high speed rail
DESCRIPTION
This paper aims at giving an overall view of high-speed rail in Europe. It investigates the policy background of this mode of transport and shows how the high-speed rail became integrated and non-negligible part of the European policies. It also gives a thorough picture about the recent situation within the European Union, and how far the development of network extensions could reach as well as about ongoing research programmes.TRANSCRIPT
Tested Methodologies and Results from Europe
High Speed Rail
2
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................... 4
SCOPE OF THE TOPIC ................................................. 8
THE COMMON TRANSPORT POLICY .......................... 11
THE EUROPEAN UNION IS ON TRACK – DEVELOPMENT OF HIGH-SPEED RAIL NETWORK ............................. 15
YES TO HIGH-SPEED RAILWAYS! BUT WHY? ........... 17
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF HIGH-SPEED TRAINS 20
GROWING DEMAND ................................................. 22
NETWORK EXTENSION............................................. 24
SHINING EXAMPLES AND STRATEGIES IN EUROPE . 27
France ............................................................................................................................ 27
Germany ........................................................................................................................ 30
Spain .............................................................................................................................. 33
3
Comparison of three national projects ......................................................... 36
OUTLOOK ON RESEARCH ......................................... 40
What’s next? ............................................................................................................. 40
Results ......................................................................................................................... 46
REFERENCES ............................................................ 48
This publication was produced by the PRESS4TRANSPORT consortium on behalf of the European Commission’s Directorate-General for Research. The European Union, the European Commission or any person acting on their behalf are not responsible for the accurateness, completeness, use of the information contained in this Fiche, nor shall they be liable for any loss, including consequential loss, that might derive from such use or from the findings of the Fiche themselves.
Although the authors exercised all reasonable efforts to ensure the accuracy and the quality of the contents of this publication, the Consortium assumes no liability for any inadvertent error or omission that may appear in this publication. Additional information on the analyzed projects is available on the PRESS4TRANSPORT website at http://www.press4transport.eu/vpo/thematic_fiches.php
Created by: PRESS4TRANSPORT Consortium Coordinator: CYBION Srl Responsible Scientific Partner: Budapest University of Technology and Economics Author: Balazs Kozak, Gabor Szendro
4
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
This paper aims at giving an
overall view of high-speed rail
in Europe. It investigates the
policy background of this mode
of transport and shows how the
high-speed rail became
integrated and non-negligible
part of the European policies. It
also gives a thorough picture
about the recent situation within
the European Union, and how far
the development of network
extensions could reach as well as
about ongoing research
programmes.
High-speed train is a form of
passenger transport in which
trains travel at a speed of at
least 200 km/h and may exceed
300 km/h in special
circumstances, and this gives its
greatest advantage among many
others.
Transport is organic part of our
everyday life, important part of
the economy, therefore the
European Commission is not
indifferent from the transport
related problems such as
increasing occurrence of
congestions, underdeveloped
infrastructure of peripheral and
cohesion regions, increasing
pollution coming from transport
and related health problems etc.
The European Union is strongly
committed to create a
sustainable transport system
which is described in the White
Paper. In this common transport
policy railways have its own
specific role and calls attention to
the recent situation in respect to
the future objectives and the
Single European Market in which
high-speed rail could play a
decisive role.
5
Railways had been an issue of
previous EU transport policies,
which led to the creation of a
core multi-modal transport
network of the European Union is
created. The Trans-European
Transport Network (TEN-T) puts
large emphasis on the railways
with special regards to high-
speed rail. High-speed rail policy
frameworks come into action
through European projects such
as the fully functional Trans-
European Transport Network
(TEN-T) by 2030, finishing a
complete high-speed rail network
concerning all member states of
the European Union by 2030,
and use the synergies by
combining air transport.
This new technology appeared
decades ago in the European
market and from its short and
successful history, its potentials
and European transport policies
bright future is foreseen for high-
speed rail. The most important
factors are discussed in this
section such as distance, travel
time, comfort, and low
environmental impact.
Conventional rail was stagnating
or losing market share
depending on member states in
the last two decades, although
recently there has been an
overall slight increase and stop
of fallback in market share,
thanks to high-speed rail, which
could lead to the revival of
railways 200 years after this
transport technology changed
the world. The appearance of
new transport had an
unprecedented impact on travel
habits where it was implemented
and gave impetus for further
network extensions, albeit
mostly in EU-15 countries.
Germany, France and Spain are
considered leading countries in
the European high-speed
market, therefore we decided to
give more detailed look on them
by introducing three prominent
project from each demonstrating
6
the success of this mode of
transport.
France, which is a technological
leader in European and world
market, had a major role in
implementing high-speed rail in
Europe by the Paris-Marseille line
by which the Mediterranean
region is as close as 3 hours
from the French capital.
Germany invested mostly in
upgrading conventional tracks,
but creating a decentralized and
more or less evenly distributed
system. The case of the
Frankfurt-Cologne line serves as
a best practice for intermodality
between air and rail transport,
which is among the priorities of
the European Commission.
Spain has the longest high-
speed rail system and plans to
have a dense network that is
easily accessible to the majority
of the population. The Madrid-
Seville line was the first
inaugurated line (the first with
European gauge as well), which
changed radically the former
travel habits on that route and
served as a best practice for
future developments.
The European Union must invest
in research and development to
maintain its leading position in
high-speed rail technology.
Moreover, the EU needs a
competitive and sustainable
transport system in which high-
speed rail plays major role. The
Seventh Framework Programme
of the European Commission
financed R&D projects
concentrate on such innovations
which foster reliability, safety
and lower costs of European
railways, including high-speed
rail. All in all, innovations
contribute to the interoperability
of European railway systems
The R&D projects concentrate on
the physical infrastructure and
the rolling stock interoperability
ensuring more attractive, safer,
7
cheaper and more reliable
European high-speed rail system.
PRESS4TRANSPORT details:
This fiche is produced within the
PRESS4TRANSPORT (Virtual
Press Office to improve EU
Sustainable Surface Transport
research media visibility on a
national and regional level)
project. The overall aim of the
project is to assists EU, National
and Regional funded projects
communicate their surface
transport research results to the
media.
PRESS4TRANSPORT is funded
by the European Commission's
Directorate-General for Research
under the Seventh Framework
Programme for Research and
Technological Development
(FP7).
