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Tested Methodologies and Results from Europe High Speed Rail

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This paper aims at giving an overall view of high-speed rail in Europe. It investigates the policy background of this mode of transport and shows how the high-speed rail became integrated and non-negligible part of the European policies. It also gives a thorough picture about the recent situation within the European Union, and how far the development of network extensions could reach as well as about ongoing research programmes.

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Page 1: High Speed Rail

Tested Methodologies and Results from Europe

High Speed Rail

Page 2: High Speed Rail

2

Table of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................... 4

SCOPE OF THE TOPIC ................................................. 8

THE COMMON TRANSPORT POLICY .......................... 11

THE EUROPEAN UNION IS ON TRACK – DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SPEED RAIL NETWORK ............................. 15

YES TO HIGH-SPEED RAILWAYS! BUT WHY? ........... 17

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF HIGH-SPEED TRAINS 20

GROWING DEMAND ................................................. 22

NETWORK EXTENSION............................................. 24

SHINING EXAMPLES AND STRATEGIES IN EUROPE . 27

France ............................................................................................................................ 27

Germany ........................................................................................................................ 30

Spain .............................................................................................................................. 33

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Comparison of three national projects ......................................................... 36

OUTLOOK ON RESEARCH ......................................... 40

What’s next? ............................................................................................................. 40

Results ......................................................................................................................... 46

REFERENCES ............................................................ 48

This publication was produced by the PRESS4TRANSPORT consortium on behalf of the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Research. The European Union, the European Commission or any person acting on their behalf are not responsible for the accurateness, completeness, use of the information contained in this Fiche, nor shall they be liable for any loss, including consequential loss, that might derive from such use or from the findings of the Fiche themselves.

Although the authors exercised all reasonable efforts to ensure the accuracy and the quality of the contents of this publication, the Consortium assumes no liability for any inadvertent error or omission that may appear in this publication. Additional information on the analyzed projects is available on the PRESS4TRANSPORT website at http://www.press4transport.eu/vpo/thematic_fiches.php

Created by: PRESS4TRANSPORT Consortium Coordinator: CYBION Srl Responsible Scientific Partner: Budapest University of Technology and Economics Author: Balazs Kozak, Gabor Szendro

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EXECUTIVE

SUMMARY

This paper aims at giving an

overall view of high-speed rail

in Europe. It investigates the

policy background of this mode

of transport and shows how the

high-speed rail became

integrated and non-negligible

part of the European policies. It

also gives a thorough picture

about the recent situation within

the European Union, and how far

the development of network

extensions could reach as well as

about ongoing research

programmes.

High-speed train is a form of

passenger transport in which

trains travel at a speed of at

least 200 km/h and may exceed

300 km/h in special

circumstances, and this gives its

greatest advantage among many

others.

Transport is organic part of our

everyday life, important part of

the economy, therefore the

European Commission is not

indifferent from the transport

related problems such as

increasing occurrence of

congestions, underdeveloped

infrastructure of peripheral and

cohesion regions, increasing

pollution coming from transport

and related health problems etc.

The European Union is strongly

committed to create a

sustainable transport system

which is described in the White

Paper. In this common transport

policy railways have its own

specific role and calls attention to

the recent situation in respect to

the future objectives and the

Single European Market in which

high-speed rail could play a

decisive role.

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Railways had been an issue of

previous EU transport policies,

which led to the creation of a

core multi-modal transport

network of the European Union is

created. The Trans-European

Transport Network (TEN-T) puts

large emphasis on the railways

with special regards to high-

speed rail. High-speed rail policy

frameworks come into action

through European projects such

as the fully functional Trans-

European Transport Network

(TEN-T) by 2030, finishing a

complete high-speed rail network

concerning all member states of

the European Union by 2030,

and use the synergies by

combining air transport.

This new technology appeared

decades ago in the European

market and from its short and

successful history, its potentials

and European transport policies

bright future is foreseen for high-

speed rail. The most important

factors are discussed in this

section such as distance, travel

time, comfort, and low

environmental impact.

Conventional rail was stagnating

or losing market share

depending on member states in

the last two decades, although

recently there has been an

overall slight increase and stop

of fallback in market share,

thanks to high-speed rail, which

could lead to the revival of

railways 200 years after this

transport technology changed

the world. The appearance of

new transport had an

unprecedented impact on travel

habits where it was implemented

and gave impetus for further

network extensions, albeit

mostly in EU-15 countries.

Germany, France and Spain are

considered leading countries in

the European high-speed

market, therefore we decided to

give more detailed look on them

by introducing three prominent

project from each demonstrating

Page 6: High Speed Rail

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the success of this mode of

transport.

France, which is a technological

leader in European and world

market, had a major role in

implementing high-speed rail in

Europe by the Paris-Marseille line

by which the Mediterranean

region is as close as 3 hours

from the French capital.

Germany invested mostly in

upgrading conventional tracks,

but creating a decentralized and

more or less evenly distributed

system. The case of the

Frankfurt-Cologne line serves as

a best practice for intermodality

between air and rail transport,

which is among the priorities of

the European Commission.

Spain has the longest high-

speed rail system and plans to

have a dense network that is

easily accessible to the majority

of the population. The Madrid-

Seville line was the first

inaugurated line (the first with

European gauge as well), which

changed radically the former

travel habits on that route and

served as a best practice for

future developments.

The European Union must invest

in research and development to

maintain its leading position in

high-speed rail technology.

Moreover, the EU needs a

competitive and sustainable

transport system in which high-

speed rail plays major role. The

Seventh Framework Programme

of the European Commission

financed R&D projects

concentrate on such innovations

which foster reliability, safety

and lower costs of European

railways, including high-speed

rail. All in all, innovations

contribute to the interoperability

of European railway systems

The R&D projects concentrate on

the physical infrastructure and

the rolling stock interoperability

ensuring more attractive, safer,

Page 7: High Speed Rail

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cheaper and more reliable

European high-speed rail system.

PRESS4TRANSPORT details:

This fiche is produced within the

PRESS4TRANSPORT (Virtual

Press Office to improve EU

Sustainable Surface Transport

research media visibility on a

national and regional level)

project. The overall aim of the

project is to assists EU, National

and Regional funded projects

communicate their surface

transport research results to the

media.

