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Higher Drama

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INTRODUCTION “It’s best to keep the established laws, until the

very day we die” (Creon)

This study guide has been created to help you

explore one of the greatest tragedies ever written

– Antigone by Sophocles. You can use this guide to

help you with two units of the Higher Drama

course:

Drama Skills

Drama: Production Skills

Throughout this guide, we will explore a number

of areas including:

The Background & Context of the play

The Plot

The Characters

Themes & Issues

Directing Concepts

Now, it’s time to delve into a story of war,

conflict, power, rebellion, family and religion…it’s

time to hit tragedy – Ancient Greek Style!

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The Play Written around 1 BC by the playwright,

Sophocles, Antigone tells the story of a

princess who defies the law set down by her

uncle, the king and is condemned to death

as a result.

The play is widely considered to be one of

the best tragedies of all time, studied by

actors, directors and designers all over the

world.

Antigone focuses on the danger of having a

tyrant leader who makes bad decisions. It

also explores how an individual can stand

up for what they believe in. Many directors

have used the play to make comparisons with

modern-day dictatorships and conflicts.

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The Playwright Sophocles was an ancient greek

playwright who lived from

around 467 B.C. until 405/6 BC.. in

ATHENS. Along with Aeschylus and

Euripedes, He is widely regarded as

one of the most successful tragic

playwrights of his time

He is believed to have written around 120 plays in

his life, however, only seven of these survived in

their full form:

Ajax

Oedipus The King

Oedipus at colonus

Antigone

Electra

The Women of Trachis

Philoctetes

Sophocles competed regularly at

the Festivals of Lenaea & Dionysia,

winning around times and

never placing lower than second.

This made him the most successful

playwright in Ancient Greek

history that we know of.

Known as the Theban

Plays

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Why is he so important? Sophocles played a huge role in how drama

developed into what we know and love today. He

was writing at a time when Athens was the

intellectual and cultural centre of Europe.

One of the main achievements of Sophocles was his

ground-breaking decision to add a third actor on

the stage. This diminished the importance and role

of the traditional chorus and allowed his plays

to develop characters to a much deeper level due

to increase in dialogue.

He was also praised by the great PHILOSOPHER,

Aristotle for developing a formula for the perfect

tragic play – a formula which would be applied

by other playwrights for centuries.

Furthermore, he was also credited is being the first

person to use skenographia – painted scenery in his

plays,

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Plot summary The play takes place at the

end of a civil war in Thebes

– a city state in ancient

Greece. Two brothers, Eteocles

& Polynices fought against

each other in the war, both

dying in battle. The new

King (and their uncle), Creon

sides with Eteocles and gives him a full military

burial. However, Creon decrees that Polynices’ body

must be left unburied outside the city gates as

punishment for his rebellion – a punishment that

goes against the religion of the ancient greeks. He

declares that anyone who disobeys this order will

be put to death.

Meanwhile, Antigone &

Ismene, the sisters of the

dead brothers discuss Creon’s

decree inside the city walls.

Antigone is angry that

Creon has issued such an

order, and vows to bury

Polynices’ body. Ismene fears

the death penalty and refuses to take part in the

burial – causing Antigone to disown her.

Back in Creon’s court, the king gains support for

his law from a chorus of elders. However, a sentry

arrives bringing news that somebody has buried

Polynices’ body – but they don’t know who. Creon

is furious and orders the sentry to find the culprit

or face death himself. The sentry soon returns with

Antigone as his prisoner, revealing that they

caught her in the act trying to re-bury the body

when they exhumed it.

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Creon questions Antigone, who doesn’t deny her

crime. Instead, she argues with Creon about the

lawfulness of his decree, stating that it was

against the will of the gods. She also argues that

it was her moral duty to bury the body, as well

as her religious duty. Creon becomes EVEN ANGRIER

and decides to accuse Ismene as well, believing that

the two sisters must have plotted together. Ismene

is dragged in sobbing. She tries

to falsely confess so she can

die with her sister, but

Antigone refuses to let her be

a part of it. Creon places them

both in prison whilst he

decides their fate.