8
Scope of the topic
The high-speed train (HST) is a way of passenger railway
transport that is much faster
than ordinary railways. According
to the definition of the European
Union1 HSTs are travelling at a
speed on the order of 200 km/h
on existing lines which have
been or are specially upgraded
or travelling at a speed of at
least 250 km/h on lines specially
built for high-speed, while
enabling speeds of over 300
km/h to be reached in
appropriate circumstances. This
speed makes HST competitive
with cars and air transport over
medium length distances in
inter-urban transport.
1 EC Directive 96/58
Figure 1: HST between Frankfurt-Cologne rising above - symbolically - A3 Motorway (Source: DPA)
Transport is part of our everyday
life and everyone is concerned
about it. More than 10 million
people are employed in this
sector, which produces more
than 10% of the EU’s GDP. Other
common policies deal with the
transport sector as a major
source of pollution (greenhouse
gases, acidifying substances,
9
ozone precursors, particulate
matter, etc.) with large potential
in pollution reduction as well as
key consumer of scarce
resources. The EU is aware of
traffic-related problems:
increasing occurrence of
congestions, underdeveloped
infrastructure of peripheral and
cohesion regions, increasing
pollution coming from transport
and related health problems etc.
The European Commission is
committed to create a safe,
modern, economically
competitive, environmental-
friendly and socially fair,
sustainable transportation
system.
Mostly road transport of the
European Union has increased to
the detriment of railway
transport while there is also a
strong competition with air
transport. This is due to the
European railway network, which
is a mixture of ancient and
modern. This contrast ranges
from decrepit countryside lines
to the high-performance high-
speed lines.
The White Paper on
transport in 2001 set the
revitalization of railways as one
of the major goals. The latest
data shows that the goals are
only partially achieved and
although railways carried more
goods and passengers in the last
years, but the increase of road
transport and aviation was much
more significant.
On the contrary to the overall
decrease in transport share,
high-speed railway network in
Europe is considered as a real
success and numerous shining
examples show that the revival
of railway transport is on the
horizon.
That is why the White Paper
2011 is intended to give further
impetus for the development of
high-speed and conventional
railway network with its
ambitious objectives by 2050.
10
This Fiche aims to give a general
overview on the significance of
high-speed trains including policy
background, showing the effects
of past investments of today
operating systems through
shining examples. This paper will
also outline the future trends and
how this technology can change
travel habits and contribute to
other common policies.
11
The Common Transport Policy
The European Community had no
effective Common Transport
Policy for the first three decades
following the Treaty of Rome
(1957) due to inefficient
cooperation between the Member
States. The policy of making
boundaries irrelevant between
member states by facilitating the
free movement of individuals and
goods gained momentum
through the Treaty of
Maastricht (1992), which
represents a turning point for the
Common Transport Policy. The
beginning of a real common
infrastructural policy is dated
from this event, when the Trans-
European Network was
established. The main purposes
of this transport policy are to
complete the European Single
Market, support sustainable
development, extend transport
networks throughout Europe,
make use of space as efficiently
as possible, reinforce safety and
facilitate international
cooperation by creating an
integrated and comprehensive
network of European transport.
The Cohesion Fund budget was
created later on for such
transport developments from
Community sources.
“Since the 2001 release of the
White Paper published by the
European Commission, the
Single Market policy has been
oriented towards harmoniously
and simultaneously improving
the various modes of transport,
in particular with co-modality. In
the 2006 revision of the White
Paper, the Commission set an
aim at increasing the
competitiveness of railway,
improving transport systems
operating with the latest
technology, introducing charges
for the use of infrastructure,
supporting alternative propulsion
vehicles and elaborating methods
to reduce congestion.”
12
As proclaimed in the White
Paper on Transport in 2001,
the EU is devoted to decouple
the growth of GDP from the
growth of transport related to it.
Due to the continuous increase in
transport demand, the
decoupling of economy and
transport does not seem to be
realized. Despite the fact that
there are examples and
spreading best practices in
sustainable transportation,
unfortunately the technological
shift seems to be slower and not
even enough to balance the
growth of demand deriving from
the increase of users. The
ongoing trends project the rapid
growth of motorization in the EU-
12 countries; therefore the
gradual change of modal split will
be similar to EU-15 countries.
Future projections and existing
experiences show the prevailing
of road transport and aviation to
the detriment of railroad.
The EU enlargement and
extension of Schengen borders,
relatively higher growth rate of
economic development of EU-12
changes gradually the transport
figures. The integration of the
EU-12 to the EU-15 changed the
direction of trade, and therefore
the direction transport, which
has shifted from the Eastwards
to the Westwards, just like trade
is shifting from domestic market
to international. The
restructuring of industry and
transport from large bulk to
smaller bulk give priority to the
more flexible and reliable road
transport instead of railroad,
while in passenger transport the
liberalization of civil aviation and
the extension of the motorway
network increased considerably
to the detriment of railway
transport.
The ongoing trends (increasing
modal split of aviation and road
transport) do not contribute to
other horizontal policies of the
EU on agenda (sustainability,
environmental protection,
climate and energy issues).
13
Furthermore, the transport policy
of EU-12 enhances the increase
of road transport by new
infrastructure and generated
traffic. This approach is neither
sustainable nor a viable way
concerning the trends, therefore
sustainable, environmental
impact-minimizing solutions have
taken place while meeting the
mobility demand of people.
Already in the 2006 revision, the
revitalization of railway transport
and linking it up with other
modes was given special
attention. The railway system fell
behind in the competition (modal
split shrunk to 10.5% in freight,
6% in passenger transport)
among transport modes and
faces several problems to be
solved, even as railway transport
is alive and will be an integrated,
non-negligible part of the
European transport system.
The European Commission has
presented on 28th March, 2011
the EU's comprehensive
Transport 2050 Strategy which
aims at creating a competitive
transport system that will
increase mobility, remove major
barriers in key areas and fuel
growth and employment. This
strategy described in the
Transport 2011 White Paper for a
Roadmap to a Single European
Transport Area.
Key objectives set by European
Transport 2050 Strategy:
No more conventionally fuelled
cars in cities;
40% use of sustainable low
carbon fuels in aviation and at
least 40% cut in shipping
emissions;
A 50% shift of medium distance
intercity passenger and freight
journeys from road to rail and
waterborne transport;
14
Overall 60% cut in transport
emissions by the middle of the
century.
The European Commission
continues opening the market
and moves closer to a single
transport system with special
attention to interoperability
among the different modes of
transport.
Large investments are needed to
change the actual infrastructure
towards a more sustainable
optimized one in which the
modal split is more diverse
among the transport players. In
2008, 45.9% of freight traffic
was on road, compared to the
10.8% and 3.6% share of
railways and inland waterways,
respectively.