PRESS4TRANSPORT is funded

by the European Commission's

Directorate-General for Research

under the Seventh Framework

Programme for Research and

Technological Development

(FP7).

Page 8: High Speed Rail

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Scope of the topic

The high-speed train (HST) is a way of passenger railway

transport that is much faster

than ordinary railways. According

to the definition of the European

Union1 HSTs are travelling at a

speed on the order of 200 km/h

on existing lines which have

been or are specially upgraded

or travelling at a speed of at

least 250 km/h on lines specially

built for high-speed, while

enabling speeds of over 300

km/h to be reached in

appropriate circumstances. This

speed makes HST competitive

with cars and air transport over

medium length distances in

inter-urban transport.

1 EC Directive 96/58

Figure 1: HST between Frankfurt-Cologne rising above - symbolically - A3 Motorway (Source: DPA)

Transport is part of our everyday

life and everyone is concerned

about it. More than 10 million

people are employed in this

sector, which produces more

than 10% of the EU’s GDP. Other

common policies deal with the

transport sector as a major

source of pollution (greenhouse

gases, acidifying substances,

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ozone precursors, particulate

matter, etc.) with large potential

in pollution reduction as well as

key consumer of scarce

resources. The EU is aware of

traffic-related problems:

increasing occurrence of

congestions, underdeveloped

infrastructure of peripheral and

cohesion regions, increasing

pollution coming from transport

and related health problems etc.

The European Commission is

committed to create a safe,

modern, economically

competitive, environmental-

friendly and socially fair,

sustainable transportation

system.

Mostly road transport of the

European Union has increased to

the detriment of railway

transport while there is also a

strong competition with air

transport. This is due to the

European railway network, which

is a mixture of ancient and

modern. This contrast ranges

from decrepit countryside lines

to the high-performance high-

speed lines.

The White Paper on

transport in 2001 set the

revitalization of railways as one

of the major goals. The latest

data shows that the goals are

only partially achieved and

although railways carried more

goods and passengers in the last

years, but the increase of road

transport and aviation was much

more significant.

On the contrary to the overall

decrease in transport share,

high-speed railway network in

Europe is considered as a real

success and numerous shining

examples show that the revival

of railway transport is on the

horizon.

That is why the White Paper

2011 is intended to give further

impetus for the development of

high-speed and conventional

railway network with its

ambitious objectives by 2050.

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This Fiche aims to give a general

overview on the significance of

high-speed trains including policy

background, showing the effects

of past investments of today

operating systems through

shining examples. This paper will

also outline the future trends and

how this technology can change

travel habits and contribute to

other common policies.

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The Common Transport Policy

The European Community had no

effective Common Transport

Policy for the first three decades

following the Treaty of Rome

(1957) due to inefficient

cooperation between the Member

States. The policy of making

boundaries irrelevant between

member states by facilitating the

free movement of individuals and

goods gained momentum

through the Treaty of

Maastricht (1992), which

represents a turning point for the

Common Transport Policy. The

beginning of a real common

infrastructural policy is dated

from this event, when the Trans-

European Network was

established. The main purposes

of this transport policy are to

complete the European Single

Market, support sustainable

development, extend transport

networks throughout Europe,

make use of space as efficiently

as possible, reinforce safety and

facilitate international

cooperation by creating an

integrated and comprehensive

network of European transport.

The Cohesion Fund budget was

created later on for such

transport developments from

Community sources.

“Since the 2001 release of the

White Paper published by the

European Commission, the

Single Market policy has been

oriented towards harmoniously

and simultaneously improving

the various modes of transport,

in particular with co-modality. In

the 2006 revision of the White

Paper, the Commission set an

aim at increasing the

competitiveness of railway,

improving transport systems

operating with the latest

technology, introducing charges

for the use of infrastructure,

supporting alternative propulsion

vehicles and elaborating methods

to reduce congestion.”

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As proclaimed in the White

Paper on Transport in 2001,

the EU is devoted to decouple

the growth of GDP from the

growth of transport related to it.

Due to the continuous increase in

transport demand, the

decoupling of economy and

transport does not seem to be

realized. Despite the fact that

there are examples and

spreading best practices in

sustainable transportation,

unfortunately the technological

shift seems to be slower and not

even enough to balance the

growth of demand deriving from

the increase of users. The

ongoing trends project the rapid

growth of motorization in the EU-

12 countries; therefore the

gradual change of modal split will

be similar to EU-15 countries.

Future projections and existing

experiences show the prevailing

of road transport and aviation to

the detriment of railroad.

The EU enlargement and

extension of Schengen borders,

relatively higher growth rate of

economic development of EU-12

changes gradually the transport

figures. The integration of the

EU-12 to the EU-15 changed the

direction of trade, and therefore

the direction transport, which

has shifted from the Eastwards

to the Westwards, just like trade

is shifting from domestic market

to international. The

restructuring of industry and

transport from large bulk to

smaller bulk give priority to the

more flexible and reliable road

transport instead of railroad,

while in passenger transport the

liberalization of civil aviation and

the extension of the motorway

network increased considerably

to the detriment of railway

transport.

The ongoing trends (increasing

modal split of aviation and road

transport) do not contribute to

other horizontal policies of the

EU on agenda (sustainability,

environmental protection,

climate and energy issues).

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Furthermore, the transport policy

of EU-12 enhances the increase

of road transport by new

infrastructure and generated

traffic. This approach is neither

sustainable nor a viable way

concerning the trends, therefore

sustainable, environmental

impact-minimizing solutions have

taken place while meeting the

mobility demand of people.

Already in the 2006 revision, the

revitalization of railway transport

and linking it up with other

modes was given special

attention. The railway system fell

behind in the competition (modal

split shrunk to 10.5% in freight,

6% in passenger transport)

among transport modes and

faces several problems to be

solved, even as railway transport

is alive and will be an integrated,

non-negligible part of the

European transport system.

The European Commission has

presented on 28th March, 2011

the EU's comprehensive

Transport 2050 Strategy which

aims at creating a competitive

transport system that will

increase mobility, remove major

barriers in key areas and fuel

growth and employment. This

strategy described in the

Transport 2011 White Paper for a

Roadmap to a Single European

Transport Area.

