 Development of the energy prices for pipe bounded energy transfer mediums and solid fuels in Austria 1970-2002 (EVA, 2003)


5

Figure 3 Development of the energy prices for electrical power, heating oil, mineral coal, gas, firewood, district heating in the time from January 2000 to July 2003 in Austria (EVA, 2003)

The figures above show the development of the prices for electricity and heating oil in Austria. Attention should be paid to the strong price fluctuation for heating oil. Generally there was a sharp increase in oil prices since the seventies. Figure 1 is dominated by the first and the second oil price shock. 1973 was the first occurrence of a significant price rise, but it was only the precursor for the second oil price shock in 1978. At this time there were the best conditions for the development of a heat pump market in Austria, and as the market statistics show these conditions resulted in a significant rise in the heat pump sales figures in Austria. Between 1978 and 1984 the oil price was still rising but the sales figures of the heat pumps were decreasing. The reasons for this opposite development were the poor quality and efficiency of the heat pump systems at this time (see next point). Figure 3 shows that we are not immune to a further oil price shock. There was a jump in oil prices in September 2000 and March 2003. Due to these fluctuations it is especially difficult to assess the future development of the prices for mineral oil products. In contrast to the oil price there was a steady rise in demand for electricity until 1986, afterwards there was only a small rise. Since 1986 the price has been more or less stable. This benefited the development of the heat pump market, because the price for electricity is deemed to be relatively stable.

1.3 Development of the market The first oil price shock in 1973 showed Austria’s dependency on imported energy, and also showed the vulnerability of trade and industry, which could not exist without imported energy. At this time in Japan and in the USA the marketing of heat pumps began. In Europe a lot of work on solar energy utilisation had been carried out. After a number of years, despite higher energy costs, nothing had changed. In 1978 the second oil price shock took place, which caused a lasting reaction: Nationally and internationally this led to serious considerations of how to reduce the dependency on imported oil.


6

Internationally the IEA (founded in 1974) published in1980 its "Strategy Study", where the sector “space conditioning” has been identified as the largest energy saving potential which can be realised relatively fast. Solar energy, district heating and heat pumps should save 600 Mio. tonnes of oil per year by 2020; the share of heat pumps

on these savings should be about 80 % (IEA, 2003). The first energy report (Energiebericht) of the government has been published in

Austria with the recommendation that the most promising sectors for oil conservation were the improvement of thermal insulation, use of heat pumps and solar energy and the use of district heat produced by co-generation plants.

The Austrian heat pump market started after the second oil price shock. After reaching a peak in installations in 1981, the market collapsed and the sales figures stabilized at a lower level and dropped again at the end of the eighties. In the early nineties the heat pump market was recovering and since then has grown steadily. Figure 4 shows the development of the Austrian heat pump market.

Figure 4. Development of the heat pump market in Austria; annual installed systems (FANINGER, 2001)

Reasons for the development shown in Fig. 4 The Austrian market was a heating-only market based on different heat sources and hydronic heat distribution systems. The first systems installed were monovalent systems (which means that the heat pump is the only heat producer in the building) with groundwater as the heat source, combined with a low-temperature heat distribution system (most common were floor heating systems) and bivalent systems (a second heat producer is integrated in the system, e.g. boiler) where outside air was used as the heat source, combined with a high-temperature heat distribution system with radiators. Monovalent systems were installed in new buildings; bivalent systems were mainly used for retrofitting of existing heating systems with oil-fired boilers. At the beginning of the market development the price ratio of electricity/oil (oil was the main fuel used for heating purposes) was somewhere in the range of 2:5, and subsidies were based on a tax deduction model. The results of these positive basic conditions were a peak in heat pump sales and installations, but also a lot of failing systems. The main reason for these failing systems was not the heat pump unit itself; it was mostly incorrect integration of a heat pump unit into a hydraulic system. Due to a lack of information and experience the system


7


8

integration of heat pumps was carried out in much the same way as the integration of oil boilers. After an initial peak at the beginning of the eighties the market stabilised. The remaining companies – many of the companies of the first phase disappeared from the market - had learned valuable lessons. The most successful region was the supply region of OKA, a utility which has studied heat pump systems and which has supported customers, not financially, but in the case of failing systems. This region, a relatively small part of Austria, still accounts for about 50 % of the total heat pump installations. In 1985 two things happened: the oil price dropped and government subsidies were cancelled. Due to the high investment costs and the falling prices of fossil oil, bivalent systems, which had held the main market shares, were no longer cost effective, and manufacturers and installers had to concentrate on monovalent systems for new buildings. In addition to the use of ground water systems, ground was introduced as a heat source and with secondary loop systems, direct expansion systems started dominating the market because of their higher efficiency. Since the early nineties the heat pump market has had a slow, but steadily rising development. The ground became the main heat source, and due to a better framework (i.e. better insulated houses, improved compressors and heat exchangers) Seasonal Performance Factors in the range of 4 plus had been achieved relatively quickly, especially with direct expansion systems.

1.4 Building standards The following chart shows the specific heating load [W/m²], the consumption of heating oil per year and per square meter and the heat demand per square meter and per year for typical buildings of the fifties and seventies, for conventional new buildings, for low energy houses and for passive houses.

Heat demand kWh/m²a

Heating oil consumption l/m²a

Specific heating load W/m²

Old building (till 1950) >450 >45 >300

Old building (1950-1970) <400 <40 <265

Old building (since 1970) <250 <25 <165

Conventional new building <100 <10 <65

Low energy house <40 <4 <27

Passive house <15 <1,5 <10

Tab. 1: Building standards now and in the past (ARSENAL RESEARCH, 2002)

The chart above shows that in Austria there has been an essential increase in building quality from 1970 to the present. The heat demand of the buildings decreased at 40% of the heat demand during the seventies. Reasons for this development were the first and the second oil price shock, the increasing building regulations in cooperation with subsidies for the compliance with these regulations, the improved technologies in the field of building


9

engineering and the rising awareness of alternative and energy efficient technologies. Due to these changes the conditions for using heat pumps are now much better than in the past. Stand: 9/2003 B K N O S St T V W

Effective from ‘02 ‘97 ‘96 ‘99 ‘02 ‘97 ‘98 ‘96 ‘01

External wall 0,38 0,40 0,40 0,50 0,35 MFH: 0,50 EFH/ZFH:

0,40

0,35 0,35 0,50

Wall to unheated parts of the building

0,50 0,70 0,70 0,70 0,50 0,70 0,50 0,50 0,50

Wall to separate flats 0,90 1,60 1,60 1,60 0,90 1,60 0,90 1,60 0,90

Ceiling to outside air 0,20 0,25 0,22 0,25 0,20 0,20 0,20 0,25 0,25

Ceiling to unheated parts of the building

0,35 0,40 0,40 0,45 0,40 0,40 0,40 0,40 0,45

Ceilings to separate flats 0,70 0,90 0,90 0,90 0,90 0,90 0,70 0,90 0,90

Windows 1,70 1,80 1,80 1,90 1,70 1.90 1,70 1,80 1,90

Outer door 1,70 1,80 1,80 1,90 1,70 1,70 / 1,90 (GT)

1,70 1,90 1,90

Walls to earth 0,35 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,40 0,50 0,40 0,50 0,50

Flours to earth 0,35 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,285 0,50 0,40 0,50 0,45

Tab. 2: building regulations for the c-value in the different departments of Austria (EVA, 2003)

1.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology As previously mentioned, in Austria, most of the heating systems were fired with fossil fuel boilers. During the second oil price shock prices for fossil fuel increased fourfold within one year. People were looking for means to reduce their heating costs. Therefore, bivalent air/water heat pumps were a good option. In addition to the existing oil boiler, an air/water heat pump was installed. These heat pumps are easy to install (no building activities for theheat sources necessary) and they satisfy most of the heat load during the year. Only during afew very cold days the oil boiler was needed. Also the government recognised the requirement for a change in the energy policy in terms ofthe import dependency of Austria. So subsidies based on a tax deduction model wereimplemented for all renewable energy technologies and also for heat pumps. Due to price ratio of electricity/oil and the subsidies given from the government, heat pumps were a very attractive alternative to oil boilers. OKA, the electric utility of Upper Austria, has recognised the potential of heat pumptechnology and started to actively support this technology. As a result of environmental requirements and in particular the reduction of CO2 released into the atmosphere, the development of the heat pump market has been given aboost since the beginning of the 1990’s.

1.6 What were the main barriers to overcome One of the biggest problems at the beginning of the market development in the eighties was the lack of information for the end users. During this stage it was especially difficult to convince people of the possibility to heat the house with the “cold” earth or air. But at the


10

same time due to the high oil prices people were looking for alternative systems with lower running costs than conventional oil boilers. Therefore a heat pump was a good option and a few people overcame their reservations and tried the new technology. Consequently, the first promotion work was done by word of mouth, the rest was done by the activities of the utilities and by the governmental grants for renewable systems.

So the market demand for heat pumps was rising fast, but companies had very little experience with this technology and there were few products on the market. This situation created the following developments: - A few serious companies started production of heat pumps and they also started internal training programs for the installers with whom they were in partnership.

- Apart from these serious companies, many small companies motivated by favorable conditions, were founded by those from a refrigeration background. These refrigeration technicians knew how a refrigeration cycle, i.e. a heat pump unit, should be designed, but often did not know anything about heating technology and especially hydronic heating systems.

- Installers knew how conventional hydronic heating system work, but knew little about the characteristics of heat pumps and how to size and integrate a heat pump into such a system.

Too many failures occurred during the start-up period of the market by all parties involved and so the reputation of heat pump systems was destroyed. The market reacted very quickly, and the serious companies with reliable products and trained installers survived this market break down.

At this initial phase electric utilities were split up into two groups:

The larger group saw in the heat pump a competitor for direct electric heating with the disadvantage of less electricity consumption; they fought against this technology.

The smaller, farsighted group saw in the heat pump a new interesting potential market, the market of fossil fuel fired hydronic systems, and they started to support heat pumps.

The rapid drop in oil prices in 1985 combined with the ending of the tax reduction subsidies in Austria reduced sales figures significantly (especially of bivalent outside air heat pump systems integrated into high-temperature hydronic heat distribution systems). Due to their low Seasonal Performance Factors the operation of the oil-fired system alone became cheaper than the operation of the bivalent outside air system.

After the oil price shocks, when the price for fossil fuel was moderate the higher investment costs for heat pumps became one of the most serious barriers to the heat pump technology.

1.7 Way to success Market strategies for the dissemination of heat pumps can be initiated by different bodies like the Government, electric utilities, heat pump manufacturers and distributors, and heat pump


11

installers. The best precondition for the market introduction is, of course, if all these bodies and organisations work together; however, most commonly this goal cannot be achieved. However, the development in the past shows, that market strategies have to be carried out very carefully, and it is not always money, which makes a strategy successful.

What strategies for the market development have been used, and what strategies have been successful?

1.8 Strategies by the Government Based on the IEA Strategy Study and its own Energy Report the Austrian Government decided to support energy saving measures, especially in the field of building technologies. Such measures were the improvement of the thermal insulation of buildings, solar thermal systems, biomass boilers and heat pumps. The subsidy programme was based on tax deduction, an adult could deduct ATS 10,000.- (€ 727,-) per year, a child ATS 5,000.- (€ 363,-) from the investment cost of one of the technologies mentioned above.

As the sales figures show this programme was a success, at least in the first two years. But what happened in these two years? Encouraged by the generous subsidies many people wanted a heat pump, but not all of the companies which offered heat pumps were serious. They installed systems without any knowledge of system layout and they promised their costumers energy savings and energy cost savings far removed from reality.

The market reacted very fast, the sales figures decreased quickly to a very low level and only the serious companies with reliable products and trained installers survived this market break down.

This experience shows that the subsidy itself helps to increase sales. The investment cost becomes lower and the profitability gets higher, which brings greater business opportunities. The subsidies also work in an “irrational manner”, the customer/investor buys the product because he feels that he can not "afford" to miss out on a governmental subsidy.

The support of a technology only with subsidies is not target oriented because it could result in an undesired effect. Therefore it is important to couple the subsidies on the observation of quality standards.

1.9 Strategies of utilities Many electric utilities had problems with heat pumps: They did not understand why they should support a technology which reduced electricity sales to one third compared with direct electric heating.

But there have been a few utilities, who realized, that heat pumps are not a competitor for direct electric heating systems, but heat pumps offer a new market, the market of hydronic heat distribution systems. In this market segment heat pumps are a competitor to oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, electricity is competing with oil and gas.

OKA, the electric utility of Upper Austria, has been involved – after the first oil price shock - in a governmental programme for reducing the energy consumption of school buildings, by improving the thermal insulation of the building envelope and by means of improved heating

systems. Some of the school buildings have been equipped with heat pumps, and OKA used these heat pumps as an internal training programme for the staff. Measurements were carried out, and the behaviour of such a unit in a hydronic system has been studied. When customers started to install heat pumps, OKA was prepared. They informed their customers about reliable installers and heat pumps. When a failure occurred they supported their customer against the installer and/or the heat pump manufacturer. If they did not carry out the repair work necessary to get a functioning system, they were eliminated from the promotional list of OKA. So OKA saw the lack and the importance of quality management for the whole heat pump system and took the first step in the right direction.

Kärnten8%

Steiermark8%

Tirol16%

Vorarlberg2%

Wien3%

Niederösterreich21%

Burgenland2%

Oberösterreich35%

Salzburg5%

Figure 5 Heat pump installations divided by region (FANINGER, 2001)

This policy was so successful, that even today 35% of the heat pump sales in Austria take place in this region (Oberösterreich), and almost every second new single family house is equipped with a heat pump there. In comparison to upper Austria (share of population: 17,1%) in Styria - Steiermark (share of population: 14,7%) only 8,4% of all heat pumps in Austria were sold. Reason for this situation is that in Styria there was no driving force for this technology; neither the utilities nor the local government or installers and manufacturers.

1.10 Strategies of the Manufacturers Manufacturers could stimulate the market in two different ways. One is to improve their products, the second is to demonstrate the advantages of heat pump systems to the customer.

The first option has been carried out by several manufacturers. Milestones are the development of the direct evaporation systems (which are more efficient and cost effective than secondary loop systems), flat plate heat exchangers, advanced cycle control strategies, improved compressors, refrigerants like propane and R-410A, and heat-pipe with CO2 as heat carrier. Heat pump manufacturers have also demonstrated, that with floor heating systems, sometimes combined with wall heating systems, maximum supply temperatures can be reduced down to 35°C and less. This was the way to achieve Seasonal performance factors of 4.5 and higher.

The second option was carried out by the manufacturers in cooperation with a few reliable, dedicated and well educated installers. This installers have given expert advice, a skilful system layout and they have installed high quality products in a proper and respectable way.


12


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Such systems have achieved high efficiency and quality requirements. The consumers were satisfied with their system and they communicated this satisfaction to their circle of friends. Additionally a few systems were documented and measured and this data serves as a good reputation for this technology. This was one of the most successful measures to promote the heat pump technology in the local area.

But different Installers and different manufacturers are competing on the market, and very often this competition was between one heat pump and another, and the winner was often a boiler. To overcome this problem the LGW, “Leistungsgemeinschaft Wärmepumpe”, an association of the majority of the heat pump manufacturers and distributors was founded in 1990. The aim of this association is still to promote the heat pump technology, to solve legal aspects, to influence regulations and to present the importance of the heat pump for reducing greenhouse gas emissions as part of the total energy system.

