Total War

HI136 History of GermanyLecture 5

Bibliographies: http://194.97.159.218/verlag/ahf/

other resources: http://www.ghi-dc.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=95&Itemid=106

German History (Oxford) Jstor (includes:) Journal of Modern History Journal of Contemporary History (Sage) Central European History

How to bibliographize:

Bodleian Library, Oxford (two documents, can photograph, order a day ahead)

British Library in London (two documents, cannot photograph, delivery within two hours)

German Historical Institute, London (one document, access to stacks, can photograph)

Libraries elsewhere:

Wilhelminian Weltpolitik with its blunders and sense of entitlement

System of alliances; Entente Cordiale/Triple Entente (Russia, France, GB) and Central Powers/Triple Alliances (AH, Germany, Italy)

Balkan wars 1912/13 German outstanding economic position and economic

rivalries

Factors leading up to the war:

European Alliances

The July Crisis 28 June: Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated at

Sarajevo. 5 July: Kaiser Wilhelm II offers Germany’s

unconditional support (the ‘blank check’) to Austria-Hungary.

23 July: Austria issues her ultimatum to Serbia. 28 July: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.

Russia orders ‘partial mobilization’ of her armed forces.

30 July: Russia orders general mobilization. Austria orders general mobilisation.

1 August: Germany declares war on Russia. France orders mobilization.

2 August: Germany issues an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding to be allowed to move troops through Belgian territory.

3 August: Germany declares war on France. Italy proclaims her neutrality.

4 August: German troops cross the Belgian frontier. Britain declares war on Germany.

Franz Ferdinand murdered Blank check delay and deception Austrian ultimatum to Serbia: Serbia refused the ultimatum

(which was worded that it only can be refused) mediation which does not work mobilizations Russia began to mobilize. Everyone starts

mobilizing too desire to appear attacked. France withdraws the troops just 10

km behind the border Britain’s position crucial for decision attack on Belgium

Steps leading up to the war during the July crisis

The ‘Spirit of 1914’

August 1, 1914, in Berlin by Arthur Kampf (1914)

Enthusiasm and sympathy for Austria on the Streets of Berlin (August 1, 1914)

The Schlieffen Plan Drawn up by General Alfred von

Schlieffen (1833-1913), chief of the general staff from 1891 to 1905.

Designed to cope with the prospect of a war on two fronts.

Objective to quickly defeat France, leaving the German army free to face Russia.

Several flaws in the plan, which were compounded by unexpected reverses once operations commenced.

19th century plan, wit 20th cent aspects in its technocracy: days, breadth of the roads, speed etc

The Schlieffen Plan

Schlieffen Plan Fails The invasion of Belgium made Germany seem like the

aggressor and brought Britain into the War. The plan had not been updated to take recent Russian and

French military reforms into account. Moltke weakened the thrust through Belgium by diverting

troops to Alsace and Lorraine and East Prussia. The Germans faced stiffer resistance than anticipated – in

particular they had not expected to have to fight the British Expeditionary Force (BEF).

The German advance halted at the First Battle of the Marne (4-10 Sept. 1914) and the Battle of the Aisne (15-18 Sept. 1914).

September-December: The ‘race for sea’. By December 1914 the front had stagnated into a 400 mile

system of trenches running from the Swiss border to the North Sea.

Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934) 1847: Born at Posen in Prussian Poland, the

son of an East Prussian landowner. Educated at cadet schools in Wahlstadt and

Berlin. Fought at Königgrätz (1866) and in the

Franco-Prussian War. 1878: Joined the General Staff. 1905: Promoted to the rank of General. 1911: Retired from active service. 22 August 1914: Brought out of retirement to

command the German Eighth Army in East Prussia.

Victory at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes made him a national hero.

In many ways a classic Prussian Junker.

Trench Warfare

Postcard: Resting in the Trenches,c. 1914

The Battlefield in the Argonne Forest (1916)

Burgfrieden A political truce called by the

parties in the Reichstag for the duration of hostilities.