Key objectives set by European

Transport 2050 Strategy:

No more conventionally fuelled

cars in cities;

40% use of sustainable low

carbon fuels in aviation and at

least 40% cut in shipping

emissions;

A 50% shift of medium distance

intercity passenger and freight

journeys from road to rail and

waterborne transport;

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Overall 60% cut in transport

emissions by the middle of the

century.

The European Commission

continues opening the market

and moves closer to a single

transport system with special

attention to interoperability

among the different modes of

transport.

Large investments are needed to

change the actual infrastructure

towards a more sustainable

optimized one in which the

modal split is more diverse

among the transport players. In

2008, 45.9% of freight traffic

was on road, compared to the

10.8% and 3.6% share of

railways and inland waterways,

respectively.

The passenger transport market

is even more distorted, where

passenger cars make up 72.5%,

while aviation is having a

gradually increasing part with

8.6% compared to 6.3% of the

railways in 2008.

The clear vision of the European

Commission is to raise the modal

split of railways and create an

intermodal, well-functioning and

energy-efficient transport

system. Therefore, the

completion of the TEN-T network

is vital, parallel to creating new,

high-quality capacities to

increase market share in many

fields namely medium-distance

traffic both on passenger and

freight transport.

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The European Union is on track – development of high-speed rail network

It is almost two centuries after

the first train ran in the world,

ever since railways are still a

means of transport with major

potential. The use of this

potential is the key in the

renewal of the railways therefore

in achieving modal rebalance in

transport. Today it is a mixture

of ancient and modern elements.

On the one hand, high-speed

network provides high quality

service while on the other hand,

slow, crowded commuter and

freight trains crawl in suburban

or even in remote countryside

regions.

With the EU enlargement

distances are increasing among

centers at opposite ends of the

European Union, which an

effective high-speed passenger

network could shrink. Such a

network comprises of high-speed

railway lines, including upgraded

lines, integrated aviation and rail

transport services, connections

and systems. There is a large

emphasis on the development of

high-speed rail infrastructure,

therefore the EU continues its

efforts which have started in the

last decade. The priority is to

build new tracks to increase

capacity to free up lines for

freight transport. Adequate

comfort and services could be

provided by upgrading existing

lines with the latest technology,

instead of building new lines

which is evidently more costly.

Already in 2001, the White Paper

for transport set the priority to

revitalize railways to double

market-share, reduce pollution

by 50%, and increase efficiency

by 50% by the end of the

decade. One of the major results

was the partial creation of the

rail market. Some problems

solved, new challenges came,

and still more effort should be

put into creating interoperability

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among the railway systems of

member states.

The programme for the Trans-

European Transport

Networks (TEN-T) is

designed to guarantee optimum

mobility and coherence between

the various modes of transport in

the Union as introduced under

the Treaty of Maastricht. The

main priorities of this policy,

which accounts for a large part

of the White Paper on transport

policy are to establish the key

links needed to facilitate

transport, optimize the capacity

of existing infrastructure,

produce specifications for

network interoperability and

integrate the environmental

dimension.

In order to achieve the

objectives of the Lisbon Strategy

(increase competitiveness and

create new jobs), the European

Union has launched the TEN-T

project, which aims at

developing multimodal transport

corridors. The TEN-T focuses

very closely on the development

of high-speed transport. Out of

the 30 priority projects put

forward under this programme,

14 concern high-speed rail lines.

Further development of high-

speed railway network belongs to

the reassuring plans of the EU in

creating a sustainable transport

system. This aims at creating an

environmental friendly

competitor and both

complementary of motorized

transport and aviation in intercity

passenger transport.

The existence and gradual

extension of high-speed rail

network proved to be successful

in changing people’s travel habits

(London-Paris, Madrid-Seville)

and this could lead to the revival

of railways.

The recently published Transport White Paper

2011 - Transport 2050

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Strategy entails several

ambitious points concerning

railways and high-speed railway:

By 2050, complete a

European high-speed rail

network. Triple the length

of the existing high-speed

rail network (6214 km at

the end of 2009) by 2030

and maintain a dense

railway network in all

Member States. By 2050

the majority of medium-

distance passenger

transport should go by rail.

A fully functional and EU-

wide multimodal TEN-T

‘core network’ by 2030,

with a high quality and

capacity network by 2050

and a corresponding set of

information services.

By 2050, connect all core

network airports to the

rail network, preferably

high-speed; ensure that all

core seaports are

sufficiently connected to the

rail freight and, where

possible, inland waterway

system.

Already today there are

examples to follow on many

transport routes, where high-

speed trains offer a real

alternative to aviation in terms of

time, price and comfort such as

the London-Paris and Madrid-

Seville lines. The EU encourages

high-speed train operators,

airlines and airport managers to

use to synergies of both means

of transport and to cooperate

while competing. Intermodal

transport hubs at airport and

integration of both systems are

the favorable ways of

cooperation.

Yes to high-speed railways! But why? The history of high-speed

railways in Europe is dating back

to 1977 when Italy introduced

the first high-speed railway line

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between Rome and Florence, but

the real technological

breakthrough was the

inauguration of high-speed

railway line between Paris and

Lyon with TGV (Train à Grande

Vitesse) HSTs. Germany joined

the venture in the early 1990s

with the ICE (InterCity Express),

then Spain by the AVE (Alta

Velocidad Espanola) in 1992.

Today, newly built special track

technology is mainly reviving in

France, Germany, Spain,

Belgium, Netherlands and Italy,

while in Great-Britain, Sweden

and some parts of Germany still

use the upgraded conventional

tracks. Although the mixture of

technologies, the European

Union is the world leader

technology provider in high-

speed train technology, and

makes continuous technological

progress to maintain this position

amid increasing competition.

Each year, the European HSL is

getting longer and HS rail

operators make large efforts to

create the first trans-European

HSL, between Paris, Brussels,

Cologne, Amsterdam and

London, an effort already close

to completion. This could set a

good example for interoperable

lines.

Figure 2: Increase in HSLs in Europe in km (1995-2009)

It is not easy to compare

different modes of transport, but

among many factors (distance,

time, price, comfort, and

environmental impacts) one

decisive factor is time. High-

speed trains travel at a speed of

200-350 km/h in Europe. This

enables them to be the fastest

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mode on definite distances.