Another success of the association was to form together with Germany and Switzerland the D-A-CH (D = Germany, A = Austria, and CH = Switzerland), an international cooperation and association, and this association developed the rules for the D-A-CH quality label for heat pump units, first for air/water heat pumps, water/water heat pumps and brine/water heat pumps. In the meantime direct evaporation heat pumps and exhaust air heat pumps are also included. The D-A-CH quality label includes tests for minimum COP requirements as well as the possible operating range of the heat pump units, but also three years guarantee, spare parts for 10 years and servicing capabilities within 24 hours of the companies which joined this agreement and use the quality label.

The problems of heat pump units seem to be solved, however the more serious problem remains of the system remains, i.e. the interaction of heat source, heat pump unit, heat sink, control, and the building itself. To overcome this problem the Austrian heat pump association in cooperation with arsenal research has started a certification programme for heat pump installers in the year 2001. They have to attend a theoretical and a practical course on heat pump systems, the course lasts 72 hours, and they have to pass a theoretical and practical examination.

The course covers environmental issues, building physics, heat pump technologies, basics of refrigeration, components of heat pumps, heat sources and design criteria of heat source systems, heat distribution systems, heat pump heating systems, basics in electrical engineering, measurement techniques, fault diagnostic in heat pump systems, initial operating of heat pumps, installation and operation of heat pump heating systems as well as subsidies and marketing.

Additionally they have to provide the complete planning documentation of a heat pump system every three years. They have to be a fully qualified installer or electrician or attended a respective college and they have to keep a complaints book. If all requirements are fulfilled they get the title of a certified heat pump installer.

LGW is confident that the D-A-CH quality label for heat pumps and the certification of installers will succeed in a market development without failing systems and therefore with customers satisfied with their heat pump heating systems.

To document the successful combination of certified installers and the D-A-CH quality label arsenal research has implemented an automated monitoring systems for heat pump installations. With the outcome of this independent investigation, heat pump installers, manufacturers and users have the possibility to prove the efficiency and the ecological benefits of heat pumps to decision makers, politicians, etc.

1.11 Current situation 1.11.1 Heat pump market Now sales figures of heat pumps for space heating in the residential sector are steadily rising. Reasons for this development can be found in the activities of the Austrian heat pump association LGW, in the increasing quality of the systems and in the rising awareness of the end users. The main market shares are in new single-family houses. The figure below shows that in Austria the market share of direct-expansion ground-coupled heat pumps is almost 43,4 %.

Water/Water15%

Brine/Water36%

Direct expansion

44%

Air/Water5%

Figure 6 Heating only heat pumps installed 2001 (Fanninger 2001)

Presently in Austria more than 159,698 heat pump units are in operation, about 119.929 heat pump water heaters and 39.769 heat pumps for heating purposes. The installed thermal capacity is about 833,5 MW, the annual heat delivery 1.972,6 GWh, corresponding to an oil equivalent of 264.637 t/yr.; the CO2 emission reduction counts for 781,000 t/yr., based on the electricity generation mix in Austria and oil-fired boilers.


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Fig. 7 Heat Pump Market in Austria 1975 - 2001 (FANINGER, 2001)

Austrian heat pump association – Leistungsgemeinschaft Wärmepumpe LGW Austria

In the year 1990 the Austrian heat pump association LGW was founded. The driving force for setting up such an association was the manufacturers. Within a short time also installers and utilities were included. Over the years the utilities became an important promoter of the organization. At the beginning the main topic of the LGW was stimulation of the market and creation of awareness for the new technology, because at this stage only a few people knew about the existence, the function and the application area of heat pumps. The target groups for the campaign were, beside end users, politicians and building developers. Now the Austrian heat pump association has more than 25 members, consisting of manufactures, installers, utilities and other promotional members. The main tasks of the heat pump association are quality management, marketing and public relations, education and training, research and development standardization and dissipation of legal constraints.

1.11.2 Quality assurance: -D-A-CH quality label

The DACH quality label looks for the quality of the heat pump unit and guarantees that the customer receives a reliable product. Spare parts, maintenance and servicing are guaranteed for at least 10 years.

-Heat pump test rig

In Austria arsenal research runs a test rig for water/water, brine/water and direct evaporation heat humps. This testing facility plays an important role in the field of increasing the quality of the heat pump technology. Beside standard tests and tests for the DACH quality label


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arsenal research provides manufactures the opportunity to use the test rig for development projects. 1.11.3 Certified installers The training program for installers started in the year 2001. Since the implementation of this training facility, seven courses took place and more then 130 installers and electricians were educated. The certified installers must be actively working in the field of heat pumps and take part regularly in further education in the field of heat pumps. Furthermore they have to keep a complaints book and have to provide the complete planning documentation of a heat pump system every three years to the certification authority. Until now more than 30 installers have agreed with these strict regulations and so they are entitled to keep the mark “certified heat pump installer”.

1.11.4 Monitoring The third part of the Austrian quality management is to control efficiency and quality of heat pump systems in real conditions. The aim of the monitoring system is to measure a heat pump system during a whole year. The analysis of the measurements can be used to convince decision-makers and government. The measured data verifies the efficiency and the functionality of the system. Before the monitoring system can be installed, plumbers have to announce the basic conditions of the system. Therefore they have to fill in a questionnaire and prepare the hydraulic plan of the heat pump system. The monitoring system obtains a high level of automation. Therefore the monitoring system is based on data loggers. These data loggers transfer the measurements via Internet to the measuring computer where they get analysed automatically by a database.

1.12 Electrical power generation In 2002 63.4% of the electricity generation was covered by renewable energies. The other 36,6% of the power generation was done by conventional thermal energy generation. In Austria there are no nuclear power stations.

Fig. 8 Electrical power generation in Austria (IEA, 2003)

More than 93% of the renewable power generation is provided by hydro power generation, solid biomass covers 6.1%, and the remaining 0.7% of the renewable power generation is provided by photovoltaic, wind and solid waste.


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Hydro 93,12%

PV 0,06%

Wind 0,56%

Solid Waste 0,10%

Biomass 6,18%

Figure 9 Share of renewable electricity generation (IEA, 2003)

1.13 Subsidies for heat pumps In Austria there are different subsidies in each of the nine federal states. The most common form of subsidies is direct financial grant, but in some regions there are also subsidies in form of cheap credits or grant for interests existing.

Additional to the subsidies mentioned in Tab. 3, most of the utilities have also special prices for electricity. The information mentioned above is from the Austrian heat pump association.

Wien direct financial grant in the amount of 2000 € Vorarlberg

subsidies depends on the heat source: -air: 700 € -water and earth with horizontal collectors: 1200€ -earth with vertical collectors: 1600 €

Niederösterreich

heat pump for hot water supply: 1100€ heating heat pump: 2200 € Burgenland

heat pump for hot water supply: 750€ heating heat pump: 1800 €

Steiermark cheap credits for heat pumps

Salzburg: 174 € per kW electrical power

Tirol: maximal 3270 €; if the heat pump has no DACH quality label, or the installer have no certification the subsidy will be reduced

Kärnten: cheap credits for heat pumps Oberösterreich heat pump for hot water supply: 370 € heating heat pump (air as

heat source): 1500 € heating heat pump (water or earth as heat source): 2200 €

Tab. 3 subsidies for heat pumps in Austria


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1.14 Investment costs – running costs

1.15 Perspectives Presently in Austria (and also in the rest of Europe) there are two main problems to solve. One is the reduction of the greenhouse gas emissions with respect to the anticipated or current climate change and the second is to decrease the import dependency on fossil fuels. This means that a significant reduction of using fossil fuels will be necessary, and this can happen in the transformation sector and in the end-use energy sector. Looking at the end-use energy sector, it is mainly the building sector, which can contribute significantly in a short time frame. And the Kyoto Protocol requests a short term frame; reduction rates have to be achieved by 2010. In the case of Austria it means a reduction by 13 % based on the emissions of 1990. Due to the development of the CO2 emissions during the last decade, we have to reduce our greenhouse gas emission by about 17 to 18 % in reality. To solve these problems the heat pump technology will play a key role.

The heat pump market in Austria (and also in other European countries) is presently concentrated on new buildings. Because these buildings offer ideal conditions for using heat pumps. Due to the high building standards and the installation of low-temperature heat distribution systems ground-coupled heat pump systems achieve SPFs in the range of 3.8 to 4.5.

But the market of new building covers only about 1 % of the existing building stock; the large market potential available in the retrofitting sector is presently not used for the heat pump. Reasons are the existing high-temperature hydronic systems, which require bivalent systems and a sophisticated control, the lower seasonal performance factor due to the higher heat pump outlet temperatures, and bad experiences in the eighties.


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The electricity market is now deregulated, which means, that utilities can become much more flexible, they can play an active role in developing an electricity market which covers energy efficiency with environmental advantages; heat pumps may be one tool in this direction.


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Beside ambient heat, the heat pump offers the option of utilising waste heat, and this means the recycling of thermal energy. Both ambient heat and waste heat are CO2-free and could contribute to the reduction of global warming. Most of the heat pumps in Austria are heating only heat pumps, but in time heating and cooling heat pumps will become more and more attractive both for large scaled buildings and for single family houses. Lack of uniformity in equipment design and safety standards among countries with relatively small market volumes (for example, European countries) results in higher production costs for manufacturers. Governments should adopt uniform design, safety, rating and labelling standards as quickly as possible.

2 GERMANY

2.1 Heating systems At the end of the seventies the heating systems in Germany were comparable to the Austrian systems. There were hydraulic heat distribution systems with supply temperatures of 90/70°C common too. Energy sources were predominately oil, coal or gas. In some new buildings lower supply temperatures were possible and in rare cases there were floor heating systems used. Air heating systems or air conditioning were also only common in large commercial buildings.

Since the early 90’s there was a clear structural change indicated by:

• increased use of natural gas instead of heating oil • increased use of gas burners instead of boilers • significant reduction of noxious emissions because of improved processes of

combustion • reduction of energy consumption by improved condensing technology and increasing

of efficiency by use of condensing technology.

2.2 Energy prices Figure 12 and 13 show that the price for electrical energy is about 3.9 times higher than the price for one kilowatt hour of natural gas. But if the electricity is used for the operation of water-water or ground-coupled heat pumps with a SPF around 4 almost the same running costs for both systems could be achieved. The reason why heat pumps are not competitive in areas with gas pipes are the investment costs which are still much higher in comparison with a gas boiler.

price for electricity 17 ct/kWh, Production, main, etc. VAT eco tax concession renewable energy and CHP charges


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price for natural gas 4,44 ct/kWh, Production, import, distribution, etc. VAT gas tax concession charges for conveyance

Looking at the development of the oil price in Germany we can recognize a similar development as in Austria. Maximum prices were attained also in the years 1984 and 2000.

2.3 Development of the Market While the market introduction of heat pumps in the USA started just after the second worldwar (popular were primary heating pumps which could be changed from cooling in summer times to heating in winter times) there were just a few systems in Germany in the 50’s, mostly for agricultural milk cooling and simultaneous water heating. At the end of the 60’s low investment costs for heating and warm water preparation were much more important for private investors than the energy costs. The market for heat pumps was therefore concentrated just on a few systems for heating swimming pools and for heatrecovery in large scaled buildings. This changed after the oil crisis in 1973 and particularly in 1979. While in the year 1973 just around 500 heat pumps were sold, the number of electrical heat pumps sold particularly in


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single and multi family houses climbed up to more than 12000systems in the years 1980/81, a number that has never been reached again till today. With the following fall of the oil price and because of many bad experiences caused by poorly installed systems the heat pump fell into disrepute and the market collapsed again at the end of the 80’s. It stagnated for several years at just 500 sold systems a year.

At the beginning of the 90’s the thermodynamic heating with heat pumps as a contribution to environmental protection became more important caused by the realization that the CO2 emissions influence the greenhouse effect and the resulting change of the climate.

Supportive measures of the Federal Government, its counties and many utilities, the slowly climbing oil prices and the foundation of the German heat pump association led to a revival of the heat pump market. Sales figures recovered slowly and achieved good rates of increase.

At first glance the result of 2002 does not seem to be particularly impressive, but taking into account the poor economical situation in Germany at the time, places it in a better light.


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With regard to the used heat sources there was also a clear change. Until the middle of the 80’s ground coupled, air and water heat pumps where approximately equal, but later the ground coupled heat pumps became more and more important. The reason for this was that the utilities forced up the development of ground coupled systems because of their better seasonal performance factors. Now about 65% of the heating heat pumps use ground, 15% use air and 20% use water as heat source.

Fig. 16. Sales figures of the different heat sources 1996-2002 (BWP, 2002)


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2.4 Building standards The graph below shows that a clear improvement in building standards took place between the 80’s and the 90’s. The building-guideline of 1995 asked for clearly higher standards on the insulation of buildings and on the quality of windows.

Because of those strict conditions it was possible to decrease the average heat demand from 250 kWh/m²a down to less than 110 kWh/m²a. This means that the half of the earlier required heat demand is now enough for heating a building. This again means that it was suddenly possible to reduce the supply temperature of heating systems and to facilitate the heat transfer via floor heating with surface temperatures fewer than 28°C.


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In the year 2002 a new energy-saving law came into force. It was directed at the saving of primary energy. This means that in comparison with buildings which are heated with fossil energies higher heat losses are tolerated for buildings which are equipped with high-efficient heating systems or heated with regenerative energies (heat pump, solar technology, biomass). This law creates new advantages for the heat pump because environmental heat is accepted as a form of renewable energies.

2.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology As in Austria, Germany also suffered the oil price shocks in the 70’s, which generated the first boom for heat pumps. The high prices for fossil energies and the simple possibility of combining the existing oil boiler with an air/water heat pump to decrease heating costs where the main reasons. As previously mentioned, the technology in Germany was unsuccessful mainly due to quality-problems and installation mistakes. After the fall of oil prices, the market collapsed. The heat pump market did not recover until the beginning of the 90’s, but since then it has achieved positive sales figures.

What was the reason why the heat pump became interesting at this time? First of all the basic conditions for using heat pumps in view of building standards had been clearly improved; secondly the acceptance and the interest in ecological, energy efficient technologies were much higher than in the 70’s. But also the problem with the greenhouse effect and the associated necessity to save CO2 emissions were already a topic. The energy utilities recognized this potential and saw a possibility to come into the heat market with the help of the heat pump. The utilities had been supported by the heat pump producers, which continued to exist throughout the bad years by supplying, in particular, the Austrian and Swiss heat pump market.

2.6 Strength of the current heat pump market The high energy prices of the last few years and the fact that the prices for electricity are more stable than the oil and gas prices have strengthened the German heat pump market. This development is recognizable in the sales figures of the recent years. Since the liberalization of the electricity market the utilities had to withdraw themselves from active lobbying activities in the field of heat pumps because of the cost pressure between the competitors. Generally, the German utilities still think positive about the heat pump technology. In many supply areas special tariffs are offered for using heat pumps, but price politics are different from region to region. Because of low running costs and relatively high costs of fossil fuels, an amortisation within acceptable periods of time is realistic. For low energy and passive houses the heat pump is ideally suited, because of their smaller heating loads. In future heat pumps for heat recovery in the area of ventilation systems will become more and more important. The acceptance of heat pump technology and also the desire to participate in the field of sustainable energy politics are beginning to be embraced by end users, but this will only continue if economical aspects work in their favour.

