HI

SI

EX

FO

ST

MA

!!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

!

IGH

MU

XER

OR!T

RAT

ANA

H!FI

ULA

RCIS

RAIN

TEGI

AGEM

DE

ATIO

SES

NIN

C!CR

MEN

By!Dr.!Cl

4!

ELIT

ON

S!!

G!

RISIS

NT!!

laudia!van!d

TY!

!

S!

den!Heuvel

!

ABSTRA

response

requires

These!sk

training!

simulatio

experien

!

!

Autho

!

Introdu

The!way

terms!of

recent!s

afterma

called!‘R

the!year

significa

increase

Any!crisi

array!of!

Howeve

unexpec

planned

to!suppo

people!i

but!it!ca

a!crisis!r

have!a!la

of!stress

ACT:!Crisis!ma

e!to!a!dynam

s!a!set!of!‘non

kills!are!most

using!immer

ons!ensures!

nces!similar!le

r!

uction!

y!in!which!an

f!operationa

tudy!clearly!

th!predicted

Recoverers’!o

r!following!a!

ntly!for!thos

ed!by!an!aver

is!managem

plans!to!ens

er,!plans!rare

cted!will!alwa

d!structure!an

ort!crisis!resp

n!the!right!r

an!also!be!pla

requires!that

arge!reperto

s,!arousal!an

anagement!a

mic,!high!risk!

n"technical’!s

t!readily!learn

rsive!simulat

that!real"life!

evels!of!stres

!DR.!CLA

Dr.!Claud

she!supp

manage

team!de

involved

ny!crisis!is!ma

l!delivery,!sa

illustrated!th

d!whether!th

or!‘Non"Reco

crisis!affecti

se!who!respo

rage!of!22!pe

ent!capabilit

sure!appropr

ely!survive!fir

ays!be!a!thre

nd!an!array!o

ponse,!effect

oles.!Human

agued!by!err

t,!in!addition

oire!of!effecti

d!time!press

at!a!strategic!

and!potentia

skills!that!are

ned,!retained

ion!exercises

pressures!ar

ss,!uncertaint

AUDIA!VAN!D

dia!van!den!H

ports!the!des

ment!exercis

cision!makin

d!applied,!pra

anaged!has!t

afety!of!staff,

hat!the!abilit

e!firm!would

overers’.!Sha

ing!their!orga

onded!ineffe

ercent!for!th

ty!must!fund

riate!respons

rst!contact!w

eat!to!effecti

of!crisis!man

tive!crisis!ma

n!behaviour!i

or!and!ineffi

!to!being!do

ive!incident!

sure.!Maximi

5!

level!is!cruci

ally!damaging

e!different!to

d!and!transfe

s.!The!design

re!replicated

ty!and!risk!as

DEN!HEUVEL

Heuvel!is!a!c

sign,!develop

ses.!Claudia!

ng!in!critical!a

actical!settin

the!potential

,!future!succ

ty!of!senior!m

d!fall!into!on

re!value!pat

anization!cle

ctively!to!the

he!Recovers!(

damentally!b

se!to!and!rec

with!reality,!a

ive!crisis!ma

agement!an

anagement!i

in!crisis!respo

iciency.!The!

main!expert

managemen

ising!those!s

al!for!determ

g!incident.!St

those!applie

erred!to!real!

!of!complex,

!and!the!crisi

s!in!any!real!i

L!

consultant!w

pment,!and!i

recently!com

and!major!in

gs!and!infor

l!to!profound

cess,!reputat

management

e!of!two!rela

terns!collect

early!illustrat

e!incident,!w

(1).!!

e!supported!

covery!from!

and!the!unkn

nagement.!M

d!business!c

s!largely!dep

onse!can!be!

demanding,!

s,!the!crisis!m

nt!skills!in!ord

kills!depends

mining!an!org

trategic!crisis

ed!during!bus

life!incidents

opaque!and

is!manageme

ncident.!

ith!Steelheng

mprovemen

mpleted!a!Ph

ncidents.!The

med!practiti

dly!impact!an

ion!and!shar

t!to!deal!with

atively!distinc

ted!for!a!larg

ted!that!valu

while!share!va

by!a!predefi

a!threatenin

own,!unfam

Moreover,!w

ontinuity!pla

pendent!on!h

resilient,!ada

dynamic!and

management

der!to!functio

s!on!the!leve

ganization’s!e

s!manageme

siness"as"usu

s!through!freq

d!dynamic!

ent!team!

ge!Consultin

nt!of!crisis!

D!on!individ

e!conducted!

oner!training

n!organizatio

reholder!valu

h!a!crisis!and

ct!groups,!th

ge!number!of

e!dropped!

alues!actual

ined!structu

ng!incident.!

miliar,!and!

hilst!having!

ans!is!fundam

having!the!rig

aptive,!and!f

d!high"risk!n

t!team!(CMT

on!under!hig

el!of!experien

effective!

nt!

ual.!

quent!

ng!where!

ual!and!

research!

g!design.!

on!in!

ue.!A!

d!its!

he!so"!

f!firms!in!

ly!

re!and!

a!pre"

mental!

ght!

flexible,!

ature!of!

T)!must!

gh!levels!

nce!with!

and!exp

incident

!

Strateg

Any!crisi

training!

experien

can!subs

relevant

include!w

validatio

function

these!tra

problem

Howeve

often!to

manage

opportu

manage

Simulati

issue!ma

High!fide

strategic

opportu

dynamic

incident

and!tran

organiza

manage

‘losers’!i

!