According to studies, high-speed

trains are the fastest on

distances between 150 and 800

km in door to door journey

times. Below 150 km they are

less competitive with road or

conventional rail travel, but

between 150 and 400 km the

conventional and high-speed rail

offers faster travel against

airlines, while for journeys

between 400 and 800 km high-

speed rail is preferred over air

and road travel. Above 800 km

air travel takes over high-speed

rail, but the difference is still not

decisive and this difference is

increasing moderately with

distance.

Figure 3: Journey times vs distance for rail (HS and conventional lines) and air transport

Close cross-border cooperation

of high-speed line operators is

getting more and more

important in medium-distance

cross-border journeys and it is

related to the competitiveness of

high-speed lines such as in case

of Paris-London-Brussels-

Amsterdam-Cologne, see figure

below.

The development of the high-

speed network shrunk the

distances between Western

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European cities as shown in the

figure below.

Figure 4: Journey times between stations 1989-2009

Apart from the time factor, high-

speed trains provide unrivalled

passenger comfort. The interior

of the carriages is designed to

create a relaxing environment

suitable both for work and

relaxation. High-speed trains

offer onboard services such as

large individual space, internet,

power socket for electric devices,

headrest, folding tables, onboard

restaurant, radio and television

services, and the unlimited

possibility to use mobile phones.

Environmental impact of high-speed trains

Fighting climate change,

developing a trans-European HSL

network is one of the European

Union’s main objectives. High-

speed passenger transport will

allow high levels of mobility to

be maintained, while

guaranteeing the sustainability

of the European transport

system. This global issue is on

the political and social agenda,

therefore, it gives further

attraction to rail transport due to

its low environmental impact.

Transport accounts for 25.1% of

EU-27 CO2 emissions. Out of this

only 0.6% is from rail transport

both from passenger and freight

transport (excluding indirect

emissions from electricity

consumption).

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Figure 5: CO2 emissions by mode of transport in the EU-27 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)

Today, high-speed trains in

Europe use only electricity and

their direct local CO2 emissions

are almost zero in their operation

zones, though CO2 emitted

during electricity production has

to be taken into account,

therefore their carbon footprint is

not zero. The climate impact

therefore depends on the

primary energy source used for

electricity generation. This varies

among countries may be higher

in countries where mostly fossil

fuels are used for electricity

generation, and lower where the

ratio of nuclear and renewable

electricity generation is higher.

In case of not taking into

account the indirect emissions

from electricity generation, CO2

emissions (grams per passenger-

kilometre) is 2.7 for high-speed

trains compared to 153 g/pkm

for air and 115.7 g/pkm for car

on a Paris-Marseille journey.

Several studies emphasize to

reflect the carbon-footprint on

the whole life-cycle including also

CO2 emitted during the

production of the rolling stock,

during the construction of the

infrastructure, not only the CO2

emitted indirectly by operation.

Von Rozycki et al. (2003)

examined the environmental

effects of the InterCity Express

(ICE) on the high-speed rail

route between Hannover and

Wuerzburg. In this section, 14%

of total energy use is related to

the traffic infrastructure and

about 25% of the CO2 emissions,

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which is in total 69.4 g CO2-

equivalent per pkm.

The carbon-footprint changes

from country to country and

track section to track section

because of the different variables

that make up this indicator.

Therefore, it is hard to give

universal estimation. The carbon

footprint of electricity generation

of the rolling stock and of the

track system has numerous

variables such energy mix used

for electricity generation,

topography, share of bridge and

tunnels, life-span of

infrastructure, maintenance of

traffic infrastructure and rolling

stock, load factor etc. are all

important factors to be taken

into account. From this point of

view, French railways use

electricity coming from nuclear

energy, while Italy and Germany

use solid fuel, gas, oil mix for

electricity production.

Transport-created noise raised

attention of the European

Commission that has devised

different measures at the EU

level concerning the

harmonisation of noise

assessment and management,

market access requirements for

certain vehicles and equipment

etc. Railway industry measures

cover infrastructure operators

(e.g. the acoustic grinding of

rails, noise barriers, speed limits

at night) and train operators

(e.g. replacement of cast-iron

brakes with low-noise composite

materials). Newly constructed

high-speed train tracks are

mostly built with noise barriers

along sensitive areas.

Growing demand

The demand for mobility grows

year by year, and in absolute

value passenger rail transport

grew by about 2.1% between

1990 and 2008. Since other

modes of transport grew even

faster, therefore the modal split

of railways in EU-27 shrunk to

6.3% by 2008. However, this

Page 23: High Speed Rail

23

value masked the considerable

disparity in performance between

the EU-15, which, taken as a

whole, has experienced strong

volume growth (33.8%), and the

EU-12 which has experienced a

severe decline in passenger

volumes (62%), but since 2005

they shows signs of stabilization.

Figure 6: Total rail passenger traffic volume (M passenger-km) 1990-2008 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)

The growing demand for

passenger rail transport is due to

the appearance of high-quality

service. High-speed rail networks

have been successful in

increasing the use of rail by

attracting entirely new traffic to

rail both as a result of capturing

traffic from air and road but also

by generating new traffic. The

growth in passenger transport is

driven primarily by the

availability of faster and

affordable modes in transport.

Since the first high-speed line

was introduced in Italy, the

number of passengers opting for

this mode of transport has

continuously increased. The

passenger volume on all EU-12

lines increased from 15.2 billion

pkm in 1990 to 92.33 billion pkm

in 2008.

Figure 7: High-speed and conventional passenger volume trends 1990-2008 (M passenger-km) (Source: Eurostat)

The impact of the successful

investment in high-speed rail on

total rail use can be most clearly

seen in France, a country which

has developed the most

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24

extensive high-speed rail

network that has overtaken

Germany as the Member State

with the greatest volume of

passenger traffic by 2003.

The figure below shows the

relative trends of high-speed and

conventional traffic in France.

Figure 8: High-speed and conventional rail passenger traffic volume (M passenger-km) 1990-2008 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)

Several countries are investing

heavily in rail infrastructure for

high-speed passenger services or

to expand capacity and to

provide new high-speed

networks. Between 1990 and

2008 the overall volume of rail

passenger traffic increased by

33.3 % driven by an increase of

253% in the use of high-speed

rail through which high-speed

trains reached a 24% market

share within rail transport. The

relative trends in high-speed and

conventional rail use in EU,

showing the increasing

importance of high-speed rail to

Europe’s railway industry.

