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Herbs and Spices

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Page 1: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Herbs and Spices

Page 2: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Herbs and spices

Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin

Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or other plant parts of tropical origin

While herbs and spices are mainly associated with cooking, they have been used in medicine, as natural dyes, and in the perfume and cosmetic industries

Page 3: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Essential Oils

Volatile substances that contribute to the essence or aroma of certain plants

Most commonly found in leaves, flowers, and fruits where they occur in specialized cells or glands

Chemically, essential oils are classified as terpenes - type of hydrocarbon

In flowers they attract pollinators

Page 4: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Early history of spices

Primitive people were attracted to aromas of these plants and found uses for them

Ancient Egyptians used herbs and spices extensively in medicine, cooking, embalming, and as perfumes and incense.

Ebers Papyrus dated about 3500 years ago is a scroll that lists the medical uses of many plants

Page 5: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Ebers Papyrus

Anise, caraway, mustard, saffron and many others

Cinnamon and cassia also mentioned in Egyptian records

These two spices, native to Southeast Asia and China, are evidence that an active spice trade was already in existence

Page 6: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Ancient Greek trade

During ancient Greek civilization, the spice trade was flourishing between the Mediterranean region and the Far East

Spices such as the cinnamon and cassia as well as black pepper and ginger from India

Arab merchants brought the spices by caravan from India, China, and Southeast Asia (Spice Islands in East Indies)

Page 7: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

The Roman spice trade

Spices were even more prominent in the Roman Empire

After first century, Rome began trading directly with India by ship, breaking the centuries-old Arab monopoly

When Rome fell in 476 A.D. the spice trade virtually disappeared

Centuries elapsed before the spice trade actively resumed

Page 8: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Dark Ages

Exotic spices from the East were rare Europeans had to rely on native

temperate herbs and many valued for medicinal uses

Merchant travelers kept a limited supply of spices from the Arab trading centers

Crusades, beginning in 1095, increased the spices from the Near East

Page 9: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Marco Polo

Venice and Genoa rose in 12th and 13th century Venetian who influenced spice trade - Marco Polo Traveled to the court of Kubla Khan in China in

1271 and spent 25 years in the Orient - saw its riches and wrote about it on his return

Increased European desire for spices Lured more and more travelers eastward New overland routes were established and soon

explorers were searching for sea routes to the East

Page 10: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Henry the Navigator

Prince Henry of Portugal wanted to break the Venetian-Muslim trade monopoly

He established a school of navigation in 1418 to find a sea route to the Orient

His efforts laid the ground work for the Age of Exploration

Page 11: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Age of Exploration

In 1486 Bartholomew Dias discovered the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa, proving a sea route to India was possible

Vasco da Gama made the possibility a reality when he reached the west coast of India in 1497

Page 12: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Christopher Columbus

Sailed west in search of spices of the East He was convinced that he had discovered the

route to China and Japan. Christopher Columbus never found black

pepper and cinnamon, but he firmly establish Spain's claim to the New World

He did introduce many plants including yams, sweet potato, cassava, kidney beans, maize, capsicum peppers, and tobacco

Page 13: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Ferdinand Magellan

Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, also sailing for Spain, led the expedition that circumnavigated the globe (1519-1522) and discovered a western route to the Spice Islands

Page 14: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Imperialism - Portuguese control

During the 16th century, Portugal monopolized spice trade through its outposts in India, China, Japan and the Spice Islands

The Portuguese were ruthless in their control, often enslaving native populations to labor in the plantations.

Price of spices soared throughout Europe, and the revenues brought tremendous wealth and power to Portugal

Page 15: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Dutch control

Dutch and English broke the Portuguese control early in the 17th century

By 1621 the Dutch forced the Portuguese from the Spice Islands

Dominant force in the East Indies, Ceylon, and the Persian Gulf spice markets

Even harsher than the Portuguese To inflate prices of nutmegs and cloves,

uprooted 75% of trees on the Spice Islands.

Page 16: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

English control

In the later half of the 18th century the Dutch monopoly began to break down

British and French began spice plantations in their own colonies

By the end of the 18th century, 200 years of Dutch control ended

Early in 19th century the English East India Company had control over most of the spice-rich Orient

Page 17: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

No more spice monopolies

In the 19th century spice monopolies had ended

Decentralization of the spice trade had begun and a spice monopoly would never occur again

Page 18: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

New World Discoveries

The New World spices, introduced first to Spain, included allspice, vanilla, and several varieties of capsicum peppers such as chili peppers and paprika.