Meanwhile, Creon’s son, Haemon speaks with his

father about the situation. Haemon is engaged to

Antigone and whilst he begins the conversation as

if he is willing to forsake her, he soon tries to

convince Creon to spare her life. He tries to inform

Creon that the people of Thebes would not be happy

with her execution. Creon becomes more stubborn

and argues with his son. The argument ends with

haemon claiming he never wishes to see his father

again.

Creon decides to spare

Ismene, but sentences

Antigone to be buried alive

in a cave. Antigone remains

defiant in the face of her

imminent death. She argues

her point one last time

before being dragged off to

be sealed in the cave. The

chorus of elders express sorrow for her fate.

A stubborn and prideful Creon is then visited by a

blind prophet, Tiresias. In the past, Creon has always

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followed Tiresias’ advice. However, when Tiresias

criticises his decision to leave Polynices unburied

and to kill Antigone, Creon verbally attacks the

prophet – accusing him of being corrupt. Tiresias

then predicts that Creon will lose his own son and

his family will meet a tragic end. Creon, shaken by

Tiresias’ prophecy changes his mind and sets off with

his guards to free Antigone.

The chorus offer a blessing to the god Dionysus,

whilst Creon’s wife, Eurydice awaits news of

Antigone’s fate. A messenger soon arrives explaining

that the men got there too late – Antigone and

Haemon had already committed suicide. Antigone

had hung herself; Haemon stabbing himself when he

found the body. A grief-stricken Eurydice runs into

the palace.

Creon enters with the body of his son, blaming

himself for what has happened. A second messenger

then arrives, explaining to Creon that his wife has

now committed suicide as well, due to the grief

for the loss of her son. Creon is left without his

family, regretting his prideful ways. As he is helped

into the palace, the chorus lament that the order

and law that he wanted has

been upheld, but he has lost

his family as a result. They

end the play with the message

that making mistakes like this

teaches us an important life

lesson – the Gods punish the

proud, but it is these

punishments that bring about

wisdom.

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Character summary Antigone

The oldest daughter of

Oedipus. Her name in Greek

means “One who is of the

opposite opinion” (Anti =

against, gnomi = Opinion).

After her brothers died

fighting in battle against

each other, their uncle

Creon forbids the burial of

the eldest brother, Polynices

because he dared to attack

thebes. Antigone is outraged by the decree

and going against the advice of her younger

sister, Ismene, she buries the body. As a result,

Creon sentences her to death, even though

she is engaged to his son, Haemon. Antigone is

walled up inside a cave so that she starves

to death. However, she commits suicide by

hanging herself with a rope. Creon, realises

his mistake too late and unseals the cave

to find her dead. Antigone is a strong,

rebellious character. She hates creon with a

passion and believes that he is undermining

the gods. She stands up for what she believes

in and reacts badly towards those who

disagree with her.

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Creon

The brother of

Jocasta and King

of Thebes. After

the deaths of the

Theban princes,

Polynices &

Eteocles, Creon

claims the throne

for himself as the brother of the late queen.

His first edict forbids the burial of polynices

or any of the soldiers who attacked Thebes.

After his niece, Antigone disobeys the law, he

sentences her to death. He also plans to kill

Antigone’s younger sister, ismene, but holds

back when reminded of her innocence by the

chorus. He also ignores the advice of the

prophet Tiresias who warns him of his pride.

Creon is selfish, erratic and foolish. He is not

a wise ruler – often acting on impulse. Creon

suffers for his ignorance after realising his

mistakes too late. He loses his family through

his decisions – Antigone, His son Haemon and

his wife, Eurydice all commit suicide. Creon is

left humble, heartbroken and full of regret

at the end of the play.

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Ismene

The youngest

daughter of Oedipus.

Her name in Greek

means “to linger

towards” (Eis =

towards, mene =

linger). She tells

Antigone to obey

Creon’s decree, but her sister does not listen.

Ismene believes that women have no place

opposing men and that it is foolish to

challenge Creon. After Antigone is captured

and sentenced to die for burying polynices,

Ismene insists that she helped commit the

crime so that she can die with her sister.