2.7 What were the main barriers to overcome? Main barriers during the seventies: At the beginning of heat pump technology the biggest barriers were definitely the lack of awareness of heat pump technology among end users and also the high investment costs. First of all the consumers had to be convinced, that such a form of heating actually worked. Additionally many installers also had to be persuaded. The workmen had problems getting the


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know-how which is necessary to build up a good-working and high-quality system and there was little experience to draw from. This led to technical problems and inefficient systems, which undermined the heat pumps reputation. This image problem – born in the 70’s – is noticeable till today in the field of trade, but concerning clients there is hardly any effect noticeable. Unfortunately there are still some barriers left and the heat pump has to fight against several obstacles:

2.8 Main barriers of the current market In the field of marketing the heating heat pump suffers from the supremacy of the overpowering boiler manufacturers. On principle market transparency, knowledge of the technology and availability of information for end users are still too little. Many craftsmen still don’t have the competence in the area of heat pump technology, although there are some good-trained and experienced specialists. To use electricity for heating applications meets with negative and sceptical attitude, because electric current as a heat producing energy is perceived to be unprofitable. The general more stable prices for electricity have positive effects on the heat pump sector. The investment costs for the heat pump, the heat source and the installation are still relatively high in comparison with conventional technologies. The partly considerable high pricing pressure between the companies distorts the competition; small companies which are specialised in heat pump technology have often price disadvantages. When buying a heating system the price is still the most important consideration. Here the costs for a vertical collector reflect negatively on the total costs. With systems that use ground water there are sometimes problems during the procedures for permission to obtain water rights. Proceedings are often tedious and misjudged during the planning stage. The trades have the key position in the realization of heat pump systems in the area of single family houses as they are the interface between supply and demand. The installation of heat pumps can be done by different trades (heating engineers, electricians, refrigeration) but the demand is directed mainly at heating engineers. But not every heating engineer is interested in installing a heat pump system, therefore many inquiries of clients are still diverted to conventional heating systems. Technically qualified companies are often specialised in the installation of heat pumps and develop high sales figures. Outside the representatives of the different branches there is hardly any lobbying for the heat pump, since the liberalisation of the electricity market the utilities do not conduct any active promotion for heat pumps and also within the political arena there is no recognizable lobby for the heat pump.

2.9 Way to success The first growth of market in the 70’s was carried by the high prices of fossil energies. The rapid increase in oil prices resulted in a big demand for energy-saving measures and therefore for heat pumps. The small amount of suppliers could not cover this demand and so a lot of small companies set up, some of which were unreliable and offered low quality products. The market reacted relatively fast to this development with an almost total breakdown. At the beginning of the 90’s general conditions for using heat pumps were much better and the end users had developed meanwhile awareness for environmental-friendly and energy-saving measures. At this time the utilities in Germany recognized the potential of the heat pump in the future and they started to engage in the promotion of this technology. In 1992 seven big utilities, several producers and workmen were united and developed together with an instructed agency a concept to promote and to reintroduce the heat pump to the market. To establish a well-founded basis for further procedures, a stock-check was taken.

7.325 operators of heat pumps were contacted. The main question was, if they would be in favour of installing a heat pump again and 68% answered with “yes”. This result did not persuade but it was the incentive to form a heat pump initiative and it led to the foundation of the German heat pump association called „Initiativkreis Wärmepumpe“ (IWP) in the year 1993.

The first step of this association was to recruit the installing crafts. This was done through intensive support and advertising activities. It was demonstrated that the heat pump was an independent and fully developed heating system. Very quickly those first marketing measures attracted members to the IWP. On the 1st of January 2001 the „Initiativkreis“ changed to „Bundesverband WärmePumpe“ (BWP). Cooperation between the trades To guarantee objectivity and credibility, the structure of the „Bundesverband“ from the beginning contained a varied combination of members such as

heat pump producers sanitary engineers, heating engineers, electricians, refrigerants utilities

The experiences of all these disciplines were pooled for the benefit of the end user’s information, and were unbiased toward any particular manufacturer. On the basis of the knowledge and the experiences of those different lobbies, the first manual for heat pump technology was drafted in 1994 which is available now for workman, architects and planners.

Definition of the operation scale Before marketing and promotion activities could begin it was necessary to define strategic targets and a realistic timetable. Furthermore the most promising market segment for heat pumps has to be identified. In phase one (up to 2002) the promotion activities were focused mainly on new buildings with 1-6 apartments and floor heating systems. The heat load of the buildings were mainly less than 50 kW and the heat sources were ground, water or air.

Positive image for the heat pump A product is always as good as its reputation. It sounds banal but it is difficult when a product is to be revived, which is fundamentally good but has negative connotations. With the term “solar heating” and the catch phrase “we have solved the problem to storage the sun“ as well as with the logo „the warming heart of the house“ it was possible to supply the heat pump with a positive image and to integrate the heat pump into the steadily growing public interest in solar energy at the same time. The big ecological advantage of the heat pump and the to the ecological appeal to the builder-owner had also positive effects.

Above all the heat pump logo turned out to be a strong sympathetic figure. Meanwhile it is used internationally as the DACH-quality label.

Figure 19 DACH-label

Just a good product is selling well


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If the industry did not strongly believe in the future of the heat pump all marketing and advertising campaigns would have been doomed to fail, and further technical development may have stalled. The positive image, which the heat pump has today, is based principally on the high quality of the product.

2.10 Strategy It was quickly recognized that it was necessary but not enough just to persuade the trade of the advantages of a heat pump. The “pressure” had to come from the builder-owner. He has to be the one that goes to the specialists and has to make it clear that he absolutely wants a heat pump; no oil, no gas but environmental heat should supply his house with warmth.

2.10.1 Info-systems Neutral information- and advisory-material as well as technical descriptions with planning guidelines have been compiled. The information campaign for builder-owners started with a comprehensible brochure for end users. Since then this brochure has been passed on more than 500.000 times. Advertisements in the magazines of big building societies were also successful in promoting the heat pump. Also the opportunities provided by the Internet were used quite early and the advantages of heat pump technology have been put into the World Wide Web. More than 80.000 interested people looked at the BWP-homepage just in 2002, all in all there were more than 300.000 people that visited the average 7 pages. Here important information about the technology as well as examples for system costs is presented. Another service of this homepage is the data-base of workman. Building owners can get the addresses of the relevant companies or planners in their area just after the input of the postcode.

2.10.2 Public relation

To get the heat pump back into public awareness, a wide-ranging PR campaign was necessary. Independent journalists, editors of professional journals and daily newspapers report regularly about the heat pump. The “service-centre-heat pump”, which is organized by the BWP, has given advice via

Internet and a telephone-hotline to more than 20.000 interested people within the last number of years.

2.10.3 Congresses, special conferences and action weeks

Beside the political work and the publicity campaigns, events are an important part of dissemination, to show the advantages of the heat pump to the experts and to the public.

To effectively draw attention to a new or an old product you need the right platform. Since 1995 the congress “SOLARTEC – heat from the sun and from the environment” has been successfully conducted three times in the “German patent office” and in the “congress centre Würzburg” together with the solar industrial sector.

The special conference of electrical heat pumps has been conducted three times. In the year 2001 also the „heat-pump-Expo“ was brought to Germany and integrated into the „SolarEnergy“ in Berlin.

The heat pump weeks are also one of the most successful regional activities. They took place four times in Bavaria. On offer have been events about the heat pump, lectures, open door days and visits to craft companies. Advertisements on the radio drew the attention to the heat pump for weeks.

Nordrhein-Westfalen (another German province) has also picked up the successful Bavarian concept and organized its first heat-pump-week in January 2002. Because of its popularity the event took place for the third time in 2002.

2.10.4 Limits Although the growth rates have been favourable in the last number of years, it must not be forgotten, that until now just 15% of all builder-owners have been reached. These are people who really advocate heat pump technology (5%) and such people that are open-minded to every new technology and have good prior knowledge.

“But to open up the big potential of those builder-owners, for whom it doesn’t matter what type of heating they install (85%), you have to think in totally different and above all considerably bigger dimensions in view of advertising media and budget; because the heat market is not waiting to be conquered by the heat pump. The conventional heating technologies are still dominating and this will not be change so readily. With the same financial means as before, a good and effective public relations campaign can also be conducted in future. If the heat market is to be conquered and the heat pump should become more or less the third power in this energy-segment then publicity campaigns are unavoidable “ (SCHÖLER, 2002).

The absence of political acceptance is another considerable handicap. The importance of political acceptance to the development of the heat pump market is evident in the provinces of Bavaria, Baden-Württemberg, Brandenburg and Nordrein-Westfalen. In those provinces the heat pump technology is accepted by the local governments and in some cases it is forced in the form of incentive measures. The graph below shows that in those provinces the heat pump market is much stronger than in the rest of Germany. The share of market of these four provinces is about 78% of the whole country, although just 52% of the population live there.

2.11 Current market situation The main market for heat pump applications is the heating of new buildings, especially of single- and two-family-houses. At the moment for heat pump systems it is difficult to get at the modernization market.


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The slow increase of heating heat pumps sold in the year 2002 seems to be surprising on first look, but if the bad economical situation and the extreme reluctance to buy are taken into consideration, the plus of 1,35% in the area of heating heat pumps assumes more importance. On top of this is the fact that housing projects in 2002 decreased by around 8% in Germany. In the area of small houses (1-2 flats), which is at the moment the most relevant sector for the heat pump, the decrease in West Germany was 5,1% and in the new provinces (former Eastern Germany) as much as 13,3%. Also the sales figures of the second quarter of 2003 can be seen as satisfactory. All in all the heating heat pumps can boast an increase of +7,96% in comparison with the same quarter of 2002. The graph below shows the increases of the different technologies.

Noticeable is the significant increase of air/water heat pumps (+30,68%). The reason for this is first of all increasing numbers of low energy – and passive houses in which air/water heat


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pumps are used for heat recovery in combination with controlled living room ventilation. German Heat Pump Association- Bundesverband Wärmepumpe BWP The German Heat Pump Association (Bundesverband Wärme Pumpe) former Initiativkreis Wärmepumpe (IWP) was founded in June 1993. While in Austria the heat pump producers were responsible for the foundation of the heat pump association, in Germany the utilities were the driving force. Today the association has more than 500 members throughout Germany including 34 utilities and 21 producers. Heating planners, craftsmen, architects, all the notable producers, many big German utilities and also city departments and institutions are working together. The BWP makes neutral information available. Additionally the BWP forces and coordinates measures to develop the heat pump technology. In the meantime the activities reach beyond the German borders. There is a close cooperation with the Austrian „Leistungsgemeinschaft Wärmepumpe“ (LGW-A) and the „Fördergemeinschaft Wärmepumpe Schweiz“ (FWS). Apart from calculated marketing one of the most important duties of the „Initiativkreis WärmePumpe“ is the political work.

2.12 DACH quality label Like in Austria and in Switzerland the DACH quality label is an important mechanism for quality assurance. The same standards are valid like in the other two countries (see page 12 and 14).

2.13 Electrical power generation The main part of electricity generation in Germany is by nuclear energy (30%), hard coal (26% - one third of it imported) and brown coal (26%). Less importance is placed, at the moment on natural gas (9%) and renewable energies (6%); oil lost importance and covers currently only 1%. Under the present conditions the use of many regenerative energies is economical but not competitive in comparison with conventional electricity generation. The actual costs for wind-gained electricity are 2-3 times higher, for solar-gained electricity 25 times higher than for conventional power stations. Because of governmental subsidies and the competition between the producers it was, for example, possible to drop the costs for wind-power down to 50% in the last 10 years. Further improvement relating to the reduction of costs can be expected. They are decisive for a lasting contribution of renewable energies in competition markets.


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Subsidies for heat pumps:

Like in Austria supportive measures for heat pumps are different from province to province. In Bavaria for example the following subsidies for heat pump systems were available in the year 2003.

€ 150 for every installed kilowatt of heat capacity in existing buildings, if the heat-distribution system is adapted at the same time € 100 for every installed kilowatt of heat capacity in every other case.

The maximum support is 25% of the concerned investment costs but maximum € 12.500 per heat pump system.

In Brandenburg the use of heat pump systems for hot water preparation or/and for heating is supported. The level of supportive measures goes up to 30% of the investment costs, but it is limited to 613,55 Euro/kW proven heat demand. The maximum amount per system is 102.258,35 Euro. The seasonal performance factor of the system has to be at least 3,8. This has to be proven for every concerned project. The heat distribution in buildings is not supported.

In Nordrein-Westfalen there was a promotion for heat pumps within the REN-programme (Rationelle Energieverwendung und Nutzung unerschöpflicher Energiequellen – rational use of energy and use of inexhaustible energy sources) until the 30.9.2003. At the moment there are no incentive measures for heat pump systems, but a resumption of the REN-program is planned for 2004, but today the conditions that are tied up in a support measure are not known.

2.14 Comparison of heating costs Heat pump systems have much higher investment costs than conventional heating systems. The period of amortization is dependent on the price for electricity and the expenses for maintenance and fault-fixing. The current price situation for oil/gas on the one side and electricity on the other side is enough to save a lot of running costs. The rate of those savings compensates the higher annual costs of capital. But this fact is not really known yet. The annual total costs of heating heat pumps and ventilation systems for houses with heat recovery achieve more or less the same amount like conventional heating systems with condensing technology but with significant reduced annual running costs.

2.15 Perspectives The heating of buildings is one of the biggest energy consumers in the economical energy balance. One third of the total energy consumption is used for heating. Therefore the heating heat pump is a very interesting possibility. Especially in the field of retrofitting the heat pump could open a new market potential as a part of controlled ventilation systems with heat recovery for reduction of ventilation losses.

In times of steadily climbing comfort requirements the heat pump can become more important especially with the possibility of direct or indirect cooling. At the moment the heat pump has hardly any chances in the field of modernisation. With new innovative solutions in the area of „high temperature heat pumps“ this very promising market could be opened up.

3 SWITZERLAND

3.1 Heating systems The situation in Switzerland was similar to the situation in Austria and Germany. During the eighties the heating market was dominated by hydronic heat distribution systems with radiators and high supply temperatures. The heat preparation was mostly done by heating oil, gas or wood pieces.

3.2 Energy prices Figure 31 shows the development of the prices for electricity and heating oil in Switzerland. As in the other countries there is a strong price fluctuation for heating oil noticeable. Furthermore there was also a sharp price rise in the year 1979 with a price top till 1985. After the year 1985 the price was fluctuating on a relatively low level. In the year 2002 the price was rising once again, but on a lower level as in the eighties. In contrast to the oil price there was a slight decrease in electricity prices with a relatively stable development, which is a very positive framework for using heat pumps.

Figure 24 Development of energy prices in Switzerland

3.3 Development of the market In comparison to Germany and Austria the recording of sales figures start relatively late, in the year 1980. Remarkable is the relatively stable tendency to rise. There were also two small market disruptions in the years 1982 and 1992 but the impact of these was relatively harmless. One year later the sales figures were rising.


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As in Austria and Germany the reasons for the first market disruption in Switzerland were also faulty systems with higher than acceptable running costs and short life span because of inappropriate installations. In short the quality of the systems was not satisfactory. The second slump of the market was caused by the falling oil prices combined with the absence of marketing activities and lobbying. This situation changed very quickly with the foundation of the Swiss heat pump association, FWS and their lobbying activities and the implementation of direct financial grants. Since the beginning of the 1990s the heat pump market has grown constantly. Under the boost of the energy saving program “Energie 2000” launched in 1993 by the federal government, the number of heat pumps sold per year increased between 1992 and 1994 from 2800 to 4100 units. In 2000, the number of systems installed in Switzerland was about 7200 units. Although sales are mainly in the new home market, the renovation market has been improving for the last two years now.

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Figure 25 Swiss heat pump market development 1980-2002

3.4 Building standards In Switzerland the development of the building standards had a comparable characteristic as in Austria and Germany. There was also an essential increase of the building quality between the seventies and the nineties, from about 200 kWh/m²a before the eighties to about 87 kWh/m²a in the year 2001. In figure 33 there is an overview given about the development of the building standards during the last 20 years.