‘Non"t

Executiv

having! g

Therefo

knowled

and!inte

an!abno

osure!to!pre

ts,!which!beg

gic!crisis!m

is!managem

or!exercising

nces!and!less

sequently!ap

t!for!increme

workshops!a

on;!more!com

ns;!and!live!e

aining!metho

ms!and!challe

er,!the!focus!

o!design,!dev

ment!plans,!

unities!for!the

ment!such!a

ons!are!mor

anagement!a

elity!and!imm

c!level!execu

unity!to!pract

city,!risk,!and

ts!within!a!sa

nsferable!skil

ation.!This!m

ment!team!w

in!the!crisis!a

technical!s

ves!convenin

gained! their

re,!training!f

dge.!Howeve

egrating!infor

ormal,!high!r

evious!events

gs!the!questi

manageme

ent!capabilit

g.!Effective!e

sons!learned

pply!to!real!o

entally!traini

and!desktops

mplex!team!s

exercises!whe

ods!share!th

enges!in!crisis

of!workshop

elop,!and!va

as!well!as!pr

e!operationa

as!establishin

re!readily!tar

and!decision

mersive!simu

utives!for!cris

tice!their!cris

d!accountabi

afe!learning!e

lls!that!are!c

may!lead!to!d

when!dealing

aftermath!(5

kills’!for!ef

ng! to! form!a

r! organizatio

for!strategic!

er,!crisis!man

rmation!abo

isk,!complex

s!(2).!Howev

on:!how!doe

ent!training

ty!must!be!de

exercising!ha

d!so!that!they

operations!(3

ng!and!deve

s!for!basic!lev

simulation!ex

ere!teams!ac

e!common!a

s!manageme

p!or!desktop!

lidate!crisis!

roviding!rehe

al!features!of

ng!a!‘battle!rh

rgeted!at!tea

s!that!need!t

ulation!exerc

sis!managem

sis!response!

lity!as!exper

environment

rucial!for!eff

ramatic!diffe

g!with!an!act

).!

ffective!cris

a! strategic!C

onal! position

decision!ma

nagement!at!

ut!the!incide

x!and!dynam

6!

er,!crises!are

es!one!becom

g!

eveloped,!va

as!been!defin

y!gain!a!requ

3).!Many!diff

loping!the!sk

vel!crisis!ma

xercises!for!

ctively!rehea

aim!of!prepa

ent.!

exercises!is!

earsal!

f!crisis!

hythm’!or!pr

am"based,!int

to!be!made!o

cises!are!argu

ment.!This!is!b

under!simila

rienced!in!a!r

t!allows!for!t

fective!crisis!

erences!in!th

tual!crisis,!ul

sis!manag

MT!are!argu

n! due! to! ext

kers!does!no

!its!core!invo

ent,!making!d

mic!event!(6).

e!by!definitio

me!an!expert

alidated,!and

ned!as!the!pr

uisite!set!of!s

erent!types!o

kills!needed!

nagement!a

both!strateg

rse!a!specific

ring!individu

ractising!com

teractive!and

over!longer!t

uably!the!mo

because!they

ar!conditions

real!incident

the!acquisitio

managemen

he!decisions!a

timately!sep

gement!

uably!alread

tensive! expe

ot!need!to!fo

olves!a!team

decisions!an!Effective!cri

Any!crisis

be!devel

through!

on!infrequen

t!in!crisis!ma

d!improved!t

rocess!of!ma

skills!and!kno

of!training!ex

in!crisis!man

nd!plan!deve

ic,!tactical!an

c!drill!in!real!

als!as!best!a

mmunication!

d,!important

timeframes.!

ost!appropria

y!provide!exe

s!of!stress,!un

.!Exposure!to

on!and!devel

nt!within!any

and!actions!m

parating!the!‘

y!experts! in!

erience! or! kn

ocus!on!acqu

m!of!people!g

d!carrying!ou

isis!managem

s!manageme

oped,!validat

frequent!tra

t!and!unexp

nagement?!!

hrough!freq

anaging!peop

owledge!that

xercises!may

nagement.!Th

elopment!or!

nd!operation

!time!(4).!All

as!possible!fo

!cascades.!

tly,!strategic!

!

ate!for!traini

ecutives!with

ncertainty,!

o!simulated!

lopment!of!c

y!domain!or!

made!by!the

‘winners’!fro

! their!own!d

nowledge! o

iring!domain

gathering,!pr

ut!actions!to

ment!therefo

ent!capability

ted,!and!imp

aining!or!exe

ected!

uent!

ple’s!

t!they!

y!be!

hese!

nal!level!

!of!

or!future!

level!

ing!

h!an!

critical!

e!crisis!

om!the!

domains,!

f! a! field.!

n"specific!

rocessing!

o!manage!

ore!relies!

y!must!

proved!

rcising.

on!a! ran

manage

incident

Figure!o

Non"tec

which!ar

include!

interpers

informat

think’!to

aviation

non"tech

briefly!d

Situatio

Situation

compreh

construc

what!is!g

as!well!a

in!strate

the!incid

by!relyin

Situation

credibili

nge!of!gene

ment!skills!t

ts.!!

one:!The!non"

chnical! skills!

re!not!direct

both! cognit

rsonal! skills!

tion!manage

o!a! ‘how!to!

,!military,! a

hnical! skills!

described!bel

n!awareness

n! awareness

hension! of! t

ction!of!a! sit

going!on!bot

as!projecting

egic!crisis!ma

dent!based!o

ng!on!their!p

n!awareness

ty! wheneve

ral!problem!

that!are!req

"technical!sk

are! those! s

tly!related!to

tive! skills! suc

such! as! le

ement!(8).!Ov

think’! focus!

nd! policing,!