Antigone tells the truth that Ismene had no

part in the burial at all, and Ismene is

spared. Throughout the play, she is a weak,

obedient citizen who is easily dominated by

others. Unlike her bold leader of a sister,

Ismene is a follower.

Haemon

Creon’s youngest son who is engaged to

Antigone. When Antigone is sentenced to

death, Haemon warns Creon that many

Thebans believe that she should live, as she

was following the law of the Gods. He

becomes very upset when Creon openly mocks

him in front of the citizens of Thebes for

standing up to him. After failing to convince

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his father, Haemon rushes to Antigone’s tomb.

When creon arrives, Haemon tries to stab him,

but misses. Then distraught, he stabs himself

to be with the woman he loves.

Tiresias

A blind old prophet.

Many years earlier,

Tiresias had

warned the Theban

king, Oedipus

(Antigone & ismene’s

father) that he

was guilty of

incest and patricide, but Oedipus had heeded

the warning too late. Now, the prophet

returns to Thebes, guided by a young boy to

warn Creon that the Gods are angry with

him for forbidding the burial of Polynices.

Creon accuses Tiresias of acting only for

money and scare-mongering. Tiresias is

angered by Creon’s refusal to listen and

warns him that he will pay a terrible price

for his pride and stubbornness. Tiresias

predicts that there will be further attacks

on Thebes that will devastate the city. Just

as Oedipus had, Creon realised his mistakes

too late – losing his family. Tiresias is well

respected by the citizens and elders of Thebes

due to his accurate prophecies in the past.

Creon used to trust and follow his advice,

but changes when the advice given goes

against his own will.

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Sentry

A soldier who tells Creon about the illegal

burial of Polynices’ body. He later is the one

who captures Antigone for committing the

crime. He is afraid of Creon’s anger when

initially informing him of the crime. Creon

threatens the Sentry with a death sentence

unless he captures the culprit – forcing him

to find Antigone. The Sentry is pardoned

when he bring Antigone to Creon.

Eurydice

The wife of Creon and mother of Haemon.

Eurydice had lost her oldest son, Megareus

in the battle and blamed Creon for his

death. After learning that her only

remaining son, haemon had committed suicide

with Antigone, she is overcome with grief. She

commits suicide, leaving Creon alone at the

end of the play mourning the loss of his

family.

Messenger

A man who tells Eurydice about her son,

Haemon’s suicide. Although the wise Chorus is

concerned about Eurydice as she runs away

abruptly after hearing the news, the

messenger sees no danger and praises Creon’s

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leadership. After Eurydice’s suicide, he delivers

the news to a devastated Creon.

Chorus & Leader

The chorus

is comprised

of Theban

Elders and

citizens,

with a

Leader

speaking as

an advisor

to Creon. First arriving as obedient to the

King, the chorus gives opinions about events

that occur in the story, as well as recalling

events of the past. In addition, there is a

gradual progression of the Chorus as it

increasingly provides more advice to Creon,

urging him to take Tiresias’ advice. At the

end of the play, the Chorus help lead a

Broken-hearted Creon away after lamenting

the importance of obeying the will of the

Gods.

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Non-Featured Characters A number of characters are mentioned in

the play but do not feature on stage:

Oedipus

The former king of Thebes

and the father of

Antigone, Ismene, Eteocles &

Polynices. His name in Greek

means “limping Foot” (oido =

to swell, pous = foot). He

was given this name after

his Father, Laius sliced his

ankles when he was a baby

so that he would die in the

wilderness, disabled. Laius

was worried by a prophecy

that Oedipus would one

day kill him. Oedipus grew up in exile, not

knowing the identity of his parents. Once

Grown, Oedipus kills his father and marries

his mother, Jocasta – not knowing that he

has committed incest and patricide. After

learning of his crimes, he tore out his own

eyes and was exiled from Thebes. After his

departure, his sons, Polynices & Eteocles

fought for the throne.

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Jocasta

The former Queen of Thebes and

Oedipus’ mother. When she

discovers that she has married

her son, she commits suicide by

hanging herself in the palace.