The passenger transport market
is even more distorted, where
passenger cars make up 72.5%,
while aviation is having a
gradually increasing part with
8.6% compared to 6.3% of the
railways in 2008.
The clear vision of the European
Commission is to raise the modal
split of railways and create an
intermodal, well-functioning and
energy-efficient transport
system. Therefore, the
completion of the TEN-T network
is vital, parallel to creating new,
high-quality capacities to
increase market share in many
fields namely medium-distance
traffic both on passenger and
freight transport.
15
The European Union is on track – development of high-speed rail network
It is almost two centuries after
the first train ran in the world,
ever since railways are still a
means of transport with major
potential. The use of this
potential is the key in the
renewal of the railways therefore
in achieving modal rebalance in
transport. Today it is a mixture
of ancient and modern elements.
On the one hand, high-speed
network provides high quality
service while on the other hand,
slow, crowded commuter and
freight trains crawl in suburban
or even in remote countryside
regions.
With the EU enlargement
distances are increasing among
centers at opposite ends of the
European Union, which an
effective high-speed passenger
network could shrink. Such a
network comprises of high-speed
railway lines, including upgraded
lines, integrated aviation and rail
transport services, connections
and systems. There is a large
emphasis on the development of
high-speed rail infrastructure,
therefore the EU continues its
efforts which have started in the
last decade. The priority is to
build new tracks to increase
capacity to free up lines for
freight transport. Adequate
comfort and services could be
provided by upgrading existing
lines with the latest technology,
instead of building new lines
which is evidently more costly.
Already in 2001, the White Paper
for transport set the priority to
revitalize railways to double
market-share, reduce pollution
by 50%, and increase efficiency
by 50% by the end of the
decade. One of the major results
was the partial creation of the
rail market. Some problems
solved, new challenges came,
and still more effort should be
put into creating interoperability
16
among the railway systems of
member states.
The programme for the Trans-
European Transport
Networks (TEN-T) is
designed to guarantee optimum
mobility and coherence between
the various modes of transport in
the Union as introduced under
the Treaty of Maastricht. The
main priorities of this policy,
which accounts for a large part
of the White Paper on transport
policy are to establish the key
links needed to facilitate
transport, optimize the capacity
of existing infrastructure,
produce specifications for
network interoperability and
integrate the environmental
dimension.
In order to achieve the
objectives of the Lisbon Strategy
(increase competitiveness and
create new jobs), the European
Union has launched the TEN-T
project, which aims at
developing multimodal transport
corridors. The TEN-T focuses
very closely on the development
of high-speed transport. Out of
the 30 priority projects put
forward under this programme,
14 concern high-speed rail lines.
Further development of high-
speed railway network belongs to
the reassuring plans of the EU in
creating a sustainable transport
system. This aims at creating an
environmental friendly
competitor and both
complementary of motorized
transport and aviation in intercity
passenger transport.
The existence and gradual
extension of high-speed rail
network proved to be successful
in changing people’s travel habits
(London-Paris, Madrid-Seville)
and this could lead to the revival
of railways.
The recently published Transport White Paper
2011 - Transport 2050
17
Strategy entails several
ambitious points concerning
railways and high-speed railway:
By 2050, complete a
European high-speed rail
network. Triple the length
of the existing high-speed
rail network (6214 km at
the end of 2009) by 2030
and maintain a dense
railway network in all
Member States. By 2050
the majority of medium-
distance passenger
transport should go by rail.
A fully functional and EU-
wide multimodal TEN-T
‘core network’ by 2030,
with a high quality and
capacity network by 2050
and a corresponding set of
information services.
By 2050, connect all core
network airports to the
rail network, preferably
high-speed; ensure that all
core seaports are
sufficiently connected to the
rail freight and, where
possible, inland waterway
system.
Already today there are
examples to follow on many
transport routes, where high-
speed trains offer a real
alternative to aviation in terms of
time, price and comfort such as
the London-Paris and Madrid-
Seville lines. The EU encourages
high-speed train operators,
airlines and airport managers to
use to synergies of both means
of transport and to cooperate
while competing. Intermodal
transport hubs at airport and
integration of both systems are
the favorable ways of
cooperation.
Yes to high-speed railways! But why? The history of high-speed
railways in Europe is dating back
to 1977 when Italy introduced
the first high-speed railway line
18
between Rome and Florence, but
the real technological
breakthrough was the
inauguration of high-speed
railway line between Paris and
Lyon with TGV (Train à Grande
Vitesse) HSTs. Germany joined
the venture in the early 1990s
with the ICE (InterCity Express),
then Spain by the AVE (Alta
Velocidad Espanola) in 1992.
Today, newly built special track
technology is mainly reviving in
France, Germany, Spain,
Belgium, Netherlands and Italy,
while in Great-Britain, Sweden
and some parts of Germany still
use the upgraded conventional
tracks. Although the mixture of
technologies, the European
Union is the world leader
technology provider in high-
speed train technology, and
makes continuous technological
progress to maintain this position
amid increasing competition.
Each year, the European HSL is
getting longer and HS rail
operators make large efforts to
create the first trans-European
HSL, between Paris, Brussels,
Cologne, Amsterdam and
London, an effort already close
to completion. This could set a
good example for interoperable
lines.
Figure 2: Increase in HSLs in Europe in km (1995-2009)
It is not easy to compare
different modes of transport, but
among many factors (distance,
time, price, comfort, and
environmental impacts) one
decisive factor is time. High-
speed trains travel at a speed of
200-350 km/h in Europe. This
enables them to be the fastest
19
mode on definite distances.
According to studies, high-speed
trains are the fastest on
distances between 150 and 800
km in door to door journey
times. Below 150 km they are
less competitive with road or
conventional rail travel, but
between 150 and 400 km the
conventional and high-speed rail
offers faster travel against
airlines, while for journeys
between 400 and 800 km high-
speed rail is preferred over air
and road travel. Above 800 km
air travel takes over high-speed
rail, but the difference is still not
decisive and this difference is
increasing moderately with
distance.
Figure 3: Journey times vs distance for rail (HS and conventional lines) and air transport
Close cross-border cooperation
of high-speed line operators is
getting more and more
important in medium-distance
cross-border journeys and it is
related to the competitiveness of
high-speed lines such as in case
of Paris-London-Brussels-
Amsterdam-Cologne, see figure
below.