(9).!Each!of!

low.!

s!!

s! is! defined

their!meanin

tuation!base

th!within!an!

g!forward!as!

anagement!in

on!the!collat

previous!exp

s! is!achieved

er! a! new! p

solving! stra

uired!for!eff

kills!required!f

skills! that! ar

o!technical!o

ch!as! situati

eadership,! te

ver!the!past!

in!simulatio

which! now

these!main

! as! the! per

ng! and! a! pro

ed!on!enviro

incident!and

to!how!the!

nvolves!the!C

tion!of!a!few

eriences!to!

d!by! collecti

piece! of! inf

7!

ategies!and! ‘

fective!and!s

for!crisis!ma

e! crucial! for

or!domain"sp

ion!awarene

eamwork! a

years!there!

on!training!a

w! emphasise

! skills!and! t

rception! of!

ojection! of! t

onmental! cue

d!the!wider!

situation!is!l

CMT!rapidly!

w!pieces!of!(o

make!assum

ng! informat

formation! is

‘non"technic

safe!perform

anagement.

r!maintainin

pecific!expert

ess!and!deci

nd! coordina

has!been!a!s

across!a!rang

the! acquisi

heir! role! in

elements! in!

their! status!

es! (10).! In!o

environmen

ikely!to!evol

building!a!p

often!incom

mptions!abou

tion! from!a!

s! received,!

al’! skills,!a! f

mance! in!high

!

g! safety!dur

tise!(7).!Thes

sion!making

ation,! and!

shift!in!emph

ge!of!high!ris

tion! and! im

strategic!cri

the! environ

in! the! near!

other!words,

t!around!or!

ve.!Creating

icture!of!wha

plete)!inform

ut!how!the!ev

set!of! sourc

analysing! a

form!of!high

h!risk!and!hi

ring! an! incid

se!non"techn

g!as!well!as!

communicat

hasis!from!a

sk! industries

mprovement!

isis!managem

nment! along

future,! or! a

,! it! involves!

beyond!the!

g!situation!aw

at!is!occurrin

mation!recei

vent!might!p

ces,!assessin

and! organiz

h! level!of!

igh!stake!

dent,!but!

nical!skills!

social!or!

tion! and!

‘what!to!

s!such!as!

of! these!

ment!are!

g! with! a!

a!mental!

knowing!

incident,!

wareness!

ng!within!

ved;!and!

progress.!

g! source!

zing! that!

informat

informat

amounts

intellige

manage

Figure!tw

Decision

Strategic

do!abou

the!indiv

identify!

order!to

steps:!!

!

!

!

Thus,!on

identify!

continge

to!contr

maintain

stakeho

develop

Figure!th

tion!into!a!c

tion!picture!

s! of! comple

nce,! and! are

!the!incident

wo:!The!proc

n!making!

c!decision!m

ut!it?”!and!“W

vidual!or!CM

the!key!issu

o!appropriate

Option!gene

amount!of!o

Evaluation!(

Choice!(sele

nce!informat

the!key!issu

ency!plans!an

ol!the!future

n!an!overview

lder!manage

ments!of,!th

hree:!The!de

coherent!ove

(CRIP).!Thes

ex,! incompl

e!used! as! a!

t.!

cess!of!creati

aking!in!crisi

What!if!thing

MT!and!requir

es!that!need

ely!deal!with

eration!(gene

options!have!

assigning!an

cting!an!acti

tion!has!been

es!that!need

nd!actions!to

e!impacts.!Th

w!of!the!pot

ement;!and!p

he!incident!b

cision!makin

erview,!such!

e!reports!su

ete! pieces!

basis! for!de

ing!situation

is!situations!

s!get!worse?

res!the!team

d!addressing.

!a!highly!unc

erating!optio

been!consid

!associated!v

on!based!on

n!gathered!a

d!to!be!addre

o!implement

hese!decision

ential!compl

pose!‘what!if

eing!manage

ng!process.!

8!

!as!in!a!situa

bsequently!s

of! informat

eciding!wha

nal!awarenes

is!concerned

?”!It!is!based

m!to!deal!with

.!Decision!ma

certain!situat

ons!and!apply

dered);!!

value!to!each

n!associated!v

nd!analysed

essed,!the!CM

t!in!order!to!

ns!must!addr

lexities!invol

f?’!questions

ed.!!

ation!report!

serve!to!man

tion! and! co

t! actions! the

!

ss.!

d!with!the!qu

d!on!the!asse

h!high!levels!

aking!is!the!p

tion.!Genera

ying!a!stoppi

h!option);!an

value).!!

!in!order!to!f

MT!must!form

effectively!m

ress!both!sho

lved!in!terms

s!about!the!fu

!

(SITREP)!or!

nage!and!ma

oordinate! th

e!CMT! inten

uestions!“Wh

ssment!of!th

of!uncertain

process!of!ch

ally,!it!is!said!

ing!rule!once

nd!!

form!situatio

mulate!a!set!

manage!the!in

ort!and!long"

s!of!organiza

uture!effects

common!re

ake!sense!of!

hem! into! ac

nds! to! imple

hat!are!we!g

he!situation!m

nty!in!order!t

hoosing!an!a

to!involve!th

e!an!appropr

onal!awarene

!of!strategie

ncident!and!

"term!conse

ational!and!

s!on,!and!

cognised!

the!large!

ctionable!

ement! to!

oing!to!

made!by!

to!

ction!in!

hree!

riate!

ess!and!

s,!

attempt!

quences;!

Leaders

Effective

during!b

and!man

leadersh

CMT’s!in

respons

follow!a

forward

respons

should!b

both!int

Team!w

CMTs!ar

respond

the! inci

coordina

member

understa

Individu

situation

Ultimate

individu

Commu

Crises! a

therefor

establish

actions!

breakdo

internal!