States that have invested heavily

in high-speed rail have been

rewarded with considerable

volumes of traffic on HSR

networks. In 2008, high-speed

formed 61.9% of total passenger

rail traffic in France, 28.5% in

Germany, 27.2% in Sweden,

22.9% in Spain, and 17.8% in

Italy. Almost wherever HSR

services have been provided they

are providing an increasing

proportion of total rail use as

well.

Network extension

According to forecasts in the

TEN-T programme, the Trans-

European high-speed network

will be 22,140 km long overall by

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2020, compared with 9,693 km

in 2008. By 2030, once the high-

speed TEN-T has been

completed, the network will have

a length of 30,750 km.

“In order to fully develop a Trans-

European high-speed line hub,

several priority projects are

devoted to the north-south link

between networks. The

Southwest European high-speed rail axis will link the

Iberian Peninsula to the rest of

Europe in a fully interoperable

network. The vital north-south

corridor through the Alps (Berlin–

Verona–Milan–Bologna–Naples–

Messina–Palermo axis) will link

major German and Italian cities.

The Lyon- Trieste–Divača /

Koper–Divača–Ljubljana-

Budapest–Ukrainian border axis,

which crosses this corridor at

right angles, will be able to

absorb some of the constantly

increasing traffic between the

south-east, the centre and the

south-west of Europe.”

Several countries plan network

extension projects: Spain,

Portugal, Poland, Sweden, and

the United Kingdom as well as

third countries.

An upgraded line to 220km/h will

provide railway link between

Helsinki and St. Petersburg and

this will reduce journey time and

it will be able to cope with the

increasing forecasted traffic

volumes.

Turkey is building its own high-

speed network partially financed

by the EU. The first section was

opened in March 2009 between

Ankara and Eskisehir and it will

reach Istanbul with further

extension halving the total

journey time.

Another three lines are already

being planned: Ankara – Konya,

Ankara – Sivas and Istanbul–

Bulgarian frontier.

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This trend can only to increase

as further high-speed rail lines

are commissioned: Turkey

opened its first high-speed line in

2009, Austria and Switzerland

are also constructing lines to

allow them to join the “high-

speed club”, further high-speed

lines are under construction in

Spain, France, Germany and

Italy, and lines are planned in a

number of other states.

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Shining examples and strategies in Europe

In this chapter some best

practices are introduced how a

new or upgraded HSL could

change travel habits.

France It was France that led the

technological breakthrough of

high-speed railways. The first

high-speed line was opened

between Paris and Lyon in 1981.

Today the French high-speed

network is Paris-centered and

reaches the largest, densely

populated areas in France (Lyon,

Marseille, Lille, Toulouse etc.).

The total network accounts for

1,897 km (December 2010)

which is the second largest in

Europe. The TGV network is

spreading out beyond the

borders into other countries like

Netherlands, Belgium, Germany,

Switzerland and United Kingdom.

Due to central position on

Western Europe and early

leading position other new high-

speed rail lines in Europe have

been built to the same speed,

voltage and signaling standards,

though in reality due to

interoperability issues, not all

TGV trains can cross every

border. The first cross-border

high-speed line was connected to

the completion of Channel

Tunnel and complete high-speed

infrastructure travel time

between Paris and London

dropped by the Eurostar from 5h

12min to 2h 15min as well as

from Brussels to London from 4h

52min to 1h 51min. This gave

the high-speed rail so much

advantage that on each line the

market share rose to 68 and

63% respectively. The Thalys

international high-speed train

brought Paris closer to Brussels

merely to 1:22 away.

The French high-speed train,

(nicknamed the Concorde of

railways), the TGV, changed

travel habits and sometimes

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radically changed modal split

between major cities. Today the

market share of TGVs on Paris-

Lyon line is taking over 90% in

the air-rail travel market due to

less than two hours travel, and

the market share is about 60%

in corridors where travel time is

around three hours. The Paris-

Marseille line has about 66%

market share, and good

connection with CDG airport only

in 3 hours.

Figure 6: TGV high-speed train (Source: www.presstv.ir)

Since the opening of first high-

speed line between Paris and

Lyon, Marseille has been served

by TGV, from Lyon to Marseille

via conventional tracks. The

high-speed line was extended in

two steps from Lyon to Valence

in 1994, and since 2001 the

whole route is served by high-

speed tracks.

Today the average journey time

with TGV is approximately 3

hours, while the scheduled flight

time from Charles de Gaulle

airport is 1 hour 25 minutes. In

1999 45 flights, today only 26

flights per day operate from Paris

to Marseille compared to the 17

trains. easyJet attempted to

provide low-cost airline service

on this route, but then it stopped

operating after a year in 2005.

According to estimations, 66% of

rail and air traffic is by high-

speed trains between the two

destinations today. One reason

could be the app. €60 price for a

single one-way TGV fare which is

half the price of the airplane fare

on average. On-board service

quality provided is generally

better on TGVs and on iDTGVs

(“interactive Relaxation High-

speed Train”) than on airplanes.

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In addition, great advantage of

TGVs is the air-rail connection at

Paris Charles de Gaulle

International Airport; moreover,

the intermodality is further

facilitated by code share

agreement with the largest

airlines.

The greatest competitor of high-

speed rail could be the low-cost

airlines, although they face two

problems, which makes them fall

behind in this competition. Due

to slot constraint, they do not

get enough slots at Paris Orly

and the charges at Paris airports

are relatively high, therefore

they cannot be real competitors

of high-speed rail services.

The development of Paris-

Marseille high-speed line was in

fact the extension of the 1981

Paris-Lyon line and still this line

has further extension

perspectives towards the French

Riviera, to Nice. Today, TGVs

achieved higher share than on

other European routes with

comparable journey times due to

high-quality service (more

comfortable, reliable and

terminals are much better

located), and limitations on air

competition service.