The development of the high-
speed network shrunk the
distances between Western
20
European cities as shown in the
figure below.
Figure 4: Journey times between stations 1989-2009
Apart from the time factor, high-
speed trains provide unrivalled
passenger comfort. The interior
of the carriages is designed to
create a relaxing environment
suitable both for work and
relaxation. High-speed trains
offer onboard services such as
large individual space, internet,
power socket for electric devices,
headrest, folding tables, onboard
restaurant, radio and television
services, and the unlimited
possibility to use mobile phones.
Environmental impact of high-speed trains
Fighting climate change,
developing a trans-European HSL
network is one of the European
Union’s main objectives. High-
speed passenger transport will
allow high levels of mobility to
be maintained, while
guaranteeing the sustainability
of the European transport
system. This global issue is on
the political and social agenda,
therefore, it gives further
attraction to rail transport due to
its low environmental impact.
Transport accounts for 25.1% of
EU-27 CO2 emissions. Out of this
only 0.6% is from rail transport
both from passenger and freight
transport (excluding indirect
emissions from electricity
consumption).
21
Figure 5: CO2 emissions by mode of transport in the EU-27 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)
Today, high-speed trains in
Europe use only electricity and
their direct local CO2 emissions
are almost zero in their operation
zones, though CO2 emitted
during electricity production has
to be taken into account,
therefore their carbon footprint is
not zero. The climate impact
therefore depends on the
primary energy source used for
electricity generation. This varies
among countries may be higher
in countries where mostly fossil
fuels are used for electricity
generation, and lower where the
ratio of nuclear and renewable
electricity generation is higher.
In case of not taking into
account the indirect emissions
from electricity generation, CO2
emissions (grams per passenger-
kilometre) is 2.7 for high-speed
trains compared to 153 g/pkm
for air and 115.7 g/pkm for car
on a Paris-Marseille journey.
Several studies emphasize to
reflect the carbon-footprint on
the whole life-cycle including also
CO2 emitted during the
production of the rolling stock,
during the construction of the
infrastructure, not only the CO2
emitted indirectly by operation.
Von Rozycki et al. (2003)
examined the environmental
effects of the InterCity Express
(ICE) on the high-speed rail
route between Hannover and
Wuerzburg. In this section, 14%
of total energy use is related to
the traffic infrastructure and
about 25% of the CO2 emissions,
22
which is in total 69.4 g CO2-
equivalent per pkm.
The carbon-footprint changes
from country to country and
track section to track section
because of the different variables
that make up this indicator.
Therefore, it is hard to give
universal estimation. The carbon
footprint of electricity generation
of the rolling stock and of the
track system has numerous
variables such energy mix used
for electricity generation,
topography, share of bridge and
tunnels, life-span of
infrastructure, maintenance of
traffic infrastructure and rolling
stock, load factor etc. are all
important factors to be taken
into account. From this point of
view, French railways use
electricity coming from nuclear
energy, while Italy and Germany
use solid fuel, gas, oil mix for
electricity production.
Transport-created noise raised
attention of the European
Commission that has devised
different measures at the EU
level concerning the
harmonisation of noise
assessment and management,
market access requirements for
certain vehicles and equipment
etc. Railway industry measures
cover infrastructure operators
(e.g. the acoustic grinding of
rails, noise barriers, speed limits
at night) and train operators
(e.g. replacement of cast-iron
brakes with low-noise composite
materials). Newly constructed
high-speed train tracks are
mostly built with noise barriers
along sensitive areas.
Growing demand
The demand for mobility grows
year by year, and in absolute
value passenger rail transport
grew by about 2.1% between
1990 and 2008. Since other
modes of transport grew even
faster, therefore the modal split
of railways in EU-27 shrunk to
6.3% by 2008. However, this
23
value masked the considerable
disparity in performance between
the EU-15, which, taken as a
whole, has experienced strong
volume growth (33.8%), and the
EU-12 which has experienced a
severe decline in passenger
volumes (62%), but since 2005
they shows signs of stabilization.
Figure 6: Total rail passenger traffic volume (M passenger-km) 1990-2008 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)
The growing demand for
passenger rail transport is due to
the appearance of high-quality
service. High-speed rail networks
have been successful in
increasing the use of rail by
attracting entirely new traffic to
rail both as a result of capturing
traffic from air and road but also
by generating new traffic. The
growth in passenger transport is
driven primarily by the
availability of faster and
affordable modes in transport.
Since the first high-speed line
was introduced in Italy, the
number of passengers opting for
this mode of transport has
continuously increased. The
passenger volume on all EU-12
lines increased from 15.2 billion
pkm in 1990 to 92.33 billion pkm
in 2008.
Figure 7: High-speed and conventional passenger volume trends 1990-2008 (M passenger-km) (Source: Eurostat)
The impact of the successful
investment in high-speed rail on
total rail use can be most clearly
seen in France, a country which
has developed the most
24
extensive high-speed rail
network that has overtaken
Germany as the Member State
with the greatest volume of
passenger traffic by 2003.
The figure below shows the
relative trends of high-speed and
conventional traffic in France.
Figure 8: High-speed and conventional rail passenger traffic volume (M passenger-km) 1990-2008 (Source: EU energy and transport in figures 2010)
Several countries are investing
heavily in rail infrastructure for
high-speed passenger services or
to expand capacity and to
provide new high-speed
networks. Between 1990 and
2008 the overall volume of rail
passenger traffic increased by
33.3 % driven by an increase of
253% in the use of high-speed
rail through which high-speed
trains reached a 24% market
share within rail transport. The
relative trends in high-speed and
conventional rail use in EU,
showing the increasing
importance of high-speed rail to
Europe’s railway industry.
States that have invested heavily
in high-speed rail have been
rewarded with considerable
volumes of traffic on HSR
networks. In 2008, high-speed
formed 61.9% of total passenger
rail traffic in France, 28.5% in
Germany, 27.2% in Sweden,
22.9% in Spain, and 17.8% in
Italy. Almost wherever HSR
services have been provided they
are providing an increasing
proportion of total rail use as
well.
Network extension
According to forecasts in the
TEN-T programme, the Trans-
European high-speed network
will be 22,140 km long overall by
25
2020, compared with 9,693 km
in 2008. By 2030, once the high-
speed TEN-T has been
completed, the network will have
a length of 30,750 km.