CMT!sha

carried!

respons

are!cruc

is!being!

wider!or

today’s!

relevant

about!th

This!core

This! is!b

hip!

e!leadership!

business!as!u

ny!find!it!diff

hip!requires!o

ntentions!or!

ibilities;!and

nd!must!the

"thinking!in!f

ibility!or!acc

be!done!in!an

ernal!memb

work!

re!typically!fo

ding!to!a!cris

ident! and! i

ation!betwe

rs! of! the! CM

anding! (or! ‘

al! members

nal! and! each

ely,! teamwo

al!members!

nication!

are! characte

re!crucial! for

h!a!shared!u

to! manage!

owns! in! com

communica

ares!his!or!h

out!by!his!o

e!hierarchy!

cial!to!formin

managed! in

rganization!i

world!of!soc

t,!factual!and

he!actions!th

e!set!of!non

because! the!

is!crucial!to!

sual!is!cut!ou

ficult!to!trans

one!chair!or!

goals;!estab

!make!strate

refore!also!e

focus.!Strate

ountability!f

n!open,!hone

ers!of!the!or

ormed!on!an

is.!Crises!oft

ts! developm

en! individua

MT! to! estab

mental!mod

s! must! then

h! other’s! de

ork! in! crisis

who!are!wo

erised! by! a!

r!the!CMT!to

nderstandin

that! inciden

mmunication!

ation! is!achie

her!newly!ac

or!her!organ

(i.e.!with!the

ng!a!shared!u

n!a!particula

n!terms!of!k

cial!media! in

d!transparen

he!organizatio

"technical!sk

inherent!na

managing!a!

ut!to!be!a!lea

sfer!their!ski

incident!ma

lish!an!effect

egic!decision

ensure!that!t

egic!crisis!ma

or!the!incide

est,!transpar

rganization!a

n!occasional!

ten!require!t

ment.! This!

al! team!mem

blish! clear! ro

del! (11)’)!of!

! coordinate

emands! and!

relies! on!

rking!togeth

thirst! for!

o!gather!all!

g!about!that

nt! are! carrie

are! a! prim

eved!by!con

cquired!or!re

izational!div

e!tactical!an

understandin

ar!way.! Inter

eeping!staff!

nformation!f

nt! informatio

on!is!implem

kills!is!especi

ture!of!any!

9!

crisis.!Not!ev

ader!during!a

ills!to!the!cris

anager!to!tak

tive!team!str

s.!Leaders!m

the!issues!an

anagers!or!ch

ent!and!the!C

rent!and!visib

as!well!as!ext

basis!and!te

the!pooling!o

produces! h

mbers.! In! re

oles! and! res

the! situatio

! their! perso

! collaborate

proactive! co

her!towards!s

knowledge.!

the!relevant

t!incident;!a

ed! out! in! th

ary! source!

nducting! freq

elevant! info

vision.! Intern

nd!operation

ng!of!what!is

rnal!commun

in!the!pictu

flows.!Effecti

on! in!a!time

menting!in!re

ally!crucial!t

crisis!create

veryone!who

a!crisis,!as!th

sis!managem

ke!charge!of!t

ructure!with

must!provide!

nd!actions!ra

hairs!must!al

CMT’s!overa

ble!way!to!ge

ternal!stakeh

eam!membe

of!different!t

igh! demand

sponse! to! th

sponsibilities

on! and! issue

onal! (or! divi

e! to! reduce

ommunicatio

shared!goals

Internal! an

t! informatio

nd!to!ensure

he! most! eff

of! error! in!

quent!briefin

rmation!rega

nal! commun

al!teams!res

s!being!done

nication!mus

re!and!up!to

ive!external

ely!manner!w

sponse!to!th

to!maintainin

es!added!de

o!holds!a!ma

his!requires!a

ment!arena.!C

the!incident!

!clearly!defin

clear!directi

ised!remain!

so!assume!u

ll!response!t

enerate!trust

holders.!

rs!may!work

types!of!expe

ds! on! the!

his,!effective

s,! interact,! a

es! that! they!

sional)! strat

strain! on! th

on! and! info

.!

nd! external!

n!about!an!

e!that!the!re

icient! mann

incident! ma

ngs!where!ev

arding! the!d

ications!acro

sponding!to!

,!by!whom,!a

st!also!addre

!date!on!act

communicat

with!stakeho

he!incident.!

ng!success!w

mands!and!

anagerial!pos

a!particular!s

Crisis!manag

and!identify

ned!roles!an

on!for!the!C

strategic!and

ultimate!

o!that!incide

t!and!suppo

k!together!on

ertise,!as!dic

communicat

e! teamwork!

and! create! a

all!wish! to!

tegies! to! me

he! team’s! re

ormation! sh

communica

evolving! inc

equired!decis

ner! possible.

anagement.!

very!membe

decisions!and

oss! the! leve

the! incident

and!why!the

ess! the!need

tivities,!partic

tion! involves

olders!and!th

within!crisis!r

pressures!on

sition!

skill!set!

gement!

y!the!

d!

MT!to!

d!

ent.!This!

rt!from!

nly!when!

ctated!by!

tion! and!

requires!

a! shared!

address.!

eet! both!

esources.!

aring! by!

ation! are!

ident;!to!

sions!and!

.! Indeed,!

Effective!

er!of! the!

d!actions!

els!of! the!

t!as!well)!

e!incident!

ds!of! the!

cularly!in!

s!sharing!

he!media!

esponse.!

n!human!

perform

and!coo

strategic

term! im

account

visible!t

level!de

human!e

public!p

the!onu

perform

these! n

imposed

!

What!d

Simulati

set!a!pro

faced! b

acquired

expertis

the! thre

differen

is!partic

crisis,!w

stress!le

While! re

‘safe! lea

supporte

staged,!

practice

reflect!o

perform

Facilitat

CMT’s! u

environm

and!acti

to!ident

in!each!o

that!tea

!

mance,!there

rdinate!actio

c!decisions!m

mplications,!p

ability!to!sta

han!in!the!re

ecision!make

errors!result

perception.!T

s!or!spotligh

mance!of! the

on"technical

d!on!a!team!o

do!simulat

ons!have!be

oper!level!of

y! individual

d! through! e

e!by!confro

eats! and! ch

t!response!s

cularly! valua

where! the! ch

evels)!often!h

eplicating! th

arning!enviro

ed,!where!th

repeated,!a

! in!a! setting

on!their!perf

mance! and! p

ed!exposure

understandin

ments! look!