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Figure 26 Building standards in Switzerland (FWS, 2003)

New houses built up to the Minergie standard have a yearly heat demand of 44 kWh/m²a, which is approximately half of the heat demand of conventional new buildings. In Switzerland there is also a building standard for renovated houses. A house which is renovated according to the conventional building standards has a yearly heat demand of 128 kWh/m²a. If the building is renovated according to the Minergie Standard the house would have a demand of 89 kWh/m²a, which is about 70% of the conventional heat demand. In average new minergie buildings have higher investment costs of only 6.3%. Because of the ecological and economical facts and professional promotion the Minergie standard became more and more important during the last few years.

3.5 Why had the heat pump technology prospects in the eighties In the eighties during the oil price shocks Swiss people were also looking at alternatives to reduce their heating costs. Heat pumps were easy to install because they need no special storeroom and they are an automated heating system. At the beginning of the nineties the heat pump technology attracted political interest. The heat pump was viewed as one possibility to reduce the Swiss energy dependency and the CO2 emissions. So the Federal Energy Office has accepted the heat pump as a renewable energy technology and therefore the heat pump is included in the national energy programme “Energie 2000” with the target of 100 000 heat pumps in the year 2010. Additional the local energy utilities recognised in the heat pump an opportunity to supply the heating market as well as the electricity market. Furthermore the building standards were significantly increased in the time from 1970 till 1990 and so the framework conditions were also suitable for using heat pumps. The public awareness for alternative and sustainable heating systems was significantly higher than in the early eighties.

3.6 What were the main barriers to overcome


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In the late seventies, during the initial phase of the heat pump technology the biggest problems were the lack of information and experiences with the new technology and the lack of high quality products. There were a few manufacturers on the market but the installers lacked the required know how to integrate the heat pumps in the right way. At the market entry of the heat pump technology the lack of general recognition was one of the main problems. It was difficult to convince the consumers about the function of this system.


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But it was not enough just to convince the consumers. The installers were also wary of the new technology. For the installers it was much easier to install a conventional oil boiler, where they were confident that the system would run without problems. At the time of the first sales top in the late seventies there were a great number of small manufacturers on the market. It was difficult to distinguish between reliable and unreliable companies and nobody could say how long these companies would survive on the market. This fact brought a lot of problems in the field of after sales service. Because it was not always guaranteed that the customer could get spare parts five years after buying the heat pump. It was often a problem to find a company to take responsibility for the mistakes in a poorly operating system.

3.7 Way to success Strategic Alliance One reason for the Swiss success is certainly that all relevant persons and institutions have joined forces and worked together for the same aims. The key persons/institutions were the: Manufacturers Power Utilities Swiss Federal Office of Energy Installer Association Roles of the different market partners:

• Swiss Federal Office of Energy

From 1993 to 2000, the federal Swiss government developed a strategic program to encourage the use of heat pumps for heating. The Swiss government’s objective was to replace up to 3.5% of the quantity of heat produced by fossil fuels with heat produced by renewable energies. The promotion of heat pumps plays an important role in this strategy, under the supervision of the general «Energy 2000» program. The program was structured in three directions: - the setting up of the Swiss Association for Promotion of Heat Pumps - FWS - improving the quality and performance of heat pumps, - financial incentives for customers installing heat pumps. It should also be noted that in a number of districts, a regional program has completed the federal program. And finally, at the end of 1999 the Federal Office Of Energy launched a project for the development of heat pumps in existing homes. The "Energy 2000" program now has a successor called "Energie Suisse". Its ambition is to have at least 100 000 heating heat pumps in operation by 2010 which would mean that heat pumps represent 50% of the market in new homes and 10% of the replacement of fuel boilers market.

• The Swiss association for promotion of heat pumps - FWS

This association includes members belonging to various categories: installers, designers, and manufacturers of heat pumps, electricity companies, federal and local public authorities. The association receives 50% financial assistance by the federal government. The most important objectives of this association were: -the deployment of information and marketing activities, - the setting up and the promotion of a quality label, - the coordination of training activities.


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The marketing activities of FWS were structured in four strategic steps:

3.7.1 Foundation era (1992 – 1994) 1992 a marketing and communication concept was developed for the promotion of heat pumps in Switzerland. The main goal at this time was to inform the customer about the heat pump technology and make the heat pump technology popular and strength the confidence of the consumers in this technology. Furthermore the market has been stimulated by direct financial subsidies.

In the year 1993 the foundation of FWS and therewith the Swiss Government promotes application of heat pumps.

3.7.2 Consolidation phase (1995 – 1997) In this phase the consolidation of the market was done. Also the confidence of craftsmen inthe heat pump technology was stabilized. The slogan for this time was: Build up and extend! In the year 1996 the first National Heat Pump Expo took place. With this exhibition the harmonisation of all involved parties was consolidated. This was the time when the heat pumps became visible in the market of heating equipment and the involved parties were accepted as serious players.

3.7.3 Professionalism (1998 – 2000) At this stage heat pumps are established for new constructions, they have more than 30% market share of the new building market. The heat pump was therefore a very serious competitor to oil boilers but for replacements the heat pump was still far away from success. The network of FWS was accepted as an effective tool. At the next Heat Pump Expo the feeling of being in a challenging sector was reinforced.

3.7.4 Heat pumps for replacement market (since 2001) During this phase the Swiss Government did not promote directly, but gave money to the regional governments. The Heat Pump Expo was extended to a new national Expo together with all renewable energies (Heat Pumps, Solar and Wood). With the financing of the regional governments the regional marketing realises with the regional actors towards the local customers became important. Target market for the promotion campaigns became more and more the replacement market.

Among the very large number of information and marketing activities jointly set up by the federal government and the FWS, there are listed below those which have proved to be the most relevant:

- 3 national heat-pump exhibitions: There were three heat pump exhibitions in Switzerland with a very broad effect to the end users and to the publicity. - Information talks: There are regularly informative meetings organized for

people working in the construction industry. Additionally regularly information events for end users are organised. - Targeted media work: The target media work during the foundation and consolidation phase was focused on heat pumps in new single family houses. Nowadays heat pumps in this application are standard in Switzerland, therefore now media work is focused on “Renovating heating systems and large installations“.


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- Regularly heat pump news as a special supplement in selected trade journals - Broad effecting FWS – Advertisements in media, newspaper and journals

- Open-days for end users: cheap to organise and highly productive! For such an open door day manufacturers, utilities and local government work closely together. Nowadays more and more of them are organised in renovated buildings.

-Support for members

- Recommendation list for qualified and experienced installers - Vividly advertising slogans; for example “Heat-pumps have a promising future, other heating methods are simply traditional” - Printing and circulation of brochures about heat pumps and incentive programs, - Setting up of several information centres where interested people get objective information

- Publishing of an information letter by the Swiss association for the promotion of heat pumps

- Web-side with a broad offer of information - Preparation and dissemination of technical information folders Beside the research and development which was done by the manufacturers there was also a national program for R&D. Within this program research projects were supported (e.g. the development of advanced control systems), furthermore competitions were organised (e. g: Swiss Retrofit Heat Pump for higher supply temperatures in the retrofitting market) and additional demonstration projects were financed (e. g. combination of heat pumps and solar panels). The Winterthur testing and training centre began its heat pump testing activities in 1993. The technical tests carried out mainly focus on thermal and acoustic performance measurements of products. Performances of heat pumps were published in a bulletin and were also accessible on an Internet Web site. The centre also provides training for heat pump designers and installers. And finally the Swiss Association for Promotion of Heat Pumps has set up an after-sales service ("heat pump doctor") to deal with bad references. In the quality field, Switzerland was involved in setting up the DACH label together with Germany and Austria. The DACH label is added by a set of recommendations concerning the sizing of the installation, control and balancing of hydraulic distribution.

3.7.5 Utilities In Switzerland there are a lot of regional utilities on the market. The policy in case of heat pumps is therefore varying from district to district. Overall the utilities in the regions (where the heat pump technology is really successful) have supported the federal program. In general, utilities have set up a strategy based on four main aspects: - information of partners and the public, - providing a set of services supporting heat pumps sold, - assistance in buying, - decrease in operating costs by the setting up of special electricity prices for the use of heat pumps. This strategy has, of course been implemented in close cooperation with the other partners in the market: heat pump manufacturers, architects, constructors, design offices, installers, etc.

3.8 Current situation The total number of heat pumps in Switzerland is estimated to be about 67,000 units. Heat pumps are used both for heating and production of domestic hot water or for production of domestic hot water only. In the year 2002 there were 7,554 heating heat pumps installed. In figure 27 the development of the heat pump sales figures in connection with the new building market is illustrated. In the year 2002 the heat pump technology covers about 45,6% of the new building market.

Heat pump market


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Heat pumpsNew Buildings

Figure 27 Heat pumps <20 kW installed in new buildings (Source: FWS 2003)

But not only the new building market registered good results, the retrofitting market also become more and more important. In figure 28 the increase of the sales figures in the field of renovated buildings is shown.

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Figure 28 Sales of heat pumps <20 kW for renovated buildings (Source: FWS, 2003)

In Switzerland the outside air/water heat pump is the most common type with (52%), in second place is the ground coupled heat pump with 43% and the water/water heat pump covers 5% of the market shares. In figure 29 the partition of the different technologies is pictured.

Water/Water5%

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Air/Water52%

Figure 29 Sales of heat pumps divided by type (Source: FWS, 2003)

3.8.2 Heat pump associations FWS Swiss Association for Promotion of Heat Pumps The FWS is an umbrella organisation which includes all the major players that promote the use of heat-pumps: professional associations of planners and fitters, the heat-pump industry, the energy sector and public authorities.

-Marketing -Training -Quality assurance -Swiss Refrigeration Association -International Affairs

3.8.3 AWP Swiss Heat Pump Association The Swiss heat pump association AWP was founded in the year 1980. It is a working group for heat pump manufacturers and importers. The aim of this association is the promotion of the heat pump technology and the representation of the interests to the authorities, to other associations, organisations, test and certification centres and education establishments.

3.8.4 Swiss Geothermal Association The main task of the Swiss geothermal association is the promotion of geothermal technologies. One working part of this organisation is the vertical heat exchangers for heat pumps. Therefore the Geothermal association is closely linked to the heat pump associations.

3.8.5 Quality assurance -DACH- quality label: The DACH quality label is also used in Switzerland. There are identical requirements as used in Germany and Austria. -Heat-pump checking and testing centre: The heat pump testing centre is now situated in Buchs. The testing centre offers the possibility for testing air/water, water/water and brine/water heat pumps. This testing centre has a significant influence on the quality of the products. -education program: In Switzerland there are a few possibilities for further education in the field of heat pump technology. One is the course „environmental energy“ which is part of the penta-program. This program focuses on renewable energy technologies and marketing aspects and is developed especially of specialists in the field of HVAC (heating, ventilation, air conditioning and cooling). The university of applied sciences in Basel offers the course


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“the heat pump in the Minergie house” and furthermore there is a course “marketing and coaching for installers and utilities” available. -certified installers: This is a recommendation list of experienced installers. For acceptance on to this list the installer has to show one installed system, or he has to attend the penta training course or he could show the complete offer for one heat pump system. -certified drilling companies: The quality of a vertical heat exchanger is relevant to the efficiency of the whole system. Furthermore it is very difficult to correct mistakes at the vertical heat exchanger and mostly it is not possible. Therefore Switzerland has implemented a certification program for drilling companies. To get the certification the companies have to document the quality of the equipment, the qualification of the personal and the necessary approvals. The certification is issued for 3 years, during these three years the company is obligated to regular further education. After the three years the documentation and certification must be repeated. -heat pump doctor: The heat pump doctor is a contact point for heat pump users with problems. The doctor helps in case of conflict situations between the installer and the consumer. The number of reported problems is decreasing steadily during the last years, which is an indicator of increasing system quality. However the institution will be also needed in the future, because it is an important control mechanism for the quality assurance of the heat pump systems on the market. Due to the consumer assistance it is possible to get feedback from the customers about the most common problems.

3.9 Electrical power generation In the year 2002 56,2% of the total electricity generation was done by hydraulic power stations. 27,1% of this was covered by river power plants, the rest by storage power stations. The nuclear power stations have covered 39,5% of the electricity production and the rest of 4,3% was done by conventional thermal power plants and other power plants. In figure 30 the partition of the different technologies is diagrammed.

Nuclear40%

Hydro power56%

Thermal + other4%

Figure 30 Electricity generation Switzerland (Source: BFE, 2002)

In the case of the low percentage of thermal power plants the electricity is nearly CO2 free. That’s one of the reasons why the heat pump technology in Switzerland is accepted as a renewable energy technology.

3.10 Subsidies for heat pumps The situation for subsidies in Switzerland differs from district to district. The supporting


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institutions are often energy utilities, communities, or local energy authorities. Some of these subsidies are bound by special conditions (e.g. the heat hump must have a DACH quality label, to obtain money for the heat pump there is a requirement to improve the building standard, quality label for the vertical collector, etc

3.11 Perspectives The development of the first future perspectives has started a few years ago. This perspective is the change from the new building market to the retrofitting market. The promotion campaigns of FWS and the development of the “Swiss retrofitting heat hump” (a heat pump for supply temperatures of 65°C) is one step in this direction. But further development in the direction of better coefficients of performance at such high temperatures and higher possible supply temperatures could be an exercise for the future. The second perspective is to extend the Minergy standard on the building sector. With a growing percentage of such buildings, the CO2 emissions could be reduced. Furthermore such low energy buildings are the perfect field of application for air/water and exhausted air heat pumps.

• At the moment most of the heat pumps in Switzerland are just used for heating and hot water generation applications, but in future reversible heat pumps with cooling possibility could get more and more attractive.

• Another future perspective could be the recharge of the heat source with solar energy.


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4 THE CZECH REPUBLIC

4.1 Current Market Situation Currently, there are about 4,200 heat pump installations in the Czech Republic. 1,600 installations are estimated for 2004 and expected to be doubled in 2005. 80% of all installations are in new dwellings. The common heating and distribution system is natural gas boiler and classical radiators both in new buildings and also in the existing building stock (single family houses) and centralised systems for both heating and water heating in the living sites (blocks of flats). Direct accumulation and mixed electric heating is installed in ~ 300,000 households (~ 8% of total). Heat pump technology is relatively well known in regard to public awareness. Taking into account the investment costs and possible subsidies from various sources (up to one third of the purchase price), the heat pump is perceived as a progressive but expensive solution. There is the Czech Heat Pump Association, which was founded to disseminate information and promote education concerning heat pumps to various target groups (architects, construction engineers, designers, installation companies, authorities, potential investors). The Association is a member of the European Heat Pump Association. Their objective is also to increase the technical level of member companies to avoid or minimise faulty heat pump installations. There are dozens (!) of companies manufacturing, delivering, installing and/or maintaining the heating systems with heat pumps. About half of them are members of the Czech Heat Pump Association. Consequently, there exists some intercommunication in regard to statistics, types, quality, etc. The other companies, however, are outside the scope of the Association, and data acquiring is therefore more difficult. There is a special electricity rate for households (or companies) having heat pump installations, which makes it possible to use a low tariff for 22 hours per day. There is also the possibility to obtain support for the installation from a government programme (State Environmental Fund, up to 1/3 of the investment costs; 100,000 CZK = €312 maximum), or from the local utility (~ 20,000 CZK = €625; differs at each utility).