“In order to fully develop a Trans-
European high-speed line hub,
several priority projects are
devoted to the north-south link
between networks. The
Southwest European high-speed rail axis will link the
Iberian Peninsula to the rest of
Europe in a fully interoperable
network. The vital north-south
corridor through the Alps (Berlin–
Verona–Milan–Bologna–Naples–
Messina–Palermo axis) will link
major German and Italian cities.
The Lyon- Trieste–Divača /
Koper–Divača–Ljubljana-
Budapest–Ukrainian border axis,
which crosses this corridor at
right angles, will be able to
absorb some of the constantly
increasing traffic between the
south-east, the centre and the
south-west of Europe.”
Several countries plan network
extension projects: Spain,
Portugal, Poland, Sweden, and
the United Kingdom as well as
third countries.
An upgraded line to 220km/h will
provide railway link between
Helsinki and St. Petersburg and
this will reduce journey time and
it will be able to cope with the
increasing forecasted traffic
volumes.
Turkey is building its own high-
speed network partially financed
by the EU. The first section was
opened in March 2009 between
Ankara and Eskisehir and it will
reach Istanbul with further
extension halving the total
journey time.
Another three lines are already
being planned: Ankara – Konya,
Ankara – Sivas and Istanbul–
Bulgarian frontier.
26
This trend can only to increase
as further high-speed rail lines
are commissioned: Turkey
opened its first high-speed line in
2009, Austria and Switzerland
are also constructing lines to
allow them to join the “high-
speed club”, further high-speed
lines are under construction in
Spain, France, Germany and
Italy, and lines are planned in a
number of other states.
27
Shining examples and strategies in Europe
In this chapter some best
practices are introduced how a
new or upgraded HSL could
change travel habits.
France It was France that led the
technological breakthrough of
high-speed railways. The first
high-speed line was opened
between Paris and Lyon in 1981.
Today the French high-speed
network is Paris-centered and
reaches the largest, densely
populated areas in France (Lyon,
Marseille, Lille, Toulouse etc.).
The total network accounts for
1,897 km (December 2010)
which is the second largest in
Europe. The TGV network is
spreading out beyond the
borders into other countries like
Netherlands, Belgium, Germany,
Switzerland and United Kingdom.
Due to central position on
Western Europe and early
leading position other new high-
speed rail lines in Europe have
been built to the same speed,
voltage and signaling standards,
though in reality due to
interoperability issues, not all
TGV trains can cross every
border. The first cross-border
high-speed line was connected to
the completion of Channel
Tunnel and complete high-speed
infrastructure travel time
between Paris and London
dropped by the Eurostar from 5h
12min to 2h 15min as well as
from Brussels to London from 4h
52min to 1h 51min. This gave
the high-speed rail so much
advantage that on each line the
market share rose to 68 and
63% respectively. The Thalys
international high-speed train
brought Paris closer to Brussels
merely to 1:22 away.
The French high-speed train,
(nicknamed the Concorde of
railways), the TGV, changed
travel habits and sometimes
28
radically changed modal split
between major cities. Today the
market share of TGVs on Paris-
Lyon line is taking over 90% in
the air-rail travel market due to
less than two hours travel, and
the market share is about 60%
in corridors where travel time is
around three hours. The Paris-
Marseille line has about 66%
market share, and good
connection with CDG airport only
in 3 hours.
Figure 6: TGV high-speed train (Source: www.presstv.ir)
Since the opening of first high-
speed line between Paris and
Lyon, Marseille has been served
by TGV, from Lyon to Marseille
via conventional tracks. The
high-speed line was extended in
two steps from Lyon to Valence
in 1994, and since 2001 the
whole route is served by high-
speed tracks.
Today the average journey time
with TGV is approximately 3
hours, while the scheduled flight
time from Charles de Gaulle
airport is 1 hour 25 minutes. In
1999 45 flights, today only 26
flights per day operate from Paris
to Marseille compared to the 17
trains. easyJet attempted to
provide low-cost airline service
on this route, but then it stopped
operating after a year in 2005.
According to estimations, 66% of
rail and air traffic is by high-
speed trains between the two
destinations today. One reason
could be the app. €60 price for a
single one-way TGV fare which is
half the price of the airplane fare
on average. On-board service
quality provided is generally
better on TGVs and on iDTGVs
(“interactive Relaxation High-
speed Train”) than on airplanes.
29
In addition, great advantage of
TGVs is the air-rail connection at
Paris Charles de Gaulle
International Airport; moreover,
the intermodality is further
facilitated by code share
agreement with the largest
airlines.
The greatest competitor of high-
speed rail could be the low-cost
airlines, although they face two
problems, which makes them fall
behind in this competition. Due
to slot constraint, they do not
get enough slots at Paris Orly
and the charges at Paris airports
are relatively high, therefore
they cannot be real competitors
of high-speed rail services.
The development of Paris-
Marseille high-speed line was in
fact the extension of the 1981
Paris-Lyon line and still this line
has further extension
perspectives towards the French
Riviera, to Nice. Today, TGVs
achieved higher share than on
other European routes with
comparable journey times due to
high-quality service (more
comfortable, reliable and
terminals are much better
located), and limitations on air
competition service.
30
Germany The German high-speed network
varies significantly from the
French one. The geographically
distributed political demand and
denser and more evenly
distributed population resulted in
Germany connecting more cities
than France, therefore it has
more stops. The political demand
and constitutional obligations2
made German governments to
put more emphasis on
upgrading existing lines than
building new high-speed lines,
therefore the whole high-speed
rail network has a mixture of
both types of tracks. The fastest
section of the network is at a
speed of 300 km/h between
Frankfurt airport and Cologne by
ICE. The ICE took over the
market over airplanes on this
section with market share above
2 Article 87, German Constitution
90% after shrinking the journey
time to 1:10.
Due to its central location and
important transport corridors
within the boundaries TEN-T
project, Germany many high-
speed line developments are
going on lately Berlin-Innsbruck,
Saarbrücken-Mannheim lines,
Stuttgart-Ulm.
German railways have good
connection to almost all
neighboring countries by ICE and
plans go even further. It has now
daily connection to Paris,
Amsterdam, Brussels,
Copenhagen, Zurich, Vienna and
in the near future to London as
well.