Page 19: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Old World Spices

* Cassia ------------------------------ bark* Cinnamon ------------------- inner bark* Cloves ---------------------- flower bud* Ginger -------------------------- rhizome* Nutmeg and mace --- seed and aril* Black Pepper ----------------------- fruit* Saffron --------------------------- stigma* Turmeric ----------------------- rhizome

Page 20: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Cinnamon

From bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum tree One of the oldest and most valuable spices Native to India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon) Use documented in ancient Egyptian,

Biblical, Greek, Roman, and Chinese accounts

One of the main spices sought after in the explorations of the 15th and 16th centuries

Page 21: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Botany of cinnamon

Two-year old stems and twigs cut and the bark removed

Outer layer of the bark is scraped away and inner bark curls into quills

Pieces and trimmings ground

Page 22: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Cassia

The similar spice also called cinnamon comes from several related species, but primarily Cinnamomum cassia native to Southeast Asia

Entire bark is used to make the quills In US much of cinnamon may actually

be cassia

Page 23: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Black and white pepper

From dried berries of Piper nigrum Vine native to India and East Indies Biting flavor of pepper due to volatile oils Strongest when first ground but the

spice loses flavor after grinding

Page 24: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Black pepper

Berries picked green, dried for a few days during which they turn black and shrivel

Sold whole as peppercorns or ground pepper

Page 25: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

White pepper

Berries ripen on the vine, outer hull is removed leaving a grayish-white kernel that is ground

White pepper is slightly milder

Page 26: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Cloves

Native to the Moluccas (the Spice Islands) Unopened flower buds of Eugenia

caryophyllata, an evergreen tree Buds are dried and marketed as whole

cloves or ground Clove oil has been used in medicines,

disinfectants, mouthwashes, tooth pastes, soaps, and perfumes

Page 27: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Cloves

Page 28: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Nutmeg and mace

Two spices from fruit of a single plant Nutmeg tree - Myristica fragrans native to

the Spice Islands in the East Indies Apricot-like fruit with a fleshy mesocarp Inside mesocarp is an aril-covered

endocarp Aril is a thin red net-like covering around

the endocarp

Page 29: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or
Page 30: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Nutmeg and mace - the spices

Aril dried and ground as spice mace Stony endocarp and seed dried until the

seed rattles Seed is nutmeg - sold whole or ground Both spices have similar properties with a

strong, spicy but slightly bitter, aromatic flavor and are used in baking sweets as well as meat and vegetable dishes

Page 31: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Hallucinogenic properties

Both nutmeg and mace - hallucinogens. Large quantities of either spice must be

consumed. Essential oils contain hallucinogens, but

because of the toxicity of these compounds, the hallucinations are accompanied by many unpleasant side effects including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and headaches.

Page 32: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Nutmeg and Mace in history

Not known to ancient western civilizations Reached Europe by the 12th century and

were two valued spices of the Middle Ages Yankee traders in the 19th century

developed a scam by producing fake wooden nutmegs which they sold as the real thing - Connecticut- "Nutmeg State"

Page 33: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Ginger

From the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale, a small herbaceous perennial native to tropical Asia but cultivated throughout the tropics

Aroma and taste - spicy, hot, pungent, Best ginger today said to be from Jamaica Introduced into the New World by the

Spanish, so successfully that by 1547 Jamaica was exporting ginger

Page 34: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Ginger Rhizome

Page 35: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Turmeric

Also native to tropical Asia, Curcuma longa Another spice obtained from a dried

rhizome - same family as ginger Turmeric is also used as a brilliant yellow

dye to color both food and fabric Ingredient in prepared yellow mustard One of main spice in curry powder, and

often a substitute for saffron

Page 36: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Saffron - the world's most expensive spice

From stigmas of crocus, Crocus sativus Native to eastern Mediterranean countries

and Asia Minor Not an exotic spices from the Far East, but it

was highly desired by the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Assyria, Phoenicia, Persia, Greece, and Rome as spice and dye

Today - Spain is leading producer

Page 37: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Crocus flowers

Page 38: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Saffron harvesting

The blooming period is short, about two weeks - flowers must be picked in full bloom often just a hew hours

Three-parted stigmas carefully removed Speed important before the petals wilt Traditionally done by hand Stigmas dried by slow roasting and sold

as either saffron threads or powdered

Page 39: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Harvesting

Page 40: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Most costly spice

Stigmas from 75,000 to 100,000 flowers for one pound of the spice.

Retail price of saffron $7 to $8 per gram (over $200 per ounce)

Fakes known to include turmeric, marigold or safflower petals, or other substances.

Flavor: pungent, slightly bitter, and musky Widely used in French, Spanish, Middle

Eastern, and Indian cooking

Page 41: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

New World Spices

Allspice -------------------------- fruit Capsicum peppers ----------- fruit Vanilla --------------------------- fruit

Page 42: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Capsicum peppers

Discovered by Columbus and introduced to Spain

Capsicum fruits as pungent as the Oriental black pepper

He believed that his voyage west in search of spices had been justified

Page 43: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Early history of Capsicum peppers

Cultivated for thousands of years in tropical America

Exact time of domestication not known Fragments of a 9000 year old chili

pepper were discovered in a Mexican cave

After their introduction to Spain, spread throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa

Page 44: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Botany

Fruits of genus Capsicum, several cultivated species and hundreds of varieties

Member of Solanaceae (tomato family) Fruits are berries - immature fruits green and

mature fruits vary from yellow to purple to red, from long narrow to spherical

» Capsicum annuum most widely cultivated – sweet bell peppers ---> hot peppers

» Capsicum frutescens mainly in the tropics - more fiery taste such as tabasco pepper