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4.2 Heat Pump Market Development in the Czech Republic There was practically no HP market in the Czech Republic before the year 2000; rather, there were some dozens of single installations a year. From the year 2001, apparent annual growth can be observed due to rising energy prices, namely natural gas, of which a considerable amount is used for the heating in domestic houses. At the same time, the development indicates a positive influence of state subsidies on HP installations in family houses or subsidies and low interest rates for credits for HP installations in commercial and industrial buildings. This trend of annual growth, amounting to approx. 80%, dropped in 2003 and 2004. The main causes are the new rules for subsidy assignment that are highly restrictive and in practice impossible to meet. Taking into consideration both high HP investment costs and the purchase power in the Czech Republic, acquiring the subsidy amounting to approx. 30% of the total investment and installation costs is relatively important. Using the actual price level of fuels for a calculation, the simple payback period of HP installations without any subsidy is far more than 10 years. This is the main reason why those interested in HP systems hesitate and wait for a reduction in HP prices. Such a situation helps those companies that offer cheap systems which are often of poor operating quality, damaging thus the reputation of the heat pump industry in general. Currently, about 5,000 HP systems of all sorts and principles are installed in the Czech Republic; this number is an expert‘s estimate, since there are no precise numbers at our disposal so far. We estimate last year’s amount of installations to be 1,200; this year’s number is expected to be double. 80% of all installations are in new buildings. There is a special electricity rate for households (or companies) having heat pump installations, which makes it possible to use a low tariff for 22 hours per day. There is also the possibility to obtain support for installation from a government programme (State Environmental Fund, up to 1/3 of the investment costs; 100,000 CZK maximum), or from the local electricity distribution company (~ 20,000 CZK, different for each distributor).

4.3 Current Situation Historically and currently, high temperature heating systems are installed in domestic buildings, administrative and commercial buildings, which have a water temperature of 90°C, later 80°C. In industrial buildings, there are hot water or steam systems that have a water temperature of over 100°C. During the last decade, low temperature systems are being – very slowly –installed; their majority is in floor heating systems, more rarely in wall systems. Common heating and distribution systems are natural gas boiler and classical radiators located in separate rooms both in new buildings and also in the existing building stock (single family houses), and centralised systems for both heating and water heating in apartment blocks. Direct, accumulation, and mixed electric heating is installed in ~ 300,000 households (~ 8% of total).


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New residential buildings, however, are often being equipped either completely with floor systems or in combination with radiators. The heat pump technology is relatively well known to the public. The information on this technology spreads rapidly. Taking into consideration the investment costs and possible subsidy from various sources (up to one third of the purchase price), the heat pump is perceived as a progressive but expensive solution. The principal information is issued mainly by the companies producing, importing or installing heat pump systems. There are several tens (!) of companies manufacturing, delivering, installing and/or maintaining the heating systems with heat pumps. About half of them are members of the Czech Heat Pump Association, so there is some intercommunication as to statistics, types, quality, etc. The other companies, however, are outside the reach of the Association and data acquiring is therefore more difficult. The majority of heat pumps in operation in the Czech Republic are imported from the countries where they are a common part of the household equipment. In addition to the importers, there are several Czech producers who deliver their systems to the installation companies. The Czech Heat Pump Association was founded in 2001. The member companies are producers and importers of heat pumps, installers, schools and sympathising companies, consultancies, etc. The Czech Heat Pump Association is contributing to the acceptance of HPs by participating in exhibitions, presentations, media, reports, and educative workshops for various target groups – designers, architects, state and urban authorities, etc. The Association is a member of the European Heat Pump Association. Their objective is also to increase the technical standard of member companies to avoid or minimise faulty heat pump installations. The majority of installed heat pump systems are brine/water. A change can be observed in the last years, where demand and offers of other heat pump systems, namely air/water, and the number of installations of such systems began to increase. Air/air systems are not so frequent since warm air heating is not very often installed in the Czech Republic. Water/water systems are relatively rare as the geological situation in our country is not favourable. Direct evaporation systems are implemented in a few installations only. The relation of separate systems can be estimated as follows: Brine/water 45% Air/water 40% Air/air 8% Water/water 5% Other 2% The majority of heat pump systems are installed in family houses and are about 90% of the market. The rest are commercial, industrial, sport and other buildings. If water heating is integrated in the system, it is usually integrated in the same unit. Waste heat utilisation is not very frequent; only a few installations are known of.


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Ground water utilisation is permitted if the legislation requirements on the protection of ground water are met.

4.4 Technical Description of the Most Frequent Technologies Air/water systems: The heat pump is either a „split-“configuration or compact unit. It is always equipped with an accumulation vessel of heating water and complementary/bivalent heat source. Brine/water systems are usually connected with deep beoreholes. If there are horizontal collectors, they are laid in the depth of 120 – 130 cm.

4.5 Usual distribution channels In majority, the end-users contact those producers or importers of heat pumps who are active in advertising their products. They direct their customers usually to the installation companies that co-operate with them. The customer learns about heat pumps through advertising in magazines or special exhibitions. Web pages are another good information source. The companies installing heating systems usually carry out the installation of heat pump systems. The skilled technical personnel of the installation company conduct the overall design of the heat pump system. The company installing the heat pump system is also responsible for its proper operation. Hydraulic connection, electrical and (occasionally) ventilation distribution paths are also in their field of responsibility and are either done either by their own staff or by contractors of other companies. Cooling circuits are in majority installed by specialists.

4.6 Education The Czech Heat Pump Association is preparing an initial training course on heat pump function, maintenance and repair on the basis of material from arsenal research. The material will be translated and slightly modified for our needs, and the first course will be held in the first half of 2005. From time to time, there is a training course held by some company (e.g. Stiebel Eltron, IVT,DIMPLEX, etc.), which includes heat pumps in their training programme.

4.7 Vocational Education An education programme, which deals solely with heat pump systems, does not exist in practice. Necessary skills are acquired mainly by practice (trial – error). Heat pump producers or importers hold elementary informative seminars (seminar duration is on average several hours) for designers, installers, and sales representatives. Heat pump systems are not included in the school syllabuses in detail, but there is a general description of them. Courses and training programmes are only organised by producers or importers to educate co-operating companies (or gain new ones) in the installation of their systems.

5 FRANCE

5.1 Current Market Situation 5.1.1 Development of the market Figure 31 shows the development of the French heat pump market [1], [2], and [3].

heat pump market in France (P< 80 kW)(gro und sytem;air/ water;air/ a ir (duct) )

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Figure 31 Development of the French heat pump market [1], [2], and [3

Please note that figure 10 is related only to heat pump systems that are mainly used for

heating purposes. There is a dramatic increase in sales of small heat pumps for air conditioning purposes; 75% of them are reversible. Among these 75 %, which of course are mainly bought for building cooling during summer, it is difficult to evaluate how many of them are used by customers for heating during late autumn, winter, or early spring. However, it is estimated that this number is growing. The 2 major reasons for this are: Technology development has extended operating temperature range. Low limit temperature of split systems are now reaching –15°C, which is sufficient for most parts of France Split systems are most often capacity controlled, which allows the system to reach better average efficiency and to avoid the decrease of too much thermal power at a low temperature.


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Individual air conditioning market in France

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Figure 32 Individual air conditioning market in France

5.2 Current situation Common heat distribution systems in new buildings and in the existing building stock ([5], [6] and [7]) Presently, for dwelling houses, energy consumption for heating is 317 TWh in 2002. The hydronic system is mainly used (88%) for radiators (most cases) and floor heating. Oil and gas heating systems represent 60% of the heating energy and are distributed in most case by hydronics systems. Electricity represents 28% of heating energy and is distributed mainly by radiators (convectors first, and then radiant). In new buildings, which are heated with electricity, the ratio tendency is 33% for convectors, 27% for radiant and 24% for heating floor (almost nil for heating ceilings). Only a few percent (5% in 2000, [1]) of electrical systems in new houses were HP systems. For tertiary sectors, the total energy consumption of 2000 was 209 TWh, with 112 TWh for oil and gas and 82 kWh for electricity (with 44 kWh for specific electricity use, i.e. no thermal use as heating, cooking, hot water). Thermal using was 132 TWh (113 TWh for heating, and other for cooking and hot water). From what precedes, we can deduce that of 132 TWh for thermal use, electricity represents 29%, and oil and gas represents between 60% and 71%. Exact distributions of oil, gas and electricity for heating only in tertiary sectors are not published (it exists only in confidential or private documents). Nevertheless, we can add that oil and gas heating are distributed in most case by hydronics systems. Electricity is distributed mainly by radiators (mainly convectors), and in a few cases ceiling or floor electric heating, or reversible heat pumps. Only a few people are aware of heat pump systems for house heating. In most cases, these are people with a “green” mind, who are aware of the greenhouse effect. Furthermore, people who are aware of heat pumps for heating think that the heat pump investment is high and do


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not consider the increased energy savings with the help of a heat pump. On the other hand, most people are aware of air conditioning systems, but without knowing well what that includes. Agents:

In the heat pump technology for house heating (out of split systems), ~85% are French national manufacturers, ~5% French brands with imports, and ~10% foreign brands. Heat pump systems will soon permit people to claim back part of their income tax. ANAH (National Agency for Existing Building [8]) has a grant for heat pupm systems up to 900€ (for air/water system) and 1800€ (for ground/water); for the latter, ADEME (Agency of Environment and Demand Side Management [9]) can add subsidies in some cases (for demonstration for tertiary and collective dwelling building). EDF, which is in France at the moment about the only electricity supplier, can grant a loan with a low rate ([10]) for high quality (label) electrical systems, including heat pumps. EDF is also active in heat pump activities: tests of innovative systems or new refrigerants, free advice to customers who want to install a heat pump, significant involvement in AFPAC, (French Heat Pump Association). AFPAC ([1]) includes manufacturers, installers unions, utilities, technical centres, ADEME, design offices. AFPAC is a member of EHPA. For heat pump systems taking heat from aquifer, Aquapac ([11]) proposes an insurance policy that guarantees against the lack of resources for 10 years.

distribution of heat pump types in France( for Pth < 80 kW)

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Figure 33 Distribution of heat pump types in France

Note: ground systems include: brine water/water, direct evaporation/water; direct evaporation/direct condensing. Figures related to Air/air (duct) systems must be read carefully (data not very reliable

because difficult to collect). The number of ground/systems taking heat from aquifer is very low and mainly present for tertiary sectors and collective buildings.


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5.3 Application of heat pumps Individual house heating with heat pump: The distribution of the various systems is quite similar to figure 12.

• Air/air systems (duct system) are used about equally in new and existing houses • Air/water systems are used in new houses mainly for floor heating, and in a few cases

by fan-coil, or mixed (floor + fan coil) • Ground systems are used mainly for floor heating (new houses), and in a few cases by

fan-coil, or mixed (floor + fan coil). In 2003, around 60% were brine water/water and 40% direct evaporation/water or direct condensing (the last system is authorised only for horizontal collectors in France).

• Split and multisplit systems, only for reversible systems, supply the terminal unit (often high wall or floor mounted)

Tertiary building and collective dwelling building heating

• Air/air systems (often roof–top) are mainly reversible. They are used for supermarkets or warehouses (2500 sold in 2003 [4]).

• Air/water systems are mainly reversible. They are often used for building offices, mainly by air handling units or fan-coil.

• Ground/water systems are mainly reversible systems. Heat is taken from the ground by vertical brine water collectors (for a small number of flats) or from aquifer water by way of a heat water to water exchanger (for a larger number of flats and therefore larger power). Heating water is distributed through air handling units, or fan-coil, or floor heating.

• Multisplit systems and VRV (variable refrigerant volume) are mainly reversible, and used mainly in tertiary sectors. Terminal units are often high wall or floor mounted. In 2003, 3100 multisplits and 5000 VRV were sold in France ([4])

==> Note that heat pump systems for domestic hot water are not used a lot in France (less than 100 installations up to now). - Allowed refrigerant for house heating in France

• Authorised: HFC, CO2 • In France, now mainly 407 C is used, but there is an increasing tendency towards

410A, except for direct evaporation (404A) and for hot water systems (134A). • Authorised with restriction: NH3 and HC: EN 378-1 limits their load at values that are

too low to be used with a heat pump inside houses. In practice, these refrigerants are not used for house heating in France.

• Forbidden: CFC (since 1995) and HCFC (only for new installations since January 2004) because of their high ODP.

5.4 Common distribution channels 5.4.1 For domestic applications In most cases when building new houses, builders do not propose heat pump systems because they consider them to be too expensive and complex installations (their partner installers do not possess enough knowledge in this field). This is why there are installers who look at all the planning permissions that are deposited in the town hall.


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In the case of existing houses, if a person wants to install a heat pump system, s/he has to organise it directly with companies that design and/or install heat pump systems. This means that in general the private person contacts the local small-scale company or craftsman who is specialised in heating installation, plumbing or electricity. Installers can be independent, or they can belong to an installers’ network managed by a manufacturer (especially of ground systems). Independent installers buy heat pump appliances from wholesalers (electricity, heating or plumber). Installers belonging to a manufacturer’s managed network must buy their heat pump appliances from this manufacturer. Many options are possible, but in each case, the customer holds the installer responsible:

• The installer can sub-delegate the total design, with details of each component including the proposal of the brand and the exact reference of the most important components.

• Installers belonging to a manufacturer’s network will contact their manufacturer, who will do the design.

5.4.2 Commercial applications For commercial applications, the end-user contacts some main contractors who will contact the contracting authority (e.g. architect), who will sub-delegate the heat pump system design to an engineering company, which will choose an installer.

5.5 Vocational Education There are no official education standard concerning heat pumps; nevertheless, there are education standards for cooling and/or air conditioning, mainly for tertiary sectors (food shops, etc.) and industry field. It seems that no courses focus specifically on heat pumps used for heating and air-conditioning in domestic buildings.

5.6 Qualification Certificate for persons 5.6.1 Description of the current situation There are qualifications but no certification for cooling and air conditioning.

Unlike an education level certificate, the qualifications are all awarded to a company (and not to individuals): “Qualiclimafroid” [20]: a qualification awarded for 3 years by the association Qualiclimafroid (created by federation of cooling and air-conditioning installers and manufacturers); there are many levels depending on the types of work (design, installation, maintenance,…), fields (air conditioning with or without cold production, with or without high air quality, etc.). For obtaining a qualification, a company must prove, in addition to some administrative documents:

• its organisation to be kept informed on safety and environment standards and rules • its authorisation to operate refrigerants • its technical skill with 3 existing technical installations

The company is systematically submitted to an audit “Qualibat” [21]: a qualification awarded for 5 years by the association Qualibat (created under initiative of National Construction by federation of builders, architects, and contracting


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authorities). There are many levels (> 400), including all types of work that exist in building (cement, roof, are several levels depending on the type of work, in which one can find 3 levels related to heating and air conditioning (depending on the size of installations). To obtain a qualification, a company must provide several documents: administrative documents, description of its means (tools, technical profile of employees, etc.), and description of 6 existing technical installations. In some cases, the qualification board can ask an audit and/or a technical control for verification. .

5.7 Quality label for heat pumps 5.7.1 Description of the current situation There is a label called “Promotelec” [24], which is managed by the private Promotelec Association (to which EDF belongs). This label ensures that houses (individual or collective) have a sufficient level of electrical comfort: requirements must be met for electrical systems and installation. For houses equipped with heat pump systems, the heat pump must have a minimum level of performance according to the kind of heat pump (COP, EER, low limit temperature). If the performances are certified by the EUROVENT Association, or are published in a testing report issued by an independent laboratory, retained values are those given by the manufacturers; if not, there is a degradation coefficient depending on the technology of the heat pump.