Even the SPD agreed to this and voted for War Credits.

The SPD supported the war because: They had been convinced that this was

a defensive war against autocratic Russia.

Many Socialists were also patriots and were proud of Germany and her achievements.

The party leadership hoped to gain political legitimacy through supporting the nation in its hour of need.

State Intervention 1915: Kreigsrohstoffabteilung (Raw Materials

Department, KRA) – ensures the acquisition, storage and distribution of materials vital to the war effort.

1915: Bread rationing introduced. 1916: Zentral-Einkaufs-Gesellschaft (Central

Purchasing Company) – acquisition of goods from neutral countries.

1916: Reichsgetreidstelle (Imperial Gain Office) – controlled food supplies and issued ration cards .

Hindenburg Programme (1916) – Intended to concentrate industry on the production of munitions.

Auxiliary Service Law (1916): Government could conscript workers and decide where they should work.

Walter Rathenau (1867-1922), industrialist and founder of the Kreigsrohstoffabteilung

Germany already had a large budget deficit before 1914. Taxation not sufficient to finance the war, and proposals to

raise taxes vetoed on political grounds and the fiscal privileges of Junkers continued unabated.

Only 16% of the cost of the war met by taxation. War financed by printing money and war loans. This led to massive inflation – by 1918 the mark had lost

75% of its value. Also a fall of real wages (20% in war industry, 40% in other

branches).

War Finance

Food Shortages By the autumn of 1916 food

shortages; inflation and mounting casualties beginning to effect the public mood.

1916-17: The ‘Turnip Winter’ – exceptionally cold weather and a poor potato harvest lead to a severe food and fuel crisis.

Between 1916 and 1917 deaths from hypothermia and malnutrition rose from 121,000 to 293,000.

Infant Mortality at 50% by 1918.

Queue for horse meat in Frankfurt

Measures War Raw Materials Office: coordination of

industrial products. Food rationing in 1915. War Food Office 1916. Substitutes – clothes with paper fibres. Gaps in the labour force filled by women

(emancipation – double burden). Auxiliary Labour Law (1916): Government

could conscript workers and decide where they should work.

‘Dictatorship’ of Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) – Hindenburg and Ludendorff – loss of influence for civil government – strengthening of army influence.

Scarcity of clothing, soap, food. Agricultural production fell, meat consumption

only 12% of pre-war level. Malnutrition and starvation – ‘turnip winter’

1916/17 (consequence: up to 750,000 dead). Polarisation: pro ‘Siegfrieden’ (victorious peace)

with far reaching war aims, pro peace without contributions and annexations.

Middle Classes: pauperisation, living conditions closer to working class – but many now more nationalist, angst (loss of status) .

Working Class: spontaneous strikes in 1916 and 1917.

Mobilisation for Total War

Failures

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 1918)

Source: G. Layton, From Bismarck to Hitler: Germany, 1890-1933

The 1918 Spring Offensive

Source: P. J. Haythornthwaite, The World War One Sourcebook

  Known dead Seriously wounded Otherwise wounded

Prisoners or missing

Russia 2,762,064 1,000,000 3,950,000 2,500,000 Germany 1,611,104 1,600,000 2,183,143 772,522 France 1,427,800 700,000 2,344,000 453,500

Austria-Hungary 911,000 850,000 2,150,000 443,000 Great Britain 807,451 617,714 1,441,394 64,907 Serbia 707,343 322,000 28,000 100,000 Italy 507,160 500,000 462,196 1,359,000 Turkey 436,924 107,772 300,000 103,731 Rumania 339,117 200,000 ...... 116,000 Belgium 267,000 40,000 100,000 10,000 United States 107,284 43,000 148,000 4,912 Bulgaria 101,224 300,000 852,339 10,825 Greece 15,000 10,000 30,000 45,000 Portugal 4,000 5,000 12,000 200 Japan 300 ........ 907 3 Total 9,998,771 6,295,512 14,002,039 5,983,600

Casualties of the War