Polynices

The oldest son of Oedipus and brother of

Antigone & ismene. After his youngest brother,

Eteocles unjustly claims the Theban throne

for himself, Polynices assembles seven armies

to attack the city and regain his rightful

place as King. He dies in battle, as does his

brother. After his death, his uncle Creon

declares him a traitor and forbids his burial.

His sister Antigone, ignores the edict and

buries him.

Eteocles

The youngest son of Oedipus and brother of

Antigone & Ismene. Although his older

brother, Polynices is next in line for the

throne of Thebes, Eteocles claims the throne

for himself with the support of their uncle,

Creon. He exiles Polynices from Thebes.

Polynices attackes Thebes and kills Eteocles

in battle. After the battle, Creon seizes

power and buries Eteocles with full military

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honours, declaring him a hero for defending

Thebes.

Megareus

The youngest son of Creon & Eurydice and

brother of Haemon. Despite being warned by

Creon not to fight, Megareus joins the battle

for Thebes – fighting for Eteocles. Due to his

inexperience as a soldier, he is killed quickly.

His mother, Eurydice blaims his father Creon

for his death.

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Historical Background Drama expresses ideas about people, about

their relationships, about their hopes and

fears, their material and spiritual lives. It

comments on the society in which they live.

It caters for the interests and opinions of

the audience for whom it intended.

Therefore, in order to understand the Drama

of any period, it is necessary to view it in

the social, historical and cultural context

on the society in which it was written.

Greece in the fifth century B.C.

When the surviving Greek Tragedies were

written, Greece was not a single unified

state as it is today. It was made up of many

small, independent city-states. Each state

had its own government, political system

and military. Some of the more prominent

city-states were Thebes, Corinth, Sparta and

Athens. They has some things in common –

particularly their language and culture.

However, there was frequent warfare

between the City-States as they strived to

gain more power.

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The frequent warfare amongst the various

states caused a great deal of suffering for

the people of Greece. Many of the

playwrights used the stories from these wars

to influence their writing.

ATHENS

The City-State of

Athens is extremely

important to the

development of

Greek Drama. It was

here that Tragedy

was primarily

developed. All of

the remaining Greek

Tragedies were written to be performed in

Athens – making it the “home” of Greek

Tragedy. The development of the tragedy

genre came at a time when Athens was a

confident and expanding State.

By the middle of the Fifth Century B.C.,

Athens was establishing and consolidating

her power over many of the smaller city-

states. An alliance was formed between the

states called The Delian Confederacy.

Although this seemed like a typical alliance,

in effect it was controlled by Athens –

making it more of an Athenian Empire.

In addition to its political power, Athens

was becoming the centre for philosophy,

science and the arts. Many great thinkers

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and talented Greeks flocked to the city to

be a part of this cultural growth.

Citizenship was generally restricted to

native-born males of whom there were

around 25,000. Only Citizens were permitted

to take part in the city’s politics. Women,

Slaves and Foreigners were not allowed to

participate.

Prior to the Fifth Century B.C., Athens was

generally ruled by the aristocracy. However,

their grasp over the State was gradually

weakened in a series of bloody struggled. As

a result, Democracy was born in Athens –

one of the most influential political changes

in history. The rise of Democracy coincided

with the rise of Greek Tragedy in the

Theatre.

DEMOCRACY in ATHENS

The Ecclesia was a

council which all

citizens of Athens

were eligible to

attend. This council

decided upon policy

which governed the

day-to-day running

of Athens. A quorum of 6000 was required for

important votes to be decided. Justice was in

the hands of a range of people’s courts –

with juries paid to attend. Many of the

leading state offices were allocated by lot

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and held for only a year – encouraging a

rotation of power and fresh ideas.

The political life of Athens was dominated

by a statesman called Pericles who

explained:

“Our constitution is called a democracy

because the power is in the hands, not of a

minority, but of the whole people”

The active participation of the citizens in

government and justice, as well as the

Athenian respect for Education developed a

society which appreciated rhetorical and

performance skills. The philosopher Plato

wrote:

“Lack of training in singing, dancing and

poetry is synonymous with lack of

education.”