Page 45: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Capsaicin

Biting taste due to the amount of capsaicin Found in the seeds and placental area Capsaicin content is negligible in the sweet bell

peppers and high concentrations in hot chili or jalapeno peppers

Capsaicin can be tasted in concentrations as low as one part per million

Utilized as a pepper spray Used in creams for localized pain relief

Page 46: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Peppers and vitamin C

Excellent sources of vitamin C One pepper is more than enough to

satisfy the daily requirement Higher in peppers than in citrus fruits Vitamin C was first chemically isolated

from paprika in 1932 by Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, who won a Nobel Prize in 1937

Page 47: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Capsicum peppers as a spice

Sold whole, either fresh or dried Powders are prepared by grinding the

dried fruits Chili powder - a blend of spices in

addition to the ground chili peppers Used internationally

Page 48: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Vanilla

Only spice obtained from an orchid Vanilla planifolia, a perennial vine native

to the humid tropical rain forests of Central America and Mexico

Produces elongate pods which are processed into the vanilla beans

Page 49: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Processing of vanilla

Pods picked green Cure for several

months to develop characteristic vanilla flavor

Cured beans are percolated with a solution of alcohol to produce vanilla extract

Page 50: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Early history

An important commodity among the Aztecs before conquest

Used as flavoring, perfume, medicine, and even as a means of tribute

Used in the preparation of chocolatl Brought back to Spain, and soon its use spread

throughout Europe Today Madagascar leads the world in

cultivation of vanilla beans

Page 51: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Allspice

Dried berries of Pimenta dioica an evergreen tree

Long used by the Mayan civilization Discovered by Europeans in the 1570's Named for its multi-faceted flavor - similar to a

combination of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves Never successfully cultivated outside the

Western Hemisphere

Page 52: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Herbs

Herbs are usually the aromatic leaves or sometimes seeds of temperate plants

Other organs may also be herbs Throughout the centuries, thousands of

plants have been used as herbs for both cooking and medicinal properties

Four well known families - mint, parsley, mustard, and lily

Page 53: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Mint family - Lamiaceae

Herbaceous plants and small shrubs » square stems» aromatic simple leaves with numerous oil

glands Dried leaves or distilled oils used Mediterranean region an important

center of origin for family

Page 54: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Mint family - Lamiaceae

spearmint peppermint marjoram oregano rosemary

sage sweet basil thyme savory

Page 55: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Basil Rosemary

Page 56: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Parsley Family - the Apiaceae

Annual, biennial, or perennial Recognized by their umbels (flat-topped

inflorescences) and compound leaves Characteristic fruit - schizocarp

» dry indehiscent fruit which splits into two one-seeded identical halves

» commercially referred to as seeds Useful parts are fruits (seeds) or dried leaves

or both

Page 57: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Parsley family - the Apiaceae

parsley caraway dill fennel celery

anise coriander and

cilantro cumin chervil

Page 58: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Dill

Page 59: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Mustard family - the Brassicaceae

Many vegetables: cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, brussel sprouts, turnips, and radishes

Two flavorful herbs - mustard and horseradish

Family especially abundant in the Mediterranean area

Family easily recognized by flowers with four petals arranged in a cross

Page 60: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Mustard

From Brassica nigra and B. alba seeds B. alba, white mustard, milder than B. nigra,

black mustard Marketed as whole and ground seeds Taste result of reactions between:

» sinigrin and myrosin in black mustard» sinalbin and myrosin in white mustard» these react to produce volatile oils - unless

acidified they quickly deteriorate

Page 61: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Horseradish

Use as a condiment since the Middle Ages in Denmark and Germany

Prepared from taproots Taste due to the interaction of sinigrin

and myrosin which produce volatile oil When the roots are scraped or grated the

components interact Volatile oil diffuses easily

Page 62: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Lily Family - the Liliaceae

Herbaceous perennials that arise from rhizomes, bulbs, or corms

A single genus, Allium from central Asia, is the source of many familiar herbs: » onions - A. cepa

» garlic - A. sativum

» leeks - A. porrum

» shallots - A. ascalonicum

» chives - A. schoenoprasum

Page 63: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Onions and garlic

Onions - biennial producing a single large bulb

Garlic - perennial with a composite bulb » each clove called a bulblet

Pungent flavor due to volatile sulfur compounds that are released when the tissues are cut » garlic -- allicin» onion -- lacrimatory factor

Page 64: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or
Page 65: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Medical use

Ebers Papyrus listed 22 uses of garlic for various ailments

In both India and China, onions and garlic used for numerous conditions

Modern research has shown these folk remedies have a sound scientific basis» sulfur compounds in garlic inhibit the growth of

disease causing bacteria & fungi» inhibit the formation of blood clots

Page 66: Herbs and Spices. Herbs and spices l Herbs are aromatic leaves or seeds from plants of temperate origin l Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark or

Summary

Essential oils are volatile substances that contribute to the essence, the aroma or flavor, of herbs and spices

Desire for spices had a significant impact on world exploration, colonization, and trade

In temperate regions the use of herbs goes back to prehistoric time

Four families provide the majority of herbs in use today