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5.8 Literature [1] www.afpac.org/

[2] AFPAC: minutes of general meeting, March 204

[3] BATIM: market of HP based on “new housing observatory”, 2003 [4] CLIM’INFO, March 2004 [5] www.industrie.gouv.fr/energie[6] BATIM : étude 2002 [7] CEREN données 2002 [8] www.anah.fr[9] revue « Chaud, Froid, Plomberie », n° 659 july 2003 [10] revue « Chaud, Froid, Plomberie », n° 661, october 2003 [11] Aquapac : plaquette available near SAF Environnement [12] Systèmes thermodynamiques : eau glycolée/eau sur plancher chauffant rafraîchissant,

guide AFF/Costic/EDF, 1998 [13] Systèmes thermodynamiques : air/eau sur plancher chauffant rafraîchissant, guide

AFF/Costic/EDF, 1998 [14] Systèmes thermodynamiques : air/eau sur unités terminales, guide Costic/EDF, 1999 [15] Générateurs réversibles air/air : guide Costic/EDF, 1999 [16] Systèmes thermodynamiques : sol/sol sur plancher chauffant, guide AFF/Costic/EDF,

1998 [17] Systèmes thermodynamiques : sol/eau sur plancher chauffant, guide AFF/Costic/EDF,

1998 [18] mémo interne EDF, 2002 [19] www.cndp.fr[20] www.qualiclimafroid.com[21] www.qualibat.com[22] www.qualifelec.com[23] AFPAC : Charte qualité installateurs PAC (projet) [24] www.promotelec.com[25] CSTB, fascicule n° 3164, October 1999 [26] Les forages pour pompes à chaleur, note EDF/DER/HE-11/99/021 [27] Qualitat, n° 61, 2000 [28] www.ademe.fr

http://www.afpac.org/

http://www.industrie.gouv.fr/energie

http://www.anah.fr/

http://www.onisep.fr/

http://www.qualiclimafroid.com/

http://www.qualiclimafroid.com/

http://www.qualifelec.com/

http://www.promotelec.com/

http://www.ademe.fr/

6 IRELAND

6.1 Current Market Situation 6.1.1 Development of the market Detailed statistics on the development of the Irish heat pump market are not available. The best indicator for this sector are results published by the Eurobserv’er programme. The most recently available data is from the 2003 Geothermal Euro-barometer, which provides data for 2001 and 2002, see table 4. Year Number Installations Installed Capacity (MWth) 2001 700 7 2002 1,000 10

Table 4 Eurobserv’er geothermal installed capacity Ireland.

Assuming linear growth in the market as a conservative estimate, it would be expected that at least a further 300 installations were completed during 2003. Discussions with heat pump suppliers, installers and importers suggest a doubling of sales in Ireland year on year. In reality, the growth of the market in Ireland is exponential. Heat pump markets in Ireland are in their infancy but show great potential for more rapid market development in the short to medium terms. A recent report [2] identified and detailed the barriers to the heat pump market in Ireland. The main barriers resulting in the slow market development of heat pump technologies identified in this report include:

• lack of awareness of heat pump technologies and associated benefits • high initial capital costs for heat pump installations when compared to conventional

fossil fuel systems • absence of generally available subsidies for renewable technologies • no tax breaks for renewable technologies • lack of qualified installers and engineers in the field of heat pump technologies • quality of installations unpredictable with no trades taking overall responsibility for

problems or poor system design • lack of commitment at the national policy making level regarding the acceleration of

market take-up of renewable energy technologies One of the major barriers to market take-off in Ireland is the high capital cost of heat pump installations. However, life-cycle analysis reveals that heat pumps are marginally viable with economic paybacks compared to conventional fossil fuel systems being in the region of 7 years. The other major barrier, lack of qualified installers and system designers, results in potential end-users losing confidence in the technology. As the heat pump market expands in Ireland, it is important to ensure that qualified and experienced installers and designers are available to end-users. Previous experience in other European countries suggests a collapse in end-user confidence could easily occur where unqualified installation companies appear in the market place in response to increasing market demand. The EU-CERT.HP project aims to provide a framework and structure for placing qualified and certified installers and system


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designers in the field and would represent the overcoming of a major barrier in developing the heat pump markets in Ireland.

6.2 Current situation Common Heat Distribution Systems The most common heat distribution system in the domestic and commercial building sector, both existing and new-built, are centralised boiler, wet distribution system and radiator heat emitters. Installed boilers almost exclusively consume fossil fuels as a primary energy source with oil, natural gas, and liquid propane gas (LPG) being favoured. Although less common, a significant number of electric storage heating systems are installed in the domestic and commercial sector in Ireland. In the domestic sector, space heating is often supplemented by coal-/wood-/peat-burning open fires/stoves. In larger commercial buildings, centralised air systems are common as a distribution system. Air conditioning (cooling) is less common in Ireland due to prevailing climatic conditions, although installations in larger commercial buildings are becoming more prevalent. The market shares of renewable technologies such as heat pumps, biomass and solar are small. With respect to heat emitters, radiators are generally wall mounted and placed under windows. Flow and return temperatures are in the region of 80° and 70°C respectively. Embedded wall and floor heating systems are not common in Ireland, although floor heating is becoming more popular. Public Awareness of Heat Pump Technologies In general, levels of awareness of renewable technologies, including heat pumps, in Ireland are low. Factors contributing to this lack of awareness with respect to heat pumps identified in a recent study [2] include:

• Little information and few marketing activities, especially on a local level • Historic poor quality installations; end-users do not appreciate quality • Many end-users do not believe in the technology • Many professionals do not believe in the technology and favour more traditional

technologies that they know well, are comfortable with, and have experience in installing

• Generally, contractors do not understand the technology – largest barrier is credibility Dissemination and awareness events take place throughout the year. Events include the Energy Show, Home & Gardens Show, and Self-Built Exhibitions for example. Manufacturers, installers and importers of heat pump technologies are represented at these events. Sustainable Energy Ireland (SEI) and more particularly the Renewable Energy Information Office (REIO) provide information on renewable energies including heat pumps to the general public as a free service. SEI are responsible for administering national funds, e.g. grants, for accelerating market take-up of renewable technologies. REIO exhibit at national events, organise workshops and implement road-shows aimed at promoting renewable technologies. Market Actors in the Field of Heat Pump Technologies The main market actors can be defined as follows:

• Manufacturers/Suppliers/Installers – largely responsible for promoting the majority of heat pump installations to date within competitive market


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• End-users – those open to idea of new products/convinced of economic and environmental merits of heat pump systems

• Promoters – national bodies such as SEI, REIO and Energy Agencies charged or with an interest in promoting renewable technologies (see previous paragraph regarding national support mechanisms)

The following manufacturers/importers are currently operating in the Irish market:

• NIBE - Sweden • Solterra - Ireland • ECO HEAT – Austria • Climate master – USA • Thermia – Sweden • Polar Bear – Canada • Waterfurnace – USA • IVT – Sweden

The Renewable Energy Information Office (REIO) currently list 14 suppliers/installers of heat pumps. Only a small number of experienced, capable, and knowledgeable installers, importers and manufacturers are available in Ireland, who take responsibility for installed systems. These pro-active entities have no means of differentiating themselves from others with little experience and no sense of commitment to the end-user installations. Currently, there is no national heat pump association. A “Geothermal Association of Ireland” exists, which incorporates some promotion of heat pumps. Visibility is low and Ireland needs to develop a high profile, well-structured and organised heat pump association. Involvement of the electricity utilities in Ireland is limited (options for selecting a preferred utility company are limited with ESB supplying the vast majority of end-users). Currently, the electricity market is not fully de-regulated with end-users of 1GWh+ only having an option to freely select their supplier. Hence, domestic customers have no choice in selecting a supplier. The market is scheduled to be fully de-regulated in 2005 and may promote further competition in offering favourable heat pump tariffs to end-users. No special heat pump tariffs or promotional offers are currently in place. Common Heat Pump Systems The most common heat pump system technologies used in Ireland are brine/water systems. Air, direct evaporation, direct condensing and exhausted air systems are available but represent a minority of installations. The most common collector is the horizontal loop buried to a depth of 700mm – 1,000mm within the site boundary. Vertical loops, water covered loops and open loops represent a minority of installations. System design is carried out by the installers, manufacturers, and importers who are often represented by one company offering a turn-key solution. Typically, heat pumps are combined with under floor heating systems and occasionally with radiator systems. A typical supply/return temperature combination for under floor heating systems is 45°/35°C. Heat pumps are currently not generally applied to domestic hot water heating applications. In commercial buildings, heat pumps are applied to heat recovery applications and air conditioning occasionally. No comprehensive statistics are available nationally to provide a breakdown on the types of heat pump systems installed. Subjective estimations provided are based on the author’s knowledge and knowledge obtained through


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questionnaires, personal interviews, and workshops in the recent “Campaign for Take Off” report. Restrictions on Use of Groundwater There are currently no restrictions on the use of groundwater for the purposes of heating using heat pumps for typically sized systems in Ireland. Permissible Refrigerants Ireland abides to regulations that are generally governed by the European guidelines with respect to the use of refrigerants. Traditional CFC refrigerants are prohibited in new equipment. HCFC refrigerants are permissible but are being phased out in line with European guidelines and directives. HFC refrigerants are being used and will continue to be used in the future. Refrigerants should not be released into the atmosphere and should be reclaimed where servicing requires, or at the end of a heat pump’s operating life. In general, Ireland is in same situation as in the other EU-15 countries.

6.3 Common distribution channels 6.3.1 For domestic applications Currently, heat pump installations are supplied, specified and installed by smaller companies in Ireland. Where end-users have become interested in a heat pump installation, their first point of contact would generally be:

• Renewable Energy Information Office (REIO) – often contacted after promotional exercises have been carried out – REIO maintain a list of heat pump installation companies in Ireland

• Installation/Supply Companies – the majority of these companies advertise through conventional media and often have a website

Heat pump companies normally carry out all aspects of the design, supply, and installation but may employ sub-contractors to carry out aspects of the installation work, e.g. electrical installation, ground collector installation. Where sub-contractors are used, the heat pump company will normally provide supervision on a number of installations until they are content that the sub-contractors can act relatively unsupervised. Commissioning of the system is normally carried out by the heat pump company. The heat pump company normally takes responsibility for the installation in terms of problems and guarantees.

6.4 Vocational Education Due to the heat pump market being small in Ireland currently, the tasks of system designer, sales person and installer often fall within the remit of a single person or a small company. As markets develop further and expand, it is probable that specialists in the individual fields will emerge. The following sub-sections approach the individual aspects separately for the purposes of this report although they may be covered simultaneously by an individual in practice.

6.5 For people installing a heat pump Installers providing a service to end-users on a commercial basis are required to satisfy national regulations with respect to refrigeration, plumbing and electrical installations. Hence, the installer normally possesses the relevant qualifications and/or experience. In Ireland, an


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installer would normally have undergone a formal training process. Typically, this would include a one year course and a three year apprenticeship. Heat pump installers in Ireland typically come from plumbing or refrigeration backgrounds specifically, or a HVAC background generally. Although vocational courses often touch on heat pump technologies, this is as part of general refrigeration and the depth of coverage is limited. Specifics of heat pumps are not covered, e.g. system installation/design within available courses. Vocational training courses in the plumbing, electrical and refrigeration trades can be undertaken full time or part time through, for example, FAS and Institutes of Technology. Training is both practical and theoretical. Apprenticeships are served with an experienced personnel in an established company or business.


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7 SLOVENIA

7.1 Introduction Slovenia is a rather small country, which, just like larger countries, had to cover all areas of activity in the past. This is why companies (or individuals) chose a general-purpose development rather than specialisation. This is strongly supported by Slovenia’s geographic variety, and previously bad transport connections, which have improved significantly in the last years. Improved transport connections and admittance of Slovenia to the EU make specialisation possible or even necessary. General-purpose in technical sense is the ability to execute different projects or installations; however, due to limited theoretical knowledge and ignorance of specific details of design, many actions are not accomplished optimally. Bad design is especially noticeable in areas where individuals (installers) install a small number of units (sometimes even just one) and are often confronted with beginner’s problems because of their personal inexperience. The use of heat pumps in Slovenia is due to its geographical variety and different restrictions very diversified. Up to now, heat pumps have been present in all regions in Slovenia and, in the past (15+ years ago), were installed by individuals (technical enthusiasts) who used them primarily for their own purpose and satisfaction. Development of heat pumps did start relatively early, with solid industrial back up (Gorenje), but there were no real economical interests and possibilities for their broad realisation. Independence of Slovenia in 1991 caused changes, also in technical fields. Representatives of different foreign heat pump manufacturers appeared on the market. Most of them had heat pumps as a parallel programme (they had no specialisation in heat pumps). As well, they provided only the equipment without any training for installers of their equipment, who were uneducated in the setup, starting and working conditions of heat pumps. Heat pumps were improperly designed and/or incorrectly assembled. Their operation was often faulty because of these errors, while end-users had the feeling that they are unsuitable and unreliable, which in due course slowed down their installation rate. Gradually, the situation improved, and today there are some manufacturers specialised in heat pumps, with appropriate equipment, trained specialists, and sufficient knowledge. However, specialized providers are more expensive. An uneducated end-user is mainly influenced by the price of the product, and thus may choose a provider who is not qualified, performs his or her job poorly, and is without supervision and support of the manufacturer (of the heat pump). In recent years, the government (MOPE) intervened in the heat pump market with its specialised agency (AURE). They prepared calls for applications of subsidies to individuals (domestic applicants) to install a heat pump in their house. Subsidies for domestic applicants were according to usage divided into:

• Heat pumps for preparation of hot sanitary water and • Heat pumps for heating of buildings (mostly single houses)

Subsidies were also issued and assigned for installation of industrial heat pumps. With this intervention, the government has strongly increased the interest in the use of heat pumps.

Unfortunately, it is estimated that the market has developed sufficiently, and thus future subsidies are not regarded as necessary any more. The purpose of education and certification of heat pumps is to stop or at least reduce unprofessional installations of heat pumps, and thus protect the end-user. At the same time, higher quality will improve the general opinion of suitability (economical) and reliability of heat pumps.

7.2 Current Market Situation 7.2.1 Development of the market The first oil price shock in 1973 showed Slovenia’s dependency (in this time as a part of SFRJ) on imported energy, and also showed the vulnerability of trade and industry, which could not exist without imported energy. After a number of years, and despite higher energy costs, nothing had changed. In 1978, the second oil price shock took place, which caused a lasting reaction. In the last ten years there was a significant increase in the installation of heat pumps. The estimated number of heat pumps for preparation of sanitary water is shown in figure 34. The average heating power of those heat pumps is between 2 and 3 kW. The number of heat pumps for building heating is much lower. The average heating power of those heat pumps is about 7 kW. The reason for this are the construction costs since heat pumps need a sufficient heat source, which usually involves a lot of surface diggings. Between five and ten industrial heat pumps were installed in the last ten years. Most of them were designed to use the waste heat from industrial plants or public swimming pools and baths.

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

num

ber o

f HP

for s

anita

r wat

er

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004year

Figure 34 Number of heat pumps for preparation of sanitary water (households)


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0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

num

ber o

f HP

for h

eatin

g

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004year

Figure 35 Number of heat pumps for heating (households)

7.3 Current situation 7.3.1 Weather conditions Although Slovenia is a very small country, it has various weather and temperature conditions. Figure 36 shows the areas of design temperature, while figure 37 shows annual temperatures (Ljubljana 2003).