Tragedy therefore developed in the hothouse

climate of a relatively small, highly self-

conscious city, in which, philosophical,

political and social debates were flourishing.

People regularly discussed the relationships

between:

the individual & the establishment

Man & Nature

Man & The Gods

Men & Women

And many others…

Although Tragedy was based on stories from

the mythical past of Greece, it is clear that

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they reflected events & themes that were

important in the contemporary world of

Athens.

Becoming a Citizen

The journey to becoming a citizen of Athens

was linked heavily to ceremony and

religion. There were two main stages in the

“coming of age” of a young man in Athens.

At age 16, a boy

was given full

membership of the

festival of

Apatouria (the

festival linked to

citizenship). As part

of this ceremony he

would:

Offer wine to Heracles

Offer wine to his companions

Take part in the ceremonial cutting of

his hair

Celebrated with a sacrifice and a fest

At age 18, the boy would then begin two

years of military service, swearing the

following oaths:

Not to dishonour his weapons

Not to abandon a comrade in battle

To help make Athens greater

To obey the laws of the city

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To honour the cults of the fathers

After swearing the oath, he had to visit all

of the main temples and shrines in the city.

Upon completion of his service, he was then

made a citizen of Athens.

RELIGION IN ANCIENT ATHENS

Religion played a

vital part in

Athenian life. The

people believed in

many gods and

goddesses who each

had special interests.

The Athenian Gods

resembled humans in

their appearance and attitudes, but were

immortal.

The Gods demanded worship and respect, but

did not require the people to love them. The

gods also did not impose a moral code on

humans. All they wanted was for their

power to be recognised and respected.

If men showed respect through prayer and

sacrifice, they believed that the gods would

help them in all aspects of their life – from

granting a successful harvest to increasing

their chances of conceiving a baby. It was

also believed that a failure to show respect

to the gods would be punished with disaster

and heartache.

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In summary, there was:

No bible

No set of beliefs

No need to behave well

No need to love the Gods

an absolute requirement to worship and

respect the gods and their power

The main Gods

Whilst there were a great number of Gods

in Ancient Greek Religion, there were a group

of the most powerful and important gods –

“The Olympians”

ZEUS

King of the gods and ruler of

Mount Olympus; god of the sky, and

thunder. Youngest child of the

Titans Cronus and Rhea. Symbols

include the thunderbolt, eagle, oak

tree, sceptre, and scales. Brother

and husband of Hera, although he

had many lovers. Brother of

Poseidon and Hades

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Hera

Queen of the gods and the goddess

of marriage and family. Symbols

include the peacock, pomegranate,

crown, cuckoo, lion, and cow.

Youngest daughter of Cronus and

Rhea. Wife and sister of Zeus. Being

the goddess of marriage, she

frequently tried to get revenge

on Zeus' lovers and their children.

Poseidon

God of the seas, earthquakes, and

tidal wave. Symbols include the

horse, bull, dolphin, and trident.

Middle son of Cronus and Rhea.

Brother of Zeus and Hades.

Married to the Nereid

Amphitrite, although, like most male Greek

Gods, he had many lovers.

Demeter

Goddess of fertility, agriculture,

nature, and the seasons. Symbols

include the poppy, wheat, torch, and

pig. Middle daughter of Cronus and

Rhea.

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Athena

Goddess of wisdom, handicrafts,

defence, and strategic warfare.

Symbols include the owl and the

olive tree. Daughter of Zeus and the

Oceanid Metis, she rose from her

father's head fully grown and in

full battle armour after he

swallowed her mother.

Apollo

God of light, knowledge, healing,

plague and darkness, the arts,

music, poetry, prophecy, archery,

the sun, manly youth, and

beauty. Son of Zeus and Leto.

Symbols include the sun, lyre, bow

and arrow, raven, dolphin, wolf,

swan, and mouse. Twin brother of

Artemis.

Artemis

Goddess of the hunt, virginity,

childbirth, archery, the moon, and

all animals. Symbols include the

moon, deer, hound, she-bear, snake,

cypress tree, and bow and arrow.