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Germany The German high-speed network

varies significantly from the

French one. The geographically

distributed political demand and

denser and more evenly

distributed population resulted in

Germany connecting more cities

than France, therefore it has

more stops. The political demand

and constitutional obligations2

made German governments to

put more emphasis on

upgrading existing lines than

building new high-speed lines,

therefore the whole high-speed

rail network has a mixture of

both types of tracks. The fastest

section of the network is at a

speed of 300 km/h between

Frankfurt airport and Cologne by

ICE. The ICE took over the

market over airplanes on this

section with market share above

2 Article 87, German Constitution

90% after shrinking the journey

time to 1:10.

Due to its central location and

important transport corridors

within the boundaries TEN-T

project, Germany many high-

speed line developments are

going on lately Berlin-Innsbruck,

Saarbrücken-Mannheim lines,

Stuttgart-Ulm.

German railways have good

connection to almost all

neighboring countries by ICE and

plans go even further. It has now

daily connection to Paris,

Amsterdam, Brussels,

Copenhagen, Zurich, Vienna and

in the near future to London as

well.

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Figure 7: ICE train at the Cologne station (Source: www.aito.co.uk)

The Cologne-Frankfurt high-

speed line was opened in 2002

and sets a good example for

linking densely populated urban

areas and major European

airports by high-speed rail. The

ICE takes the 177 km distance in

approximately 1 hour 10

minutes. In addition, this is one

of the two high-speed rail

services where through baggage

handling is offered for air/rail

passengers, and where there is

through ticketing between air

and rail. The main competitors of

ICE are not classical and low-

cost airlines, rather the cars in

the ‘country of Autobahn’. In

approximately 2 hours it is

possible to take this trip by car,

while if two or more people

travel together, it is cheaper

than high-speed train. The

previous, ‘classic’ rail route along

the Rhine is still in use to provide

cheaper, but longer journey for

travellers and to serve

intermediate stations. Lufthansa

kept some daily airlines in use

despite the strong competitor,

and operates some flights, which

have scheduled journey times of

40-45 minutes. Today 4 flights,

nearly 50 high-speed trains, a

dozen of conventional trains, and

hundreds of cars take the

Frankfurt-Cologne distance daily.

As mentioned before, high-speed

network in Germany is a mixed

network of both passenger and

freight transport. This is a unique

section in this network, because

it is restricted only to passenger

traffic.

The ICE prices range from €39 to

€110, while conventional trains

offer a 35% discount compared

to ICE. Air link is most likely to

be provided between €108 and

€418.

Despite the great difference in

prices, the stated reliability for

long-distance trains is 85% to

arrive within 5 minutes of their

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published time, while 83% in

case of Lufthansa to arrive within

15 minutes of their published

time.

High-speed rail carrying 97% of

all passengers on the Frankfurt-

Cologne route and therefore has

a dominant market share,

although prior to the high-speed

line the market share of rail

already considerably high, 80-

85%.

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Spain The longest high-speed

railway network of Europe is

found in Spain with 2,665 km

(2nd longest after China). Spain

has serious plans to extend the

network by 10,000 km between

2010 and 2020, so that 90% of

its inhabitants would reach a

high-speed train station within

50 km of their homes and from

all provincial capitals Madrid

could be reached within 3 hours.

Spain had track gauge problems

with the continental connection

(France), and the new lines were

built up to European standards.

The interoperability of the

Spanish high-speed trains (AVE)

on conventional tracks is solved

by special AVE trains with

interchangeable gauges. The first

line was inaugurated in 1992

between Madrid and Seville that

ended up to be a real success

with seizing 83% of the market

between the two cities. Six other

lines have been opened since

including the Madrid-Barcelona

and the Madrid-Valencia line.

The first AVE line to France was

opened 2010 December and by

2012 train to Paris from Madrid

trains will operate without

changing gauge, just like to

Lisbon.

Figure 8: AVE high-speed trains (Source: www.raileurope.com)

The first HSL in Spain was

inaugurated just before the

Seville World Expo in 1992 after

1986 decision to build the line.

The curiosity of the line is that it

operates on totally new

infrastructure, according to

standard European gauge unlike

the Spanish conventional rail

network. The average journey

time is approximately 2 hours 30

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minutes linking Madrid, Seville

and cities in between (Ciudad

Real, Puertollano, Córdoba).

The opening of the HSL changed

the travel habits fundamentally

between the two cities. The

conventional competitors:

airplane (from 42% to 16%), car

(from 23% to 21%), bus (from

4% to 5%) and conventional rail

(from 33% to 1%) fell behind in

the competition against the new

high-speed train by 2000. The

main competitor, air traffic

shrank to 20% share from 70%

in air/rail competition and

railways took over with the help

of AVE.

Traditionally, buses are the main

mode of long distance public

transport in Spain. Prior to the

opening of the HSL, more

passengers travelled by bus on

this route than by train. On the

Madrid-Seville route it takes 6

hours and costs €17 for one-way

ticket. Still today, buses carry

20% of the number of

passengers carried by the train,

mostly concentrating on low-

budget travelers.

Although the scheduled air

journey time is 1 hour by classic

air services and costs €140 on

average, depending on many

conditions. Only Iberia Airlines

have direct connection from

Seville to the central hub in

Madrid. Low-cost airlines are not

operating on this route.

There are Talgo 200 trains,

which offer cheaper tickets than

AVE, but provide a bit slower

service between the two

destinations.

Despite high-speed rail being the

most expensive mode on this

route (a standard one-way ticket

for costs €50-70), it has the

highest modal share with 58%.

The reason for this high share -

according to the operator - is

due to the shortest journey time

in point-to-point travel and the

approximately 100% punctuality

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of the service. The AVE’s

operator offers a punctuality

promise, which in fact means

that if a train is more than 5

minutes late, the entire cost of

the ticket is refunded. Less than

0.3% of tickets have to be

refunded. The AVE on-board

services provide equivalent or

better than on airplanes.

The first Spanish high-speed line

proved to be successful and this

success gave place for further

high-speed rail development in

other parts of Spain.

More information at:

http://www.renfe.com

http://www.sncf.com

http://www.bahn.de

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Comparison of three national projects

In this section the above-

mentioned three projects will be

compared. These projects are,

but it is interesting to find the

common points in them. Above

all, the most important common

feature is that all of them are a

real success stories.