Figure 36 Design temperatures in Slovenia


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-20.0

-10.0

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

day

tem

pera

ture

[°C

]

Figure 37 Average daily temperatures in Ljubljana (2003)

7.3.2 Energy situation Slovenia has no sources of liquid or gas fuels (fossil) and as such is totally dependent on import. Of all fossil fuels, coal is the only one available, but its quality is poor. This is why Slovenia also has to import some of its coal. Slovenia produces electrical energy with power plants (thermal, hydroelectric, one nuclear). The ratios of produced energy by each plant are shown in figure 38.

Electricity production by type of producers, 2002

Nuclear power plant

38,5%

Hydroelectric power plants

24,3%

Conventional thermal plants

37,1%

Figure 38 Electricity production by type of producers for 2002


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0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003Year

Hou

seho

lds

heat

sup

ply

[TJ

]

Figure 39 Use of heat by households (2002)

7.3.3 Heat distribution systems In Slovenia, hydronic heat distribution systems are common practice. Since the late nineties, low temperature heating systems with floor heating has become more important, especially in the new building sector. Common supply temperatures for floor heating systems are between 30° – 35°C. But there are still new buildings provided with radiator systems, mostly due to their costs. In the existing building stock, radiator systems are the most common heating systems. The supply temperatures depend on the building quality and on the radiators; common supply temperatures are in the range of 70° – 55°C. In the past, air heating systems combined with air conditioning were only common in large commercial buildings. Nowadays, beside these applications, there are some air heating systems combined with heat recovery from the exhausted air.

7.3.4 Use of ground water The use of underground water in Slovenia was up to now in the field of competence of local communities or its commissioned agencies, which according to the Law of Waters determines alone which use of ground water is allowed. Law and acts are still based on laws of SFRJ (1988), wherefrom Slovenia used to be a part of. In June 2004, new regulations were announced as a base of a new Law of Waters to determine water-protective regions. It also states what kinds of interventions are possible in particular regions. This enables the government to determine the regions.

7.3.5 Refrigerants Since the 1st of January 2002, the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons in new systems is prohibited in Slovenia. The alternative solution to chlorinated hydrocarbons is the use of halogenated hydrocarbons.


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In some industrial heat pumps, ammonia is used as a refrigerant too.

7.3.6 Market actors In 1991, SDHK association was established, whose field of activity also encompasses heat pumps. Some of its members (or companies that employ them) also work in the field of heat pumps. So far, a section for heat pumps has not been established yet, although there are some intentions to unite the providers of heat pumps. As part of this, the IV. SDHK Conference (1998) was organised, where 58 participants became acquainted with innovations of heat pumps and received the Proceeding of the Conference with 24 scientific and technical papers. Heat pump providers do have contacts with AURE, but they do not have a joint strategy.

7.3.7 Governmental support MOPE agency, together with its specialised AURE agency, has prepared calls for applications (in the years 2000-2004) to subsidise the efficient use of energy and renewable energy sources. The call for applications for the year 2004, which was intended for domestic applicants, has anticipated non-returnable funds:

• for the preparation of sanitary water in the amount of 45,000 SIT (~€190) or up to 40%

• for the heating of buildings in the amount of 500,000 SIT (~€2,100) or up to 40%. Previous calls for applications anticipated higher non-returnable funds for preparation of sanitary water (90,000 SIT ~ €380). In the year 2003, 396 heat pumps for preparation of sanitary water for households were subsidised and 12 heat pumps for the heating of buildings. The total amount of subsidies for households was 40,000,000 SIT (~€170.000). As to the industry in the year 2003, 10 heat pumps were installed with the help of subsidies in the total amount of 26,000,000 SIT (~€110.000), which on average represented 27% of the total investment.

7.4 Common distribution channels 7.4.1 For domestic applications If an end-user wants to buy a heat pump, it is common to contact a manufacturer/representative or installer. In many cases, users have good information about the possible installations. In most cases, the retailer or the manufacturer will do the system layout. The calculation of the heat losses is often carried out by external companies. The installation of the heat pump system is done by the installer. The installer is responsible for the whole installation. Therefore, s/he has to coordinate the other trades (drilling, digging, etc.). Often, an expert from the manufacturer undertakes the commissioning of the heat pump, but sometimes the installers do that as well. In case of a problem with the system, the installer is the first contact person for the end-user. In most cases, the installer can solve the problem if it is only a minor one. Otherwise, s/he has to organise the technical service of the manufacturer.


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In some cases, also electricians (who are further educated in the field of heating technology) deal with heat pumps. In these cases, the electrician takes over the responsibilities mentioned above.

7.5 Vocational Education for installers In Slovenia, the customer consultancy is performed by the representative or installer. In many cases, the customer has some knowledge and the decision is made by him or her. The selling, planning, and installation of heat pumps (in the field of domestic applications) are done by the installers. The education for installers of heating, ventilation, air-conditioning and cooling devices takes three years. During this time, there are three blocks of theoretical education. During the rest of the time, the practical training is done by the company. In the end of these three years, the trainees have to pass a theoretical and practical examination. After passing this examination, they are allowed to work as installers.

7.6 Existing specialised heat pump training In Slovenia, there is no specialised heat pump training course that is independent of a special manufacturer. The different manufacturers offer training courses to their partner installers to present their products.


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8 UNITED KINGDOM

8.1 Current Market Situation 8.1.1 Development of the market The UK market for space heating systems is dominated by natural gas fired boilers. This is because natural gas is very widely available in all populated areas (accessible to >90% of the population) and is generally the least cost conventional heating option. Furthermore, very strong competition in the gas appliance market keeps the capital costs of boilers low. There is thus no economic incentive for existing gas consumers to move to a different heating technology. Oil, LPG and electric heating are niche markets. Oil and LPG are mainly used in rural areas or remote sites where natural gas is unavailable. Electric heating is used in specific applications such as small apartments that are not connected to a central boiler system and some family houses that were typically built before 1970. Apartments and houses with electric heating utilise storage radiators to benefit from off-peak tariffs. Although heat pumps have been available in the UK for a long time, very few have so far been installed specifically for space heating in residential and commercial buildings, and the market penetration lags far behind most other countries in Europe. The UK Government does however recognise the benefits of reduced carbon emissions from heat pumps and financial incentives are now available under several programmes. These incentives, coupled with increasing awareness of the benefits amongst potential installers and increasing choice of systems, have boosted the market for heat pumps, but it is still tiny compared to conventional gas boilers.

8.2 Current situation The typical heating system in most modern homes is a system gas boiler with radiators and an indirect hot water cylinder. This is also the choice for many new homes though combination boiler systems are very popular both for new built and retrofit installations. Underfloor heating is not very common but is growing in popularity at the upper end of the new housing market. Most houses and purpose built apartments have an individual heating boiler. Changes to minimum energy efficiency requirements in the Building Regulations mean that almost all gas and oil fired boiler systems will in the future be fitted with condensing boilers. District and communal heating schemes are relatively uncommon except in special situations, e.g. tower blocks and sheltered (old persons) accommodation. Small commercial buildings without air conditioning use radiator systems similar to houses. There are a wide variety of possible systems for air conditioned buildings but the most popular is based on ceiling mounted four pipe fan coils for heating and cooling. Since heat pumps are relatively uncommon, it is likely that the average householder would be unaware of this option when choosing a heating system. Domestic heating engineers, plumbers, and building professionals are generally aware of what heat pumps can do but are


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unlikely to have personal experience. When considering boiler replacement options (usually when the existing boiler has failed and cannot be repaired), a householder will tend to seek advice from the local heating engineer or plumber. This will tend to result in a like-for-like replacement with the specific choice of boiler based on financial criteria. Some householders will undertake an Internet search of suppliers for the best prices and possibly look at the SEDBUK database of boiler efficiencies. There is little chance they will encounter details of heat pumps unless they are specifically looking for them. There are a number of UK companies building heat pump systems for heating, but most of the key components, such as compressors and heat exchangers, are imported. Most of the common Japanese and European brands are also represented in the market place. Eleven manufacturers of heat pumps are represented by the UK Heat Pump Association (HPA) (a member of EHPA). These are: Airedale International Calorex Heat Pumps Ltd Carrier Air Conditioning Clivet UK Ltd Colt International Ltd Daikin Europe NV

Eaton-Williams Group Ltd Fujitsu General (UK) Co IMI Air Conditioning Ltd Toshiba Carrier UK Ltd Viessmann UK Ltd

Table 5 Heat Pump manufacturers represented by UK HPA

Other manufacturers/importers/brands represented in the market include Accorovi, Belcur, Breaire, Ciat (UK), Climagas, Climatec, Climatemaster, Coolmation, Daikin, Dantherm, ETT, Geoscience, HC Troldahl, Hitesca, IVT, Markus, McQuay, Menerga, Mitsubishi, Multiclima, Panasonic, Simair and Soltherm. Independent installers would generally be members of the Heating and Ventilating Contractors Association (HVCA) or the Association of Plumbing and Heating Contractors (APHC). Heat pumps are promoted by the Government through various bodies including:

- Clearskies Programme (support for demonstration projects) - Energy Saving Trust/Energy Efficiency Best Practice in Housing (financial support

and advice to householders) - Action Energy (advice for businesses) - - The most common form of heat pump in the UK is the reversible air to air split

unit, but in reality the heating function is rarely used. “Real” heating systems include:

- water to water (in-building heating/cooling redistribution) - air to air (condensing exhaust heat recovery) - air to water (condensing exhaust heat recovery) - open loop ground source - closed loop ground source

The condensing exhaust heat recover systems are mainly used for swimming pool and leisure centres, for space and/or pool water heating. A small number of open loop systems for medium/large building heating and cooling applications have been demonstrated based on bore holes and ground water extraction. The predominant system for housing applications (although still small in numbers) would be the closed loop ground source system for heating and domestic hot water.


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The use of ground water generally requires approval by the Environment Agency and stringent conditions may be applied to protect the aquifer and discharge sink. Closed loop systems do not generally require regulatory approval, but consideration must be given to minimising the risk of ground contamination during installation and in the event of leakage from the ground loop. The working fluid in the ground loop is usually water. The UK complies with the Montreal protocol in the use of refrigerants, and there are significant penalties for the deliberate release of refrigerants that could harm the ozone layer. In the future, it is likely that only approved persons will be allowed to handle some refrigerants. There are no restrictions on the use of hydrocarbon based refrigerants in heat pump systems.

8.3 Technical description of the most common technologies 8.3.1 Water/Water Open loop water source systems are occasionally used where ground conditions permit, particularly for large commercial applications. Water is pumped from a borehole and discharged to a river or lake. Re-injection to the aquifer is less common. Other sources that have been considered include mine water but the costs associated with water treatment to remove contaminants can be prohibitive.

8.3.2 Brine/Water The most common form of system for domestic applications (now and probably in the future) is the closed loop ground source system. Both shallow buried coils and boreholes are used depending on local ground conditions. Heat is pumped to underfloor heating (mainly new houses) or radiators (mainly retrofit systems). Ground source heat pumps with DX coils are not generally used.

8.3.3 Exhaust air Exhaust air heat pump heat recovery systems are widely used in swimming pools and leisure centres to recover the latent heat content of moist air. They are not used in housing.

8.3.4 Air/Air This is numerically the most common type of heat pump, in the form of packaged through the wall/window units. They are mainly installed in commercial buildings as reversible air conditioning units but rarely used for heating.

8.3.5 In-building heat pumps In-building heat pumps work by transferring heat from areas that need cooling to areas that need heating. The balance of the heating and cooling requirements is provided by a conventional heating and cooling plant. There are examples of refrigerant based distribution systems (variable refrigerant flow – VRF) and water based distribution systems e.g. Versatemp.


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8.4 Common distribution channels At the present state of the market, most of the domestic sales are going to consumers that have some awareness of the technology, i.e. they may be people who are aware of the environmental benefits of heat pumps and actively seek out the suppliers. Architects also play a significant role as intermediary. There is little if any direct marketing effort from suppliers or installers to end-users. Simple systems may be installed by heating and plumbing or air conditioning engineers, but more complex systems are installed directly by manufacturers/distributors or sub-contracted installers. The installation of ground loops is generally considered a specialist task and may be undertaken by a different contractor from the internal parts of the heating system.

8.5 Vocational Education There is practical training available for installers from colleges (as part of air conditioning courses) and from manufacturers. College courses are part of the system of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ). Air conditioning courses may be split into several modules of one to three days duration covering different issues, e.g. refrigerant handling. Achievement of the qualification is dependent on assessment and examination. Admission to advanced NVQ courses may require entry qualifications. Manufacturers’ courses are orientated towards the practical installation of specific products, although the general theory and operating principles are usually covered. A certificate of attendance will normally be issued. Manufacturers’ courses do not generally require entry qualifications but may suggest that relevant experience would be helpful.

9 SWEDEN

9.1 Heating Systems The most common heating systems for domestic use in Sweden are hydronic heating systems and direct-acting electric radiators. Ducted air distribution systems are rare in the domestic sector but used in commercial buildings. Previous to 1980 radiator systems used high temperatures, typically 80/60, i.e. a supply temperature of 80°C and return temperature of 60°C at the design outdoor temperature. In 1984 new building regulations were issued where, it was prescribed that hydronic heating systems must be designed in such a way that the supply temperature at the design outdoor temperature does not exceed 55°C. Many of the old systems could also be adjusted to these temperature levels because they were oversized. Other actions such as extra insulation of the house also helped to decrease the temperature levels. Thus the most common temperature levels today are 55/45 at the design outdoor temperature. At present under floor heating systems are gaining market share, probably due to comfort and aesthetical reasons. These systems are typically designed for 35/28 at design outdoor temperature. When a direct-acting electric heating system is changed to hydronic systems, a fan-coil system is the most convenient choice. These systems also work with low temperatures and will probably be more common in the future since the Swedish policy is to decrease the use of direct-acting electric heating.

9.2 Energy prices Figure 40 shows the development of energy prices in Sweden since 1970. The figure reveals a similar pattern to other European countries. In contrast to most other European countries, the price of electric heating has ever since the seventies been in the same order as heating provided by conventional oil boilers. This is perhaps the single most important factor that heat pumps have had such a great success in Sweden.

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*75% boiler efficiency

Figure 40 Energy prices in Sweden 1970-2004


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9.3 Heat pump market development The market for domestic heat pumps in Sweden has during the last decade gone through an enormous development (see figure 41). The total sales of domestic heat pumps reached over 66 thousand units 2004 (Swedish Heat Pump Association 2005). On top of that somewhere in between 40 000-50 000 reversible air/air heat pumps, (of which only a minor part is included in the statistics compiled by the Swedish Heat Pump Association) were sold 2004. All together more than 100 thousand heat pumps were thus sold in Sweden 2004, a country consisting of approximately 1.6 million single-family houses. Due to escalating price of oil and electricity in conjunction with the increase on energy related taxes the market for heat pumps continuous to grow at a high pace.

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Figure 41 Heat pump market development in Sweden 1994-2004 (Swedish Heat Pump Association 2005)

At the beginning of the eighties generous subsidies and a lot of talk about energy crises made it easy to market heat pumps. Subsidies were given in the form of interest free state loans. This was a time when the market was invaded by a large number of fortune seekers, offering products often of poor quality and promises of enormous savings, which the installations never could achieve. All this led to a large number of failed installations and the market lost almost all credibility. 1984 the market reached a peak, but then because of poor reputation the market was stricken at the same time as the subsidies were withdrawn and the market dropped. The fact that oil prices at this time were decreasing contributed to the market decline. Only a very small number of manufacturers survived this period. It wasn’t until the end of the eighties when Sweden was reaching the top of the economic boom that the market recovered. This was helped by increasing oil prices and the fact there were a large number of houses being built. Then a recession hit Sweden in the beginning of the nineties, people had little hope for the future and even less interest for heat pumps. There were hardly any houses built and the market dropped once again. The change in sales trend is a result of the ending recession and a successful heat pump competition that received a lot of good publicity. An interesting observation from the statistics shows that the types of systems have changed a lot during the last two decades. If we look at figure 26, representing the situation 1984, we find that air/water systems were dominating and that air/air units were as little as 2%. At this time there were as many as 9% of open liquid loop/water systems. This type since then has nearly disappeared.