ons!they!wil

ify!those!mo

other’s!abilit

m!within!an!

by!hindering

ons!as!effect

made!to!man

political!sens

akeholders!a

ecent!Deepw

ers!had! to!as

ed!in!catastr

The!consequ

ht!for!effecti

!strategic!cr

l! skills! withi

of!individual

tion!exerc

een!describe

f!complexity,

s! in! those!

experience,! t

nting!profes

allenges! usu

strategies!an

ble! for!deve

haracteristics

hinder!effect

hese! charact

onment’.!Th

he!practice!f

dapted,!and

g! that!allows

formance,!w

provide! feed

e! to!a!highly

ng! of! the! ty

like,!what! in

l!need!to!im

ost!suitable!t

ties,!thereby

actual!crisis

g!the!CMT’s!

tively!as!they

nage!a!crisis

sitivity!and!e

and!public!m

water!Horizo

ssume!ultim

rophic!conse

ences!of!cri

vely!managi

risis!manage

in! simulatio

s!in!a!real"lif

cises!do?!

d!as!high!fid

!pressure,!un

settings! (12

the! main! go

ssionals!with

ually! faced! w

d!develop!pr

eloping! the!

s!of! such!ev

tive!performa

teristics,! the

is! is!defined

field!is!shifte

! improved,!

s!participant

here!facilita

dback! so! th

y! realistic!an

pes! of! incid

nformation!w

plement.!Exp

to!be!in!a!ch

y!allowing!the

.!

10!

ability! to!cr

y!would!und

s!are!charact

extremely!hig

members.!No

on!and!Costa

ate!account

equences,!eit

sis!managem

ng!an!incide

ment! team.!

n! exercises!

fe!crisis.!

delity!replicat

ncertainty!an

2).! Based! on

oal! of! simu

h!domain"spe

within! real!

roblem"solvi

capacity! to!

ents! (time!p

ance!(14).!!

e! simulation!

d!as!an!envir

ed!from!one!

and! skills!m

ts! to!apply! t

tors!can!det

hat! participa

d! immersive

dents! it! is! lik

will!and!will!

posure!to!ot

hair!or!leade

em!to!work!

reate!situatio

er!normal!ci

terised!by!hi

gh! levels!of!

where!is!the

a!Concordia!c

tability!over!

ther!in!terms

ment!are! the

ent!is!placed

This! illustra

that! replica

tions!of!real!

nd!risk!to!rep

n! the! premi

lation! traini

ecific!challen

events! offe

ing!skills.!Thi

respond! bo

pressure,!hig

technique!

ronment! in!

with!real!ris

mastered! (15)

their!knowle

termine!the!

ants! may! le

e!simulated!

kely! to! be! re

not!be!avail

ther!member

rship!role,!a

and!commun

onal!awaren

rcumstances

gh!stakes!or

both! interna

e!crucial!role

case!studies,

an! incident!

s!of!human!li

erefore!clear

entirely!on!

ates! the!cruc

ate! the! dem

life!events!t

produce!the!

se! that! com

ng! involves!

nges! (13).!Re

rs! people! o

is!type!of!con

th!quickly! a

ghly!dynamic

also! provide

which!partic

sk!to!one!wh

).!Simulation

edge!and! ski

causes!and!

earn! from! t

crisis! trainin

equired! to!m

lable,!and!th

rs!of!the!team

nd!will!foste

nicate!more!

ness,!make!d

s.!This!is!bec

r!consequen

al!as!well!as!

e!of!these!sk

,!where!the!

in!which!a!

ives,!or!stake

rly! long"term

the!prepara

cial!need! for

mands! and! p

that!allow!tr

environmen

mplex! skills!

the! acceler

epeated!exp

opportunities

ntextualised

and!dynamic

c,!high! risk!

es! individual

cipants! feel!

here!mistake

ns!emphasis

lls! safely! in!

effects!of! in

their! mistak

ng!exercise!w

manage,!wh

he!types!of!d

m!will!allow!

er!interperso

effectively!a

decisions,!

cause!the!

ces,! long!

external!

kills!more!

strategic!

range!of!

eholder!/!

m,!where!

ation!and!

r! training!

pressures!

ainers!to!

nt!usually!

are! best!

ration! of!

posure! to!

s! to! test!

d!practice!

cally! to! a!

and!high!

ls! with! a!

safe!and!

es!can!be!

e!guided!

order! to!

effective!

kes! (16).!

will!aid!a!

hat! those!

decisions!

the!CMT!

onal!trust!

as!part!of!

Design

One! key

attitude

learned!

follows!t

under! s

anxiety.!

!

The! rea

acquired

to! creat

simulati

exercise

levels! o

exercise

!

Creating

The!cred

decision

other!w

broadly!

of!realis

desktop

thoroug

degree!t

importa

acquisiti

more!to

the! sen

Psycholo

to!real!li

Complex

or!confl

uncertai

once! an

complex

phone!c

time!to!t

In!order

they!off

the! othe

ning!realist

y! goal! of! si

s! and! confi

under! stres

that!one!wa

stress! or,! at

This!can!be!

lism! of! an! e

d.!Specificall

te! the! perc

on! should! h

es!to!be!enga

f! fidelity,! co

e.!!

g!fidelity,!co

dibility!of!an

n!makers! tak

words,! it! dep

defined!as!t

sm!created! i

!exercises)!t

ghly! exercise

to!which!the

nt! feature! i

ion.!Howeve

o!the!process

nsory! and! c

ogical!fidelity

ife!events.!

xity!is!built!in

icting!goals!t

in!and! time!

nd! the! strate

xity!may!be!

calls!from!co

the!CMT,!ea

r!to!create!a!

fer!participa

er! will! be! ‘b

tic!simulati

imulation! ex

dence! that!

ss,! and! ther

ay!to!increas

t! a! minimum

done!using!a

exercise! is! o

y,! in!order!t

ceptions,! em

have! at! its!