General description

The shortest line of them all is

the Frankfurt-Cologne line with

its 177 km, which cost 6 billion

Euros according to Deutsche

Bahn. This line is part of the

Western European high-speed

rail network connecting many

countries. The extension of the

LGV Sud-Est and LGV Rhône-

Alpes, the LGV Méditerranée is

244 km long and cost 3.8 billion

Euros. By the extension of the

line, TGV trains can run from

Paris to Marseille strictly on high-

speed line. The Seville-Madrid

line is more than a single section

in a longer line or system,

literally a full line with 471 km

cost 2.7 billion Euro.

Figure 9: Frankfurt-Cologne high-speed rail line (Source: WIkipedia)

Railway track

All three lines were built with the

European standard gauge

(1,435mm) and both are double-

tracks. This fact is only worth

mentioning in the case of Spain,

where conventional tracks are of

different gauge, and this line was

the first to use the European

standards which will help

interoperability of trains on the

European Single Market.

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Figure 10: ICE train passing by (Source: iStockphoto)

Highest possible speed

On each line, high-speed trains

can reach speed of 300 km/h,

which is often, such as in these

cases, the operation speed of

newly built high-speed rail

infrastructures.

Electrification system

The Madrid-Seville and the Paris-

Marseilles lines are built with 25

kV 50 Hz electric systems, in

contrast with the Frankfurt-

Cologne, which uses 15 kV 16.7

Hz electric systems. The latter

creates interoperability problems

in the liberalized European rail

market, though the latest train

engines are prepared to take into

account the different national rail

electric systems. The Spanish

line gives a good example for

interoperability of European

systems, just like the gauge, the

electric system on conventional

lines is different from the newly

built high-speed lines.

Figure 11: Madrid-Seville railway line in the Adamuz- Venta de Inés section (Source: www.groupovimac.com)

Regions and cities served

There are plenty of regions and

cities which benefit from the

construction of these high-speed

lines.

The Frankfurt-Cologne high-

speed line connects not only

large German cities, but also

densely populated regions.

Moreover, this railway line brings

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other parts of the world closer

with quick accessibility of

Frankfurt International Airport

and Köln/Bonn Airport. This

project serves as a best practice

for intermodality between air and

rail transport. The high-speed

rail line links: Frankfurt Main

Station– Frankfurt Airport –

Siegburg/Bonn – Cologne Main

Station. Almost all trains stop at

these stations, while some stop

at Montabaur and Limburg Süd.

On weekdays, there are nearly

50 ICE trains from Frankfurt to

Cologne out of which 7 connects

Cologne Airport and Frankfurt

Airport directly in about an hour

trip, otherwise one change is

required with short stopover

from one airport to the other.

Figure 125: Frankfurt Airport Railway Station (Source: Wikipedia)

Figure 16. Frankfurt Airport - Train Station - A3 Motorway complex from bird's-eye view (Source: www.fnp.de)

The main purpose of the Madrid-

Seville line is to provide a fast

link between the capital of the

country and the centre of

Andalusia, also linking greater

cities along the route. The line

has 22 high-speed trains daily

per direction. In between

stations are Ciudad Real,

Puertollano, and Toledo. Out of

22 only three trains run just

between the two destinations, 19

stop in Cordoba as well, while 8

stop also in Ciudad Real and

Puertollano. The difference

among different trains with more

stops is only 10-10 minutes.

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Along the Paris-Marseilles line

there are 13 direct and 7 indirect

trains per direction on weekdays.

There are some shuttle trains

between Paris-Gare de Lyon and

Marseille Saint-Charles, while

some connect the two

destinations with Avignon and

fewer with Aix-en-Provence.

Indirect trains link Valence and

Lyon.

The Spanish and the French lines

intend to connect greater regions

and cities, while the German

example connects also smaller

cities in between the two final

stations to the high-speed rail

system.

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OUTLOOK ON RESEARCH

What’s next?

The European Union can only

mainatain its world leading

position in field of high-speed rail

technology, if R&D processes

back these intentions.

The Seventh Framework

Programme runs several project

which aim at improving the rail

transport in many fields. Within

rail transport projects, some

deals with high-speed rail, or the

project concern high-speed rail

besides conventional rail. These

projects aim at improving

interoperability, safety, reducing

cost and making railways

sustainable. Urban sociology and

making specific methodologies

are also part of the Seventh

Framework Programmes.

ERRAC3 roadmap

The European railway sector is

facing challenges, including

increasing the competitiveness

and attractiveness of rail

transport in terms of speed,

availability, comfort, punctuality

and reliability.

These challenges could be met

by maintaining and improving

environmental performance,

increasing capacity, enhancing

infrastructure and to maintain

the green economic profile

compared to other transport

modes.

The ERRAC roadmap was

created to coordinate different

rail related research activities.

Its main goal is to draft a

strategic plan and then turn it

into reality by 2020.

3 European Rail Research Advisory Council

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Main issues by which ERRAC

roadmap deals with are:

holistic rail strategies

minimalise costs (operation,

environmental maintenance

inspection costs);

simple and economical

infrastructure reconstruction

and maintenance;

Improved real-time

information system for

stakeholders (rail operator,

infrastructure managers,

customers);

Addressing customers’ needs

by coordinating public and

private bodies.

The environmental impact of

railways has always been an

issue with methodological

uncertainties. This is what the

INFRAGUIDER is about to give

clear guidelines for creating an

effective environmental impact of

the infrastructure, after having

done the same process by the

rolling stock (UIC leaflet 345

“Environmental Specifications for

new Rolling Stock”).

These guidelines include whole

life-cycle approach for the

infrastructure already in the

procurement process. Climate

change, natural resources and

chemicals are main points to

consider along environmental

railway evaluation. In the

evaluation phase of eco-

procurement model specific

environmental indicators

(Supplier and Product indicators)

Each element of the

infrastructure is examined along

such specific points and assessed

at the end.

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The WOLAXIM project

is intended to increase reliability

of rail traffic. A normal axle of a

train is designed for more than

20 years. Although current

trends show that these must be

withdrawn earlier due to

unexpected corrosion. For

previous inspection methods the

trains had to be taken out of

traffic and the methods were not

precise and detailed enough.

This research project gives better

methods of crack detection and

corrosion assessment for railway

axle inspection. One method is

specifically for the hollow axles

of high speed trains and aims to

improve the speed of the

inspection and improve crack

detection reliability. This could

be deployed while the train is in

depot at night and without

dismantling of the wheel set.