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38%

2%30%

21%

9%

Air/Water 38%

Air/Air 2%

Exhaust Air 30%

Closed Liquid Loop/Water 21%

Open Liquid Loop/Water 9%

Figure 42 Market situation 1984 (Source: SVEP)

The picture of the situation in 1990 (figure 43) is completely different. At this time exhaust air heat pumps have reached a market share of 44%, but the most interesting observation is that air/air units have gained such high figures and that the air/water units minimal, because of numerous installations that failed in the beginning of the eighties.

45%

44%

9% 2% Air/Water 2%

Air/Air 45%

Exhaust Air 44%

Closed Liquid Loop/Water 9%


If we then look at the current situation (figure 44), the picture has changed again. The closed liquid/water systems, of which the ground source heat pumps are the major part, completely dominates, followed by exhaust air heat pumps. As we’ve seen it’s only the exhaust air heat pumps that have maintained a stable market share over this period. The market share for exhaust air heat pumps is expected to increase in the future as the new construction is believed to finally pick up speed and due to the fact that the replacement market for older exhaust air heat pumps will start to grow.

9% 9%

23%59%

Air/WaterAir/AirExhaust airClosed liquid loop/Water



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9.4 Building standards There are altogether 1 775 000 single family houses in Sweden. The building stock is fairly old, 43% of the dwellings were built before 1961. New construction has been extremely low ever since the last recession in the beginning of the nineties. The total number of new constructed single-family houses 2002 was 7227. In comparison, the total number of new single-family houses in 1975 was 47 057. Strict building regulations combined with a high degree of energy awareness have led to the fact that those new constructed buildings are well insulated, thus leading to low heating demand. The tight envelope of the new buildings raises the demand for controlled ventilation. As a result exhaust air heat pumps are prevalent in new dwellings. The majority of the building stock though, still relies on natural ventilation. Except for the buildings heated by direct electricity, hydronic radiators are still the dominating form of heat distribution within the building. Air distribution systems in dwellings are very rare. Heat pumps are today installed in more than 90% of the new single family houses. The low rate of new construction however, implies that the biggest market potential stems from the existing building stock. The following chart shows the heat demand per square meter and year for buildings, which were typical for their construction year. Data provided by the Mid Sweden University.

Year of building construction Heat demand kWh/m²a

Till 1950 176

From 1950 till 1965 164

From 1965 till 1975 152

From 1975 till 1980 128

From 1980 till 1990 120

Since 1990 108

Table 6 Average annual heat demand in Sweden Data provided by The Mid Sweden University

9.5 Why the time was ripe for the heat pump technology As in the other countries during the oil price shock in the eighties people were looking for alternatives to conventional oil boilers. The installation of heat pumps became an interesting alternative, because of the low operating cost due to low electricity prices and the relatively high cost of oil, heat pumps were also a fully automatic heating system and the required space for heat pump installation was little. The implementation of financial incentives by the government for replacing direct electric or fuel heating was also an incentive for the heat pump technology. The environmental policy of Europe was also a driving force. Under the pressure of environmental requirements and in particular the reduction of CO2 released into atmosphere, the development of the heat pump market has, since the beginning of the 1990s, been given a fresh impetus.

9.6 What were the main barriers to overcome The predominance of water type central heating systems and direct electrical systems without hydronic heat distribution and the low degree of development in air conditioning systems in


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Europe meant that the conditions for replacing old systems by heat pumps were technically difficult and that the qualification of plumbers for installing these type of products were non-existent. Furthermore there was no ecological awareness for reducing energy consumption and for the use of renewable energy systems in the population. People could not imagine how such a machine could heat the house with the cold earth and they were sceptical about the new technology.

9.7 Way to success Governmental subsidies were given from the year 1981 to the year 1991 financial grants for heat pump installations were available. The form of subsidies has varied in type and size during the years. In the 1980s, subsidies were available for single and multifamily housing facilities, but during the 90s they have been available mostly for single family dwellings. Sweden has had the following types of subsidies over the years: • Loans with special interest subventions for single and multifamily houses • Cash contributions to multifamily housing installation, dependent on the number of

installations • Cash contributions to multifamily housing installation, dependent on the total costs of

installation • Income tax reduction for single house residents equivalent to a certain percentage of the

total cost up to a fixed amount (renovation subsidy)

The different subsidies have had a different effect on the market. The first two types aimed to increase the number of heat pump installation while the third aimed to stimulate the conversion of direct electric heated buildings into water loop systems and the fourth subvention aimed to stimulate the overall building industry and was valid for any kind of investment concerning the building fabric or the heating system. The subsidies contributed to an increase of heat pumps sales, but they had to be carefully drafted. If the subsidies in Sweden had been drafted with better judgement from the beginning the effects could have been much more powerful and the establishment and growth of a functioning heat pump industry would have been faster. Positive effects of subsidies: The largest positive effect of subsidies is probably the publicity and the focus it gives to the product and the increased activity it brings to the entire market. When a subsidy is introduced, media coverage is stimulated. This brings additional coverage on the television, newspaper and radio. Professional literature and monthly/weekly magazines write editorial texts about product marketing in a very positive and professional way. The government which is responsible for the subsidy distributes information to the public. This is done, when the subsidy is introduced, during the time it is available and before it expires, through mailing and in the mass media. This information plays a very important role for a product that is new and still not well tried. It creates a governmental-acceptance of it. Once the product is authorised by the government and the authorities, the lack of confidence and the scepticism is diminished radically. The market players, the manufacturers and the installers are also activated when there are subsidies for their products. It makes them more focused on the specific product, inventing new forms of marketing, pulling the market onwards through information seminars, direct mailing and advertising. The non monetary effects of a subsidy, described above, are probably the most important to the market introduction of a new product or technology.


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Without any doubt the subsidy itself helps to increase sales. The investment cost becomes lower and the profitability gets higher, which brings greater business opportunities. The subsidies also work in a somewhat irrational manner, meaning that the subsidies are highly valued in the eyes of the investor. In other words, the customer buys the product because he feels that he can not "afford" to miss out on a governmental subsidy. When a subsidy is introduced it always involves certain rules and regulations. This creates a need for standardisation/regulations for the product which, in most cases is positive for the long-term development on the market. The sooner these regulations are introduced the better, provided that they are relevant. Disadvantages with subsidies Subsidies also have a lot of disadvantages. When a subsidy is introduced the whole chain of market players are subject to great stress. The manufacturers are faced with sudden high demand on volume; retailers, consultants and installers get very busy. This causes a lack of products and trained personnel within the whole market chain. And the quality suffers. The rising demand also lures less serious parties, "gold diggers", to the line of business. The construction of a subsidy can help sell a product or a system that would not be interesting for the market without subsidies. lf this happens, the boost provided by the subsidy will work only to prolong the continued market introduction. An example is that if sufficiently large subsidies are given, the dimensioning of the heat pumps will be a hundred percent of the heat demand. When the subsidy expires there will be no market/profitability for the systems that have evolved during the time of subsidies. The market players must once more undertake adaptations to the new situation and the timeframe for sustainable growth will be postponed. Rumors on subsidies, changes in subsidies or diffuse announcements on the subsidies often cause large interruptions in the market introduction of heat pumps. A frightening example of this was displayed in Sweden in 1998. In February of that year, the authorities announced that subsidies for heat pump and bio-energy installations would be introduced. What they did not say, on the other hand, was which conditions that applied, what products that were included, how large the subsidies would be and during what time period they would be valid. Not until the month of May, four months later, were the conditions published. The consequences were devastating. All sales on products related to this ceased during this period. Many companies went bankrupt or placed in severe economical difficulties. Who would buy a heat pump now if they think that there will be subsidies to do so in the near future? Recommendations However it takes a period of 5 - 10 years to create a market. Therefore it is necessary that the subsidy is valid over a long time period. The market players must know the conditions and be given an opportunity to develop products, marketing/sales channels and educate installers and service technicians over a reasonable timeframe. The introduction of a subsidy must be loud and clear. When a subsidy is introduced, all parts of it must be described. What is the nature of the subsidy? How large amount is it? When is it valid? For how long is it valid? Who will receive the subsidy? How does one apply? The transition from a period of a certain subsidy to another or to a time without subsidies must be very smooth, and with great notice. For a subsidy to have the intended effect it must be neither too large nor too small. Too large an amount will create a great change in the demand of the product that the market players will not be able to deal with. Too small an amount, on the other hand, will not give the boost that is intended. A subsidy should be just large enough to give reasonable profitability to a heat pump installation to a real estate owner. Judging from the experiences in Sweden a heat pump installation should have a pay-back period of 5~7 years compared to other heating systems, in order to be attractive.


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Alternatives to subsidies • Legislation, massive training of the market players and extensive long-term

marketing of the technology can be alternatives to subsidies to hasten the market transformation for the heat pumping techniques.

• Other governmental support The Swedish government has followed an active heat pump development policy. Beside the subsidies, the Swedish government was also active in the field of communication and Information. Efforts were made, not only in technical publications, but also and above all in the general press and on television, an effort which had a very strong impact on market development. In Sweden, heat pumps are now considered a «natural heating» solution.

• Swedish heat pump association The setting up of the national heat pump association SVEP in the year 1980 has played the key role in the development of the heat pump market in Sweden. This association includes all important market partners (equipment manufacturers, installers, etc.). SVEP was responsible for lobbying, information, dissemination and the promotion of quality. This quality promotion has resulted in the setting up of a label for the installation of quality systems and a training package in the sizing and installation of heat pumps. Furthermore they have developed a very innovative measure for provide consumer confidence in the new technology. They offered a kind of all -inclusive insurance for heat pumps. So the consumers have no expenses if problems arise with the new technology and therefore take no risk with the new technology. The heat pump association was also linked closely to the installers association.

• Electricity utility Vattenfall The electricity utility Vattenfall was especially dedicated in the field of heat pumps. They have financed manufacturers for research and development in the field of heat pump technology and they worked together with the energy engineer association and the plumbing association. Furthermore they have accompanied the movement through the setting up of a heat pump promotion program, and providing financial incentives with a view to reducing investment costs.

9.8 Current situation market situation The Swedish heat pump market is very strong at the moment. Nearly 40 thousand units were sold in the year 2002 and there are no signs of market decline, in fact the market has shown strong growth ever since 1995. As previously mentioned the Swedish building stock of single-family houses is old with relatively high demands for heating. This fact gives the opportunity for the relatively expensive ground source heat pumps to become more cost effective than the cost of ever-rising bills from electricity- and oil suppliers. The Swedish heat pump market is currently prospering as oil burners and electric boilers are replaced by heat pumps at a high rate. Substitute products such as district heating and wood pellet burners that benefits from lower initial cost, challenge the heat pump. As for new construction, exhaust air heat pumps offer the most cost effective alternative and are common in new houses. The Swedish heat pump market is now self-sustaining and has reached a level where heat pump programs initiated by authorities are welcomed but not indispensable. It has however been a bumpy ride for the manufacturers that have endured the market development. The preferred system


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solution has evolved over the years. Today we see that integrated ground source heat pumps (unit including domestic hot water container and distribution pumps) dominate the refurbishment segment and exhaust air heat pumps dominate the segment of new construction. Swedish heat pump associations There are two heat pump associations in Sweden, SVEP and SEV. The two heat pump associations are together engaging more than 700 member companies. In addition to manufacturers and importers of heat pumps the two associations consist of installers and producers of heat pump accessories. The heat pump associations are responsible for lobbying, dissemination of information and training of installers.

Swedish training scheme - certification Target groups for the Swedish education scheme are mainly installers. The duration of a training course is 5 full days, but there is also a distance learning option. This course includes a one-day seminar, one-day laboratory and the rest is done via Internet. The head of the training scheme is the Mid Sweden University, Härnösand. The subjects are environmental topics, building constructions, refrigeration technique, heat pump technique (which includes heat sources, indirect and direct systems, collectors, sizing, heat pump/distribution system, domestic hot water, control principals, installation, service and maintenance, product specifications), heating and cooling, calculation and design and additional law and regulations. At the end of the course participants must pass a test for certification.

Existing heat pump labels There are two labeling systems in Sweden today, the P-mark, which is a quality label and the Swan which is an eco-label. 1. The P-label The P–mark is a quality mark that has been developed by the SP, The Swedish National Testing and Research Institute together with the Swedish heat pump associations and manufacturers. To receive the label the product must fulfil:

• Efficiency demands (COP at certain operating points) • Efficiency demands when heating domestic hot water (if applicable) • The Swedish Refrigeration Code • The Swedish Building Regulations • Noise levels according to the Swedish Building Regulations • Demands for CE-labelling, both for electricity and pressure vessels • Demands on the information in the manuals and installation instructions • Demands on the quality of the manufacturing; this is controlled by surveillance

inspections 2. The Swan label The Swan is the official Nordic Eco label, introduced by the Nordic Council of Ministers. The Swan logo demonstrates that a product is a good environmental choice. The green symbol is available for around 60 product groups for which it is felt that eco labelling is needed and will be beneficial. The Swan checks that products fulfil certain criteria using methods such as samples from independent laboratories, certificates and control visits.

• Noise

• The refrigerant • The secondary refrigerant • Plastic details • Surface treatments • Packaging material • Efficiency • The information material • Requirements on efficiency • Requirements on training of the installer •

9.9 Electrical power generation The electrical power generation in Sweden is mainly done by hydro and nuclear power stations. Hydro energy covers 54% of the electricity production of Sweden, nuclear power has 37%, only 6% of the Swedish power generation is done by fossil fuels and the remaining 3% is covered by other power stations. Because of this splitting the Swedish electricity is relatively CO2 neutral, which is a good ecological argument for using heat pumps. In figure 30 the proportions of Swedish energy generation are demonstrated.

Gas 0,4%

Hydro power 40%Coal 3,3%

Wind 0,5%Nuclear 49,5%

Oil 3,2%

Biomass 3,1%

Figure 45 Power generation in Sweden 2003 (Source: Swedish Energy Agency)

Subsidies The Swedish heat pump market is now self-sustaining and has reached a level where governmental heat pump programs are welcomed but not indispensable. Comparison of operating costs Official energy prices are evaluated annually by the Swedish Energy Agency. The table below reveal relevant net energy prices 2004 (all taxes included) for single family houses with 20 MWh heating demand

euro cents/kWh heating

Direct electricity 9,8Heat pump (SPF=2,5) 6,3District heating 6,6Oil 9,1Biomass 5,7

Table 7 Operating costs for heating systems (Source: Swedish Energy Agency 2004)

9.10 Future perspectives


78The Swedish heat pump market today is very successful, Sweden is one of the countries


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where the technology is not only a curiosity. The heat pump technology is a real competitor to conventional heating systems. The Swedish market is in a position were it is self sustainable, without the need for governmental support. The heat pump technology is today a “conventional” heating system and nobody needs convincing about the efficiency and the functionality of this technology. Therefore, in the future the heat pump technology would also be an important part of the Swedish heating market; even though the heat pump would receive more competition from other alternative heating systems (e.g. biomass).


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heat pumps - technology and environmental impact

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