31
Figure 7: ICE train at the Cologne station (Source: www.aito.co.uk)
The Cologne-Frankfurt high-
speed line was opened in 2002
and sets a good example for
linking densely populated urban
areas and major European
airports by high-speed rail. The
ICE takes the 177 km distance in
approximately 1 hour 10
minutes. In addition, this is one
of the two high-speed rail
services where through baggage
handling is offered for air/rail
passengers, and where there is
through ticketing between air
and rail. The main competitors of
ICE are not classical and low-
cost airlines, rather the cars in
the ‘country of Autobahn’. In
approximately 2 hours it is
possible to take this trip by car,
while if two or more people
travel together, it is cheaper
than high-speed train. The
previous, ‘classic’ rail route along
the Rhine is still in use to provide
cheaper, but longer journey for
travellers and to serve
intermediate stations. Lufthansa
kept some daily airlines in use
despite the strong competitor,
and operates some flights, which
have scheduled journey times of
40-45 minutes. Today 4 flights,
nearly 50 high-speed trains, a
dozen of conventional trains, and
hundreds of cars take the
Frankfurt-Cologne distance daily.
As mentioned before, high-speed
network in Germany is a mixed
network of both passenger and
freight transport. This is a unique
section in this network, because
it is restricted only to passenger
traffic.
The ICE prices range from €39 to
€110, while conventional trains
offer a 35% discount compared
to ICE. Air link is most likely to
be provided between €108 and
€418.
Despite the great difference in
prices, the stated reliability for
long-distance trains is 85% to
arrive within 5 minutes of their
32
published time, while 83% in
case of Lufthansa to arrive within
15 minutes of their published
time.
High-speed rail carrying 97% of
all passengers on the Frankfurt-
Cologne route and therefore has
a dominant market share,
although prior to the high-speed
line the market share of rail
already considerably high, 80-
85%.
33
Spain The longest high-speed
railway network of Europe is
found in Spain with 2,665 km
(2nd longest after China). Spain
has serious plans to extend the
network by 10,000 km between
2010 and 2020, so that 90% of
its inhabitants would reach a
high-speed train station within
50 km of their homes and from
all provincial capitals Madrid
could be reached within 3 hours.
Spain had track gauge problems
with the continental connection
(France), and the new lines were
built up to European standards.
The interoperability of the
Spanish high-speed trains (AVE)
on conventional tracks is solved
by special AVE trains with
interchangeable gauges. The first
line was inaugurated in 1992
between Madrid and Seville that
ended up to be a real success
with seizing 83% of the market
between the two cities. Six other
lines have been opened since
including the Madrid-Barcelona
and the Madrid-Valencia line.
The first AVE line to France was
opened 2010 December and by
2012 train to Paris from Madrid
trains will operate without
changing gauge, just like to
Lisbon.
Figure 8: AVE high-speed trains (Source: www.raileurope.com)
The first HSL in Spain was
inaugurated just before the
Seville World Expo in 1992 after
1986 decision to build the line.
The curiosity of the line is that it
operates on totally new
infrastructure, according to
standard European gauge unlike
the Spanish conventional rail
network. The average journey
time is approximately 2 hours 30
34
minutes linking Madrid, Seville
and cities in between (Ciudad
Real, Puertollano, Córdoba).
The opening of the HSL changed
the travel habits fundamentally
between the two cities. The
conventional competitors:
airplane (from 42% to 16%), car
(from 23% to 21%), bus (from
4% to 5%) and conventional rail
(from 33% to 1%) fell behind in
the competition against the new
high-speed train by 2000. The
main competitor, air traffic
shrank to 20% share from 70%
in air/rail competition and
railways took over with the help
of AVE.
Traditionally, buses are the main
mode of long distance public
transport in Spain. Prior to the
opening of the HSL, more
passengers travelled by bus on
this route than by train. On the
Madrid-Seville route it takes 6
hours and costs €17 for one-way
ticket. Still today, buses carry
20% of the number of
passengers carried by the train,
mostly concentrating on low-
budget travelers.
Although the scheduled air
journey time is 1 hour by classic
air services and costs €140 on
average, depending on many
conditions. Only Iberia Airlines
have direct connection from
Seville to the central hub in
Madrid. Low-cost airlines are not
operating on this route.
There are Talgo 200 trains,
which offer cheaper tickets than
AVE, but provide a bit slower
service between the two
destinations.
Despite high-speed rail being the
most expensive mode on this
route (a standard one-way ticket
for costs €50-70), it has the
highest modal share with 58%.
The reason for this high share -
according to the operator - is
due to the shortest journey time
in point-to-point travel and the
approximately 100% punctuality
35
of the service. The AVE’s
operator offers a punctuality
promise, which in fact means
that if a train is more than 5
minutes late, the entire cost of
the ticket is refunded. Less than
0.3% of tickets have to be
refunded. The AVE on-board
services provide equivalent or
better than on airplanes.
The first Spanish high-speed line
proved to be successful and this
success gave place for further
high-speed rail development in
other parts of Spain.
More information at:
http://www.renfe.com
http://www.sncf.com
http://www.bahn.de
36
Comparison of three national projects
In this section the above-
mentioned three projects will be
compared. These projects are,
but it is interesting to find the
common points in them. Above
all, the most important common
feature is that all of them are a
real success stories.
General description
The shortest line of them all is
the Frankfurt-Cologne line with
its 177 km, which cost 6 billion
Euros according to Deutsche
Bahn. This line is part of the
Western European high-speed
rail network connecting many
countries. The extension of the
LGV Sud-Est and LGV Rhône-
Alpes, the LGV Méditerranée is
244 km long and cost 3.8 billion
Euros. By the extension of the
line, TGV trains can run from
Paris to Marseille strictly on high-
speed line. The Seville-Madrid
line is more than a single section
in a longer line or system,
literally a full line with 471 km
cost 2.7 billion Euro.
Figure 9: Frankfurt-Cologne high-speed rail line (Source: WIkipedia)
Railway track
All three lines were built with the
European standard gauge
(1,435mm) and both are double-
tracks. This fact is only worth
mentioning in the case of Spain,
where conventional tracks are of
different gauge, and this line was
the first to use the European
standards which will help
interoperability of trains on the
European Single Market.
37
Figure 10: ICE train passing by (Source: iStockphoto)
Highest possible speed
On each line, high-speed trains
can reach speed of 300 km/h,
which is often, such as in these
cases, the operation speed of
newly built high-speed rail
infrastructures.
Electrification system
The Madrid-Seville and the Paris-
Marseilles lines are built with 25
kV 50 Hz electric systems, in
contrast with the Frankfurt-
Cologne, which uses 15 kV 16.7
Hz electric systems. The latter
creates interoperability problems
in the liberalized European rail
market, though the latest train
engines are prepared to take into
account the different national rail
electric systems. The Spanish
line gives a good example for
interoperability of European
systems, just like the gauge, the
electric system on conventional
lines is different from the newly
built high-speed lines.