Daughter of Zeus and Leto and

twin sister of Apollo.

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Ares

God of war, violence, and

bloodshed. Symbols include the boar,

serpent, dog, vulture, spear, and

shield. Son of Zeus and Hera, all

the other gods (except Aphrodite)

despised him. His Latin name, Mars,

gave us the word "martial."

Aphrodite

Goddess of love, beauty, and desire.

Symbols include the dove, bird,

apple, bee, swan, myrtle, and rose.

Daughter of Zeus and the Oceanid

Dione, or perhaps born from the

sea foam after Uranus' semen

dripped into the sea after being

castrated by his youngest son,

Cronus, who then threw his

father's genitals into the sea.

Married to Hephaestus, although

she had many adulterous affairs, most

notably with Ares. Her name gave us the

word "aphrodisiac", while her Latin name,

Venus, gave us the word "venereal".

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Hephaestus

Master blacksmith and craftsman

of the gods; god of fire and the

forge. Symbols include fire, anvil,

axe, donkey, hammer, tongs, and

quail. Son of Hera, either by Zeus

or alone. Married to Aphrodite,

though unlike most divine

husbands, he was rarely ever licentious. His

Latin name, Vulcan, gave us the word

"volcano."

Hermes

Messenger of the gods; god of

commerce, thieves, and games. Symbols

include the caduceus (staff

entwined with two snakes), winged

sandals and cap, stork, and tortoise

(whose shell he used to invent the

lyre). Son of Zeus and the nymph

Maia. The second-youngest Olympian,

just older than Dionysus.

Hestia

Goddess of the hearth and of the

right ordering of domesticity and

the family; she was born into the

first Olympian generation and

was one of the original twelve

Olympians. Some lists of the

Olympians omit her in favour of

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Dionysus, but the speculation that she gave

her throne to him in order to keep the peace

seems to be modern invention. She is the first

child of Cronus and Rhea, eldest sister of

Hades, Demeter, Poseidon, Hera, and Zeus. Also

the eldest of the Olympians.

Dionysus

God of wine, celebrations, and

ecstasy. Patron god of the art of

theatre. Symbols include the

grapevine, ivy, cup, tiger, panther,

leopard, dolphin, goat and pinecone.

Son of Zeus and the mortal Theban

princess Semele. Married to the

Cretan princess Ariadne. The

youngest Olympian, as well as the

only one to have a mortal mother.

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Festivals

One of the central

activities of Athenian

life was participation

in festivals. These

festivals were called

“Days of release.” The

festivals were

celebrated for a

number of reasons:

To honour the Gods

To relax and feast

Enjoyment and Merriment

Developing a sense of community

TO enjoy Drama

To enjoy Athletics

To give all social classes a chance to

participate

To recognise the stages of life

To show off wealth and power to other

states

There were different festivals throughout

the year including:

Monthly festivals – usually the first 8

days of a new month. These were used to

celebrate the gods’ birthdays

Agricultural Festivals

Festivals to honour the dead

Festivals recognising important family

events e.g. Births, Coming-of-age etc.

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State Festivals

Women in Religion

Despite not being able to participate in

political life in Athens, Women played a

vital role in religious life. They participated

in a number of ways:

PARTHENOI (Virgins)

Every year, between two and four girls of

noble birth were selected to live in the

Acropolis and to weave the Peplos – the robe

to be put on the wooden statue of AthenA.

They also had to tend her sacred olive tree

and carry certain objects in a basket on

their heads to the shrine of Aphrodite in the

gardens below the Acropolis. Two other

young girls were chosen as ‘washing girls’ to

give the olive-wood statue a ritual washing

in the sea.

Priestesses

These women usually

served the goddesses

rather than the male

gods. The pythia was

an exception. They

had very little power.

They were in charge

of rituals and the running of the

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sanctuary. They were greatly respected

despite the lack of political power.

Participation in Cults

A number of cults were exclusive to Women

– as were some of the festivals e.g. the Skira

and the Thesmophoria festivals. They served

as Maenads or worshippers of Dionysus. As

women were given little opportunity to

meet outside of the home in Athens,

participation in Cults was a good way of

socialising with other women.