aging!they!m

omplexity,! dy

mplexity,!dy

ny!simulation

ke! them! ser

pends! strong

the!level!of!s

n!any!exerci

to!high!fideli

e! the! entire!

e!physical!asp

in! exercising

er,!crucial!to!

s!by!which!p

cognitive! pro

y!is!crucial!b

nto!simulatio

that!they!m

pressured!n

egic! CMT! m

built!in!by!in

oncerned!sta

ch!of!which!t

dynamic!and

nts! judgeme

better’! or! ‘w

ion!exercis

xercises! invo

will! ultimat

reby! enhanc

e!the!crisis!m

m,! some! co

a!method!ca

one! of! the! m

to!train!perfo

motions! and!

developmen

ust!be!credib

ynamicity,! a

ynamicity,!an

n!exercise!is!

iously! and! e

gly! on! the! le

similarity!be

se!can!range

ity!(e.g.!whe

crisis! mana

pects!of!the!

g,! because! f

creating!a!p

participants!

ocesses! are!

because!it!en

ons!by!provi

ust!consider

nature!of!a! r

must! simultan

njecting!a!lar

akeholders!th

they!must!re

d!interactive!

ental! choices

worse’,! rathe

11!

ses!for!tran

olves! provid

tely! result! in

ce! effective!

managemen

mbination! o

lled!situated

many! issues

ormance!un

behaviours

ntal! centre! t

ble!to!the!tra

and! opaquen

nd!opaquene

measured!a

engage! as! th

evel! of! fidel

etween!the!s

e!from! low!f

ere!trainees!

agement! pro

exercise!res

familiarity! w

perception!of

interact!with

! elicited! fo

nsures!that!t

iding!particip

r! in!order!to!

real!crisis,!w

neously! con

rge!number!

he!media!an

espond!to.!

simulation!e

s,!where! the

er! than! ‘righ

nsferability

ding! individu

n! the! pragm

performance

t!capability!

of! arousal,! t

d!learning!(18

s! that! influe

der!stress,!s

s! that! occur

the! aim! of!

ainees.!This!

ness! in! the!

ess!

ccording!to!

hey!would! i

lity! attained!

simulation!an

fidelity!(such

respond!to!a

ocess).! Phys

emble!an!ac

with! a! learn

f!reality!is!ps

h!other!agen

or! the! traine

the!skills!acq

pants!with!a!

make!decis

where!multip

sider! a! wide

of!feeds!(inc

nd! internal!e

exercise,!fee

e!consequen

ht’! or! ‘wron

y!of!learni

uals! with! th

matic! applica

e! during! an!

is!to!train!in

time! pressu

8).!!

nces! the! tra

imulations!m

r! in! real! cri

being! engag

is!achieved!b

crisis! scenar

the!extent!to

n! actual!ope

within! the!

nd!the!real!w

h!as!those!fo

and!manage

ical! fidelity,!

tual!real!life!

ning! environ

sychological!f

nts! involved!

ee! as! they!

uired!in!an!e

realistically!

ions.!This!re

ple!events!of

e! range! of! i

cluding,!for!

emails)!withi

ds!or!injects!

nce!of!choos

ng’.! This! is! d

ng!

he! knowledg

ation! of! the

! actual! crisi

ndividuals!to!

re,! uncertai

ansferability

must!have!th

ises.! Theref

ging.! For! si

by!incorpora

rios! used! du

o!which!exp

erational! set

simulation,!

world!(19).!T

ound! in!wor

e!a!realistic!c

! which! invo

e!environmen

nment! impro

fidelity,!whi

in!the!scena

would! in!

exercise!can

large!set!of!

eplicates!the!

ften!occur!a

issues.! For! e

example,!ne

n!a!short!am

!are!designe

sing!one!opt

done! to! ens

ge,! skills,!

e! lessons!

is! (17).!It!

perform!

nty,! and!

! of! skills!

he!ability!

ore,! any!

mulation!

ting!high!

uring! the!

perienced!

ttings.! In!

which! is!

The!levels!

kshop!or!

crisis!and!

olves! the!

nt,!is!one!

oves! skill!

ch!refers!

ario,!and!

real! life.!

!transfer!

features!

difficult,!

almost!at!

example,!

ews!clips,!

mount!of!

d!so!that!

tion!over!

sure! that!

participa

occurrin

actions.!

strategic

!

Finally,!a

participa

actual! in

order! to

and!una

term.!

Figure!fo

!

Creating

Creating

replicati

The! con

subjectiv

another

absorbe

is!oblite

situation

emergen

such! a!

indicatin

operatio

!

Building

for!the!s

make!to

may!pro

issues! t

mitigatio

D

ants! are! ab

ng! in! subseq

This! serves

c!decisions!m

a!simulation

ants.! This! re

ncidents.! Ind

o!make! infer

aware!of,!an

our:!Charact

g!a!sense!of!

g! a! complex

ing!the!chara

ncept! of! imm

ve!experienc

! (22).! In! cr

ed,!engaged!a

erated,!and! t

n! according

ncy! respons

life"like! man

ng!that!parti

on!(23).!!

g!an!immersiv

scenario!and

o!ensure!cons

ovide!details

that! the! CM

on,!adaption

Fidelity

Dynamicity

Sim

ble! to! choos

quent! feeds!