Figure 11: Madrid-Seville railway line in the Adamuz- Venta de Inés section (Source: www.groupovimac.com)
Regions and cities served
There are plenty of regions and
cities which benefit from the
construction of these high-speed
lines.
The Frankfurt-Cologne high-
speed line connects not only
large German cities, but also
densely populated regions.
Moreover, this railway line brings
38
other parts of the world closer
with quick accessibility of
Frankfurt International Airport
and Köln/Bonn Airport. This
project serves as a best practice
for intermodality between air and
rail transport. The high-speed
rail line links: Frankfurt Main
Station– Frankfurt Airport –
Siegburg/Bonn – Cologne Main
Station. Almost all trains stop at
these stations, while some stop
at Montabaur and Limburg Süd.
On weekdays, there are nearly
50 ICE trains from Frankfurt to
Cologne out of which 7 connects
Cologne Airport and Frankfurt
Airport directly in about an hour
trip, otherwise one change is
required with short stopover
from one airport to the other.
Figure 125: Frankfurt Airport Railway Station (Source: Wikipedia)
Figure 16. Frankfurt Airport - Train Station - A3 Motorway complex from bird's-eye view (Source: www.fnp.de)
The main purpose of the Madrid-
Seville line is to provide a fast
link between the capital of the
country and the centre of
Andalusia, also linking greater
cities along the route. The line
has 22 high-speed trains daily
per direction. In between
stations are Ciudad Real,
Puertollano, and Toledo. Out of
22 only three trains run just
between the two destinations, 19
stop in Cordoba as well, while 8
stop also in Ciudad Real and
Puertollano. The difference
among different trains with more
stops is only 10-10 minutes.
39
Along the Paris-Marseilles line
there are 13 direct and 7 indirect
trains per direction on weekdays.
There are some shuttle trains
between Paris-Gare de Lyon and
Marseille Saint-Charles, while
some connect the two
destinations with Avignon and
fewer with Aix-en-Provence.
Indirect trains link Valence and
Lyon.
The Spanish and the French lines
intend to connect greater regions
and cities, while the German
example connects also smaller
cities in between the two final
stations to the high-speed rail
system.
40
OUTLOOK ON RESEARCH
What’s next?
The European Union can only
mainatain its world leading
position in field of high-speed rail
technology, if R&D processes
back these intentions.
The Seventh Framework
Programme runs several project
which aim at improving the rail
transport in many fields. Within
rail transport projects, some
deals with high-speed rail, or the
project concern high-speed rail
besides conventional rail. These
projects aim at improving
interoperability, safety, reducing
cost and making railways
sustainable. Urban sociology and
making specific methodologies
are also part of the Seventh
Framework Programmes.
ERRAC3 roadmap
The European railway sector is
facing challenges, including
increasing the competitiveness
and attractiveness of rail
transport in terms of speed,
availability, comfort, punctuality
and reliability.
These challenges could be met
by maintaining and improving
environmental performance,
increasing capacity, enhancing
infrastructure and to maintain
the green economic profile
compared to other transport
modes.
The ERRAC roadmap was
created to coordinate different
rail related research activities.
Its main goal is to draft a
strategic plan and then turn it
into reality by 2020.
3 European Rail Research Advisory Council
41
Main issues by which ERRAC
roadmap deals with are:
holistic rail strategies
minimalise costs (operation,
environmental maintenance
inspection costs);
simple and economical
infrastructure reconstruction
and maintenance;
Improved real-time
information system for
stakeholders (rail operator,
infrastructure managers,
customers);
Addressing customers’ needs
by coordinating public and
private bodies.
The environmental impact of
railways has always been an
issue with methodological
uncertainties. This is what the
INFRAGUIDER is about to give
clear guidelines for creating an
effective environmental impact of
the infrastructure, after having
done the same process by the
rolling stock (UIC leaflet 345
“Environmental Specifications for
new Rolling Stock”).
These guidelines include whole
life-cycle approach for the
infrastructure already in the
procurement process. Climate
change, natural resources and
chemicals are main points to
consider along environmental
railway evaluation. In the
evaluation phase of eco-
procurement model specific
environmental indicators
(Supplier and Product indicators)
Each element of the
infrastructure is examined along
such specific points and assessed
at the end.
42
The WOLAXIM project
is intended to increase reliability
of rail traffic. A normal axle of a
train is designed for more than
20 years. Although current
trends show that these must be
withdrawn earlier due to
unexpected corrosion. For
previous inspection methods the
trains had to be taken out of
traffic and the methods were not
precise and detailed enough.
This research project gives better
methods of crack detection and
corrosion assessment for railway
axle inspection. One method is
specifically for the hollow axles
of high speed trains and aims to
improve the speed of the
inspection and improve crack
detection reliability. This could
be deployed while the train is in
depot at night and without
dismantling of the wheel set.
This method is convenient for the
train operator, energy and cost-
effective at once.
EURAXLES is a similar project to
the WOLAXIM though
incorporates wider range of
topics. The European Rail
Association lead project has axle
manufacturers, railway
operators, system operators,
technology suppliers,
universities, rail sector
associations and a consulting
firm among the 23 members of
the consortium. The aim of
EURAXLES is to minimise the
fatigue failure of railway axles in
order to ensure safe operation of
the European interoperable
railway system while reducing
cost of maintenance and level of
service disruption to the
minimum. The project has a
complex concept from the design
of axles, production and
maintenance.
A new design approach is
developed including risk analysis
method with simple design
method to predict failure
probability.
43
The new developments include:
improved axle protection
against corrosion, improved
adhesion of coating, and
innovative coating solutions
in order to limit or avoid
VOC emissions;
Improved NDT in-service
inspection method;
RAMS/LCC analysis of the
outcome of the project will
be performed.
ACEM-Rail project is about the
automation and optimisation of
both conventional and high-
speed railway infrastructure
focusing on the track.
Numerous technologies will be
developmed for automated, cost-
effective inspection of the track
condition and prototypes will be
manufactured.
Algorithms are developed to
predict rail defect evolutions, and
find the optimal maintenance
schedule for preventive and
corrective operations.
New tools will be developed on
order to monitor the corrective
and preventive maintenance
tasks. The monitoring of
maintenance tasks are
automated and optimized and
executed with mobile computers.
The results of the project will be:
reduction of maintenance
costs;
less disturbance of rail
services;
increased quality, reliability
and safety;
increase of rail transport;
reduction of CO2 emissions.