This method is convenient for the

train operator, energy and cost-

effective at once.

EURAXLES is a similar project to

the WOLAXIM though

incorporates wider range of

topics. The European Rail

Association lead project has axle

manufacturers, railway

operators, system operators,

technology suppliers,

universities, rail sector

associations and a consulting

firm among the 23 members of

the consortium. The aim of

EURAXLES is to minimise the

fatigue failure of railway axles in

order to ensure safe operation of

the European interoperable

railway system while reducing

cost of maintenance and level of

service disruption to the

minimum. The project has a

complex concept from the design

of axles, production and

maintenance.

A new design approach is

developed including risk analysis

method with simple design

method to predict failure

probability.

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The new developments include:

improved axle protection

against corrosion, improved

adhesion of coating, and

innovative coating solutions

in order to limit or avoid

VOC emissions;

Improved NDT in-service

inspection method;

RAMS/LCC analysis of the

outcome of the project will

be performed.

ACEM-Rail project is about the

automation and optimisation of

both conventional and high-

speed railway infrastructure

focusing on the track.

Numerous technologies will be

developmed for automated, cost-

effective inspection of the track

condition and prototypes will be

manufactured.

Algorithms are developed to

predict rail defect evolutions, and

find the optimal maintenance

schedule for preventive and

corrective operations.

New tools will be developed on

order to monitor the corrective

and preventive maintenance

tasks. The monitoring of

maintenance tasks are

automated and optimized and

executed with mobile computers.

The results of the project will be:

reduction of maintenance

costs;

less disturbance of rail

services;

increased quality, reliability

and safety;

increase of rail transport;

reduction of CO2 emissions.

The European railways after long

decline have started to increase

slowly, while the rolling stocks

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changed with time. Faster and

heavier axle loads are rolling on

the European railways, which

means new challenges to be

met. Some catastrophic failure of

wheel or axle may lead to

serious fatal derailment accident

such as the greatest high-speed

rail accident in 1998 at Eschede.

SAFERAIL is intended to keep

wheelset failures to the minimum

by developing and implementing

an on-line system for inspection

of axles and wheels of trains in

motion combined with an

ultrasonic-electromagnetic

system. This way the quality

inspection of new and old

wheelsets during production and

maintenance will be faster and

more reliable.

Trio-TRAIN is a cluster of

integrated reasearch projects

partially funded by Seventh

Framework Programme.

The main topic is to promote

interoperability by replacing

physical testing process by

virtual simulations and simplified

authorisation process through

mix of testing and simulations.

1) AeroTRAIN project aims

at: reducing costs and time of

certification on aerodynamics by

harmonising European and

national standards of high-speed

and conventional rail’s technical

specification for interoperability.

New technologies would replace

cross-wind and slipstream tests by

new alternatives.

2) DynoTRAIN project aims

at limiting cost of the certification

by improving cross-acceptance of

track tests in railway dynamics

with some innovations:

the characterisation of the

irregularities of the track;

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45

the characterisation of

contact geometry of wheel

and rail;

the determination of the

friction coefficient;

the use of simulation to

facilitate the cross-

acceptance.

EN standards on railway

dynamics together with relevant

technical annexes of the high

speed technical specification for

interoperability prolong the

certification process. Moreover,

the test do not map all operating

conditions and these tests must

be repeated several times to give

reliable outcome.

3) The PantoTRAIN project

is about panthograph/catenary

system, which is one major

problem to rolling stock

interoperability, because each

country has its own system

developed with different

mechanical properties. The

approval of a unified method could

contribute largely to a competitive

European railway system.

The project aims to:

extend the certification

process by new procedures

based on numerical

simulations and Hardware-

in-the-Loop testing;

use physical and numerical

simulation to extend

homologation to different

catenary systems;

facilitate the use of

innovative and mechatronic

panthographs by

understanding needs of

systems to the

homologisation process;

use simulated behaviour of

new/modified

panthographs/catenaries to

those already certified by

line tests;

facilitate the use of HIL

(Hardware-in-the-Loop)

testing as a less expensive

and more objective

alternative to line tests.

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Results

All the above mentioned projects

are running under the European

Commission’s Seventh

Framework Programme and, except for one, they are in

execution phase. In the following

I will present the results of the

finished INFRAGUIDER project.

Although railways is considered a

green transport mode, it has

negative effects on the

environment. The outcome of

this project were guidelines for

eco-procurement of railway

infrastructure. The

environmental impact of railway

infrastructure can be inflenced at

a fix point of procurement, which

influences the whole supply chain

of infrastructure. Considering

whole life environmental impact

of materials and components,

due to the large quantities,

environmental properties could

be improved. The new

procurement policy decision is

based on 20% environmental

performance, 40% quality, 40%

price. A sustainability policy

could mean a rewarding system,

which weighs the three factors

above mandatory-demands of

the product.

Different environmentally related

technical specifications on

materials and components are

called Environmental

Performance Indicators

(EPI).

EPI’s concern product and

supplier. The project developed a

database for eight material and

components with impact on three

chosen environmental impact

evaluation areas (climate

change, hazardous substances,

natural resources). The method

for development of indicators for

material and components was

developed in EU project RAVEL

(Rail Vehicle eco-efficient

design).

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Weighing among the three

factors is complicated, though

there are already some methods

such, the Swedish Environmental

Priority Strategy method which

takes both sub-optimisation and

severity into account.

The following materials and

components are taken into

account:

Ballast

Steel/rail

Concrete sleeper

Wooden sleeper

Concrete

Cables

Electric installations

Chemicals

The considered point in

environmental impact evaluation

are:

carbon-footprint

energy consumed during

production/assembly/operat

ion

% of recycled materials

environmental impact

assessment (mining)

production region

design lifetime

kg product per meter track

etc.

This eco-procurement

methodology is fully integrated

part of the ordinary procurement

process, therefore contributes to

unified procurement

methodology in the EU for

railway infrastructure.

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48

REFERENCES Richard D. Knowles: Transport

shaping space: differential

collapse in time–space, Journal

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Steer Davies Gleave: Air and Rail

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David Randall Peterman, William

J. Mallett, William J. Mallett:

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Marta Sánchez Borràs,

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19 May 2010

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www.press4transport.eu