! to!heighten

made!(20).!!

n!exercise! is!

eplicates! the

dividuals! in! t

rences!or!hy

nd! the!decisi

eristics!of!an

immersion!

x,! dynamic! a

acteristics!of

mersion! is! cl

ce!of!being!i

risis! manage

and!engrosse

they!briefly!

ly.! Indeed,!

e!decision!m

nner! that! th

cipants!were

ve!exercise!i

d!mapping!th

sequentiality

!of!the! incid

MT! will! find

n!and!coping

Com

Opa

mulations

se! from! ma

of! informat

n! the! sense!

made!opaqu

e! unavailabil

the!CMT!mu

ypotheses!ab

ions!and!act

n!effective!sim

and! opaque!

f!real!inciden

losely! relate

n!one!place!

ement! exerc

ed!in!the!sce

adopt! the!si

studies! hav

making! that!

hey! caused!

e!deeply! imm

involves!the!

he!simulated

y!of!their!act

dent! landsca

! stressful! t

)!of!that!inci

mplexity

queness

12!

any! possible

tion! are! the!

of! gravity,!

ue!by!ensuri

lity! or! incom

ust! therefore

bout! the!cris

tions! that! th

!

mulation!exe

simulation!

nts!serves!to

ed! to! that!of

or!environm

cises! immer

enario!at!han

imulated!wo

ve! shown! t

incorporate

physiologica

mersed! in!th

complex!pro

d!events!to!a

tions.!This!of

pe,!which! is

o! deal! with

ident.!This!p

e! courses! of

direct! prod

stress! and!p

ng!that!som

mpleteness! o

e! rely!on! th

sis!situation,

hey!must!ma

ercise.!

exercise! wit

o!immerse!pa

f! presence,!

ment,!even!w

rsion! refers!

nd!with!such!

orld!as! their!

hat! simulati

ed! these! ele

al! symptoms

he!exercise!a

ocess!of!crea

any!potentia

ften!requires

!essential!fo

h! at! each! p

rocess!result

f! action! and

uct! of! the! C

personal! acc

e! informatio

of! informati

eir!own!pre

the! issues! t

ake! in!both!

th! high! psyc

articipants!in

which! is!bro

when!one!is!p

to! participa

intensity!tha

‘real’!world

ion! exercise

ments! replic

s! such! as! in

and!treated!

ating!a!credi

al!responses!

s!the!involve

or!developing

phase! (antic

ts!in!the!prod

d! the! conse

CMT’s! decis

countability!

on! is!not!ava

on! that! is! t

evious!exper

they!are!bot

the! short"!a

chological! fid

nto!the!exerc

oadly!define

physically!sit

ants! being! i

at!the!extern

d!and!respon

es! used! for!

cated! experi

ncreased! he

it!as! if! it!we

ble!general!

!that!the!CM

ment!of!exp

g!an!overvie

cipation,! pre

duction!of!a

equences!

ions! and!

over! the!

ailable!to!

ypical! of!

iences! in!

th!aware!

and! long"!

delity! by!

cise!(21).!

ed! as! the!

tuated!in!

involved,!

nal!world!

nd! to! the!

training!

iences! in!

eart! rate,!

ere!a!real!

narrative!

MT!might!

erts!who!

ew!of!the!

evention,!

!timeline!

that!is!a

cognitive

!

Conclu

A!strateg

in! strate

skill!set!

for!exec

infreque

job’! trai

with!hig

always!a

making!o

In!order

effective

respect!

exercise

as! situa

anticipa

strategic

conditio

processe

skills!lea

by!low"f

!

Refere

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

dequately!d

e!and!social!

usion!

gic!CMT!can

egic! crisis!m

that! is!most

cutives! to!ac

ent!occurren

ining!or!by!e

gh! levels!of!

a!good!teach

or!leadership

r!to!prepare!

e! training!or

to! ensuring

es!provide!an

tion! assessm

tion,! preven

c! crisis!man

ons! (risks,! d

es!and! induc

arned!to!tran

fidelity!or!low

ences!

Oxford!Metrica

Klein,!G.!&!Hof

(Ed.)!Cognitive!

Jenvald!&!Mor

Jenvald,!J.!&!M

Environments.!

Oxford!Metrica

Crichton,!M.,!L

incident:!A!cas

Reader,!T.,!Flin

Journal!of!Anae

Flin,!R.,!O'Conn

Publishing.!

Reason,!J.!(200

!Endsley,!M.R.!

ynamic!and!

processes!ar

not!solely!re

anagement,!

t!readily! lear

cquire.!First!

nce! it! is!neith

exposure! to!

uncertainty,

her,!and!this!

p!skills.!!

executives!f

r!exercising.!

g! the! acquis

n!optimal!co

ment,! leader

ntion,! mitiga

agement! pr

angers,! com

ce!the!same

nsfer!to!actu

w"immersion

a,!2011.!

ffman,!R.!(1993

science!founda

in,!2004.!

Morin,!M.!(2004

a,!2011!

auche,!K.,!&!Fli

e!study.!Journa

n,!R.,!Lauche,!K.

esthesia,!96,!55

nor,!P.,!&!Cricht

08).!The!Human

(1995).!Toward

flexible!to!m

re!affected!b

ely!on!proced

because! str

rned!through

of!all,!due! t

her!possible!

real! crisis! i

! complexity!

type!of!envi

or!the!occur

Low! fidelity

ition! of! skil

ontext!for!tra

rship,! and! t

ation,! adapt

ocess.! This! i

mplexity! and

!emotions!e

al!crisis!resp

n!seminars!o

).!Seeing!the!in

ations!of!instru

).!Simulation"Su

n,!R.!(2005).!Inc

al!of!Contingenc

,!&!Cuthbertso

51"559.!

ton,!M.!(2008).!

n!Contribution:!

d!a!theory!of!sit

13!

meet!the!team

by!the!same!f

dural!guideli

rategic!crisis

h!experience

to! their! inhe

!nor!desirab

ncidents.! Se

and! stress;!

ironment!ca

rrence!of!an!

y!or!more!b

ls! that! will!

aining!the!cr

eam! decisio

tation! and! c

is!because!h

d! ‘wickednes

experienced!

ponse!in!a!m

r!workshops

visible:!Percept

ction!(pp.!203"

upported!Live!T

cident!comman

cies!and!Crisis!M

n,!B.!(2006).!No

Safety!at!the!S

Unsafe!Acts,!A

tuation!awaren

m’s!training!

factors!that!