The European railways after long
decline have started to increase
slowly, while the rolling stocks
44
changed with time. Faster and
heavier axle loads are rolling on
the European railways, which
means new challenges to be
met. Some catastrophic failure of
wheel or axle may lead to
serious fatal derailment accident
such as the greatest high-speed
rail accident in 1998 at Eschede.
SAFERAIL is intended to keep
wheelset failures to the minimum
by developing and implementing
an on-line system for inspection
of axles and wheels of trains in
motion combined with an
ultrasonic-electromagnetic
system. This way the quality
inspection of new and old
wheelsets during production and
maintenance will be faster and
more reliable.
Trio-TRAIN is a cluster of
integrated reasearch projects
partially funded by Seventh
Framework Programme.
The main topic is to promote
interoperability by replacing
physical testing process by
virtual simulations and simplified
authorisation process through
mix of testing and simulations.
1) AeroTRAIN project aims
at: reducing costs and time of
certification on aerodynamics by
harmonising European and
national standards of high-speed
and conventional rail’s technical
specification for interoperability.
New technologies would replace
cross-wind and slipstream tests by
new alternatives.
2) DynoTRAIN project aims
at limiting cost of the certification
by improving cross-acceptance of
track tests in railway dynamics
with some innovations:
the characterisation of the
irregularities of the track;
45
the characterisation of
contact geometry of wheel
and rail;
the determination of the
friction coefficient;
the use of simulation to
facilitate the cross-
acceptance.
EN standards on railway
dynamics together with relevant
technical annexes of the high
speed technical specification for
interoperability prolong the
certification process. Moreover,
the test do not map all operating
conditions and these tests must
be repeated several times to give
reliable outcome.
3) The PantoTRAIN project
is about panthograph/catenary
system, which is one major
problem to rolling stock
interoperability, because each
country has its own system
developed with different
mechanical properties. The
approval of a unified method could
contribute largely to a competitive
European railway system.
The project aims to:
extend the certification
process by new procedures
based on numerical
simulations and Hardware-
in-the-Loop testing;
use physical and numerical
simulation to extend
homologation to different
catenary systems;
facilitate the use of
innovative and mechatronic
panthographs by
understanding needs of
systems to the
homologisation process;
use simulated behaviour of
new/modified
panthographs/catenaries to
those already certified by
line tests;
facilitate the use of HIL
(Hardware-in-the-Loop)
testing as a less expensive
and more objective
alternative to line tests.
46
Results
All the above mentioned projects
are running under the European
Commission’s Seventh
Framework Programme and, except for one, they are in
execution phase. In the following
I will present the results of the
finished INFRAGUIDER project.
Although railways is considered a
green transport mode, it has
negative effects on the
environment. The outcome of
this project were guidelines for
eco-procurement of railway
infrastructure. The
environmental impact of railway
infrastructure can be inflenced at
a fix point of procurement, which
influences the whole supply chain
of infrastructure. Considering
whole life environmental impact
of materials and components,
due to the large quantities,
environmental properties could
be improved. The new
procurement policy decision is
based on 20% environmental
performance, 40% quality, 40%
price. A sustainability policy
could mean a rewarding system,
which weighs the three factors
above mandatory-demands of
the product.
Different environmentally related
technical specifications on
materials and components are
called Environmental
Performance Indicators
(EPI).
EPI’s concern product and
supplier. The project developed a
database for eight material and
components with impact on three
chosen environmental impact
evaluation areas (climate
change, hazardous substances,
natural resources). The method
for development of indicators for
material and components was
developed in EU project RAVEL
(Rail Vehicle eco-efficient
design).
47
Weighing among the three
factors is complicated, though
there are already some methods
such, the Swedish Environmental
Priority Strategy method which
takes both sub-optimisation and
severity into account.
The following materials and
components are taken into
account:
Ballast
Steel/rail
Concrete sleeper
Wooden sleeper
Concrete
Cables
Electric installations
Chemicals
The considered point in
environmental impact evaluation
are:
carbon-footprint
energy consumed during
production/assembly/operat
ion
% of recycled materials
environmental impact
assessment (mining)
production region
design lifetime
kg product per meter track
etc.
This eco-procurement
methodology is fully integrated
part of the ordinary procurement
process, therefore contributes to
unified procurement
methodology in the EU for
railway infrastructure.
48
REFERENCES Richard D. Knowles: Transport
shaping space: differential
collapse in time–space, Journal
of Transport Geography 14
(2006) 407–425,
Commission of the European
Communities: High-speed
Europe, a sustainable link
between citizens. Brussels, 2010
Steer Davies Gleave: Air and Rail
competition and
complementarity, Case study
report, London, 2006 August
Steer Davies Gleave: Air and Rail
competition and
complementarity, Final report,
London, 2006 August
NEA, University of Leeds,
PricewaterhouseCoopers,
significance: Situation and
Perspectives of the Rail Market,
2010
Commission of the European
Communities: White Paper -
European Transport Policy for
2010: Time to Decide. Brussels,
2001.
Commission of the European
Communities: White Paper –
Roadmap to a Single European
Transport Area – Towards a
competitive and resource
efficient transport system,
Brussels, 2011.
European Commission: EU
energy and transport in figures,
Luxembourg, 2010
everis: Study on Regulatory
Options on Further Market
Opening in Rail Passenger
Transport
Ginés de Rus: The economic
effects of high-speed rail
investment, Discussion Paper No.
2008-16 revised, October 2008
The International Union of
Railways (UIC): Carbon Footprint
of High-Speed railway
infrastructure (Pre-Study),
December 2009, Zurich
49
David Randall Peterman, William
J. Mallett, William J. Mallett:
High-speed Rail (HSR) in the
United States, December 8, 2009
Marta Sánchez Borràs,
presentation: High-speed rail in
Spain, 1st TEMPO Conference on
Sustainable Transport, Oslo, 18-
19 May 2010
http://www.renfe.com, timetable
for Madrid–Seville line for June
1, 2011 (obtained May 31, 2011)
http://www.sncf.com, timetable
for Paris-Marseille line for June 1,
2011 (obtained May 31, 2011)
www.bahn.de, timetable for
Frankfurt–Cologne line for June
1, 2011 (obtained May 31, 2011)
http://cordis.europa.eu/home_e
n.html
Eco2win, VUT (Raul Carlson,
Pehr Hård): Guidelines for
enhancing EP of railway
infrastructure, December 22,
2010
50
www.press4transport.eu