nes,!structur

s!manageme

e.!However,!

erent!comple

ble!to!have! i

econdly,! cris

therefore,!e

n!be!a!poor!

incident,!the

asic!exercise

transfer! to!

rucial!strateg

on! making! (a

coping! are! i

highly! imme

ss’),! affect! a

during!an!ac

much!greater!

s.!!

tual/cognitive!a

226).!Mahwah,

Training!for!Em

nd!skills!in!the!m

Management,!1

on"technical!ski

Sharp!End.!A!Gu

ccidents!and!He

ess!in!dynamic

needs,!and!t

they!would!i

res,!or!plans!

ent! requires!

these!types

exity,!high! s

ndividuals! le

is!managem

experience! i

place!to!lear

ey!must!gain

e!environme

real! inciden

gic! level!non

among! othe

nterconnect

rsive! simula

a! trainee’s!

ctual!crisis,!t

way!than!th

aspects!of!exper

,!NJ:!Lawrence!E

ergency!Respon

management!of

13(3),!p.!116"12

ills!in!the!Intens

uide!to!Non"tec

eroic!Recoverie

systems.!Huma

that!the!part

in!real!life.!

to!develop!e

a!unique!ye

s!of!skills!are

stakes!and! th

earn!through

ment! involves

in!a! real! cris

rn!strategic!

n!experience

ents!are! limi

nts.! Thus,! si

n"technical!sk

ers)! in! event

ted! element

ations! replica

social! and! c

thereby!allo

hat!which!is!

rtise.!In!M.!Rab

Erlbaum!Assoc

nse!in!Hazardo

f!an!oil!industry

28.!

sive!Care!Unit.!

chnical!Skills.!As

es.!Farnham:!As

an!Factors,!37(

ticipants’!

expertise!

et!crucial!

e!difficult!

hankfully!

h! ‘on!the!

s!dealing!

sis! is!not!

decision"

e!through!

ited!with!

mulation!

kills!such!

ts! where!

ts! of! the!

ate! crisis!

cognitive!

wing!the!

achieved!

binowitz!

iates,!

us!

y!drilling!

British!

shgate!

shgate!

1),!32–64.!

(11)

(12)

(13)

(14)

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

!

!Salas,!E.!and!C

and!A.!Ehrenst

Washington,!D

!Jenvald!&!Mor

!Rosen,!M.,!Sal

teamwork:!An!

Academic!Eme

!Van!Den!Heuv

decisions!in!co

Behavioral!Dec

!Sato,!L.!&!Han

!Rosen!et!al,!20

!Ford,!J.!K.!&!Sc

performance.!J

!Jenvald!&!Mor

!Crego,!J.!and!S

Martin!(Eds.).!D

!Van!den!Heuv

!Crego!&!Spink

!Witmer,!B.G!a

Presence.!Tele

!Crego!&!Spink

Cannon"Bowers

ein!(eds),!Train

DC:!American!Ps

rin,!2004!

as,!E.,!Wu,!T.,!S

event"based!ap

ergency!Medicin

vel,!C,!Alison,!L!&

unter"terrorism

cision!Making.!D

scom,!R.!(2006

008!

chmidt,!A.!M.!(2

Journal!of!Haza

rin,!2004.!

Spinks,!T.!(1997

Decision!makin

el!et!al,!2010.!

ks,!1997!

nd!Singer,!M.J.

operators!and!V

ks,!1997.!

,!J.!A.!(1997).!M

ing!for!a!Rapid

sychological!Ass

Silvestri,!S.,!Lazz

pproach!to!simu

ne!Emergency!M

&!Crego,!J!(201

m!simulations:!A

DOI:!10.1002/b

).Simulating!mi

2000).!Emergen

rdous!Material

7).!Critical!incide

g!under!stress:!

(1998)!Measur

Virtual!Environ

!

14!

Methods,!tools,!

ly!Changing!Wo

sociation!249!"

zara,!E.,!Lyons,!

ulation!based!t

Medicine,!15,!p

10)!How!uncerta

A!descriptive!m

bdm.723!

istakes,!Realizin

ncy!preparedne

ls,!75,!195"215

ent!manageme

!emerging!them

ring!Presence!in

ments,!7(3),!22

and!strategies!

orkplace:!Applic

279.!

R.,!Weaver,!S.,!

teamwork!train

p.!1190"1198!

ainty!and!accou

model!of!choice!

ng!Improvemen

ess!training:!Str

nt!simulation.!I

mes!and!applica

n!Virtual!Enviro

25"240!

for!team!traini

cations!of!Psych

&!King,!HB.!(20

ing!for!emerge

untability!can!d

deferral!and!om

nts.!Forum:!Sim

ategies!for!enh

In:!R.!Flin,!E.!Sa

ations.!Ashgate

onments:!A!Pres

ng,!in!M.!A.!Qu

hological!Resea

008).!Promotin

ency!medicine!r

derail!strategic!‘

mission!bias.!Jo

mulation"based!

hancing!real"wo

las,!M.!Strub!an

e.!

sence!Question

uinones!

arch.!

g!

esidents.!

‘save!life’!

ournal!of!

training.!

orld!

nd!L.!

nnaire,!

Copyri

The!Bus

ISSN!

ISSN!175

Contac

Continu

1964!Ga

Vienna,!

PH:!1"70

Fax:!1"70

Editor!

David!Ho

editor@

Subscr

subs@b

Websi

www.bu

!

ight!

iness!Contin

52"4539!

cts!

ity!Central!

allows!Road,!

Virginia!221

03"891"6780

03!356"7096

onour!

@businesscon

riptions!

usinessconti

te!

usinesscontin

uity!Journal!

Suite!#!210!

82!USA!

!

6!

ntinuityjourn

inuityjourna

nuityjournal.

is!Copyright!

nal.com!!

l.com!!

.com!!

61!

!2012!Continnuity!Central,!all!rights!reeserved.!