Midwives

The midwife’s duty at the birth of a child

was to ensure that the religious rituals

were performed correctly. She gave out

drugs, recited spells and prayed to Artemis

to ease the pain of birth. Since doctors were

rarely present at a birth, the midwives were

very important. The only qualification

necessary was to be above childbearing years

of age.

Tending Corpses and the grave

Women played the central role in rituals

concerning the disposal and care of the dead.

It was the women who bathed and dressed

the corpse, sang the lament and tended the

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tomb regularly. Again, funerals provided an

opportunity to leave the house and socialise.

DEATH RITUALS IN ANCIENT GREECE

A death was a

significant event in

Ancient Greek

society. There was

a series of rituals

that had to be

performed to

prepare the dead soul for the afterlife:

Three Days of Fasting

A cypress branch or lock of hair was

hung on the door to indicate death

A bowl of water was placed outside the

door so that visitors to the house could

purify themselves when leaving

The eyes and mouth of the dead person

were closed by the nearest male relative

The body was washed and clothed by the

women of the house

The body was given a crown of gold or

parsley

If the dead person was a woman, her hair

and jewellery would be arranged AS IN

EVERYDAY LIFE

Young unmarried people were buried in

wedding clothes

After this preparation took place, a 24-hour

long funeral took place:

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The body was given an Obol to pay

Charon

The body was placed on a bier, covered,

and with feet facing the door

Branches and oil jars were placed

around the bier

Mourners stood around and sang

laments. Some funerals paid for

professional mourners

Relatives tore their hair and cheeks

whilst pounding their chests

The body would then be buried. After this,

The GOD, Hermes is believed to have led the

souls to Charon – the ferryman. Charon

would accept the payment of an Obol to

ferry the souls over the river Styx. On the

other side, the souls were judged by Minos,

Aeacus & Rhadymanthus. Upon judgement,

souls were sent to one of three places:

The Asphodel Fields if they were neither

very good nor very bad in their life

The Elysian Fields if they were good –

usually reserved for brave warriors

Tartarus if they were very wicked –

where the god Hades would punish them

forever

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Development of Greek

Theatre The word “Drama” is derived from the Ancient

Greek word, “Draein” which means “to do.”

Academics and scholars have debated for

many years about the origin of Drama.

However, all agree that Drama was linked

to the worship of the God, Dionysus.

The religious rites in his honour involved

many different activities. It was not

uncommon to see songs, sacrifices, drunkenness

and even orgies at a Dionysian festival.

In the early years of ancient Greece, ecstatic

songs and hymns that were sung to Dionysus

were called DITHYRAMBS – it is believed that

theatre evolved from these.

Around the seventh century B.c., Arion of

Corinth, a poet fixed the rules for a

dithyramb. There were to be fifty singers

and, for the first time, dialogue between the

leader and the other singers.

In the sixth century B.C., Thespis of Attica

developed Arion’s idea further. He introduced

an actor – the Hypocrites which means

“person who plays a part.” Thespis was no

longer a member of the chorus. The actor

would introduce the story and dress up to

play the various characters. He stood apart

from the chorus and had a small tent for

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changing. Masks were

used and, when the

actor left to change

roles, the chorus filled

the gaps with singing

and dancing.

Thespis was also the

first man to introduce

stories that were not

directly about

Dionysus. He acted in

his own plays which

had features of later

greek drama: prologue,

Choral odes, Long speeches and dialogue with

the chorus leader. He produced a play for

the very first competition in 534 B.C.

Actors have been known as “Thespians” ever

since!

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Dionysus & The Theatre As stated above, the Patron God of the

Theatre, Dionysus played a vital role in the

development of Drama in Ancient Greece. Not

only does he feature as a character in a

number of plays – but the plays were

written to be performed at Festivals

dedicated to his worship.

There were four annual festivals associated

with the worship of Dionysus:

The Rural Dionysia

Held in December in various parts of Attica,

these were fertility rituals. There was a

procession followed by the sacrifices and

revelry around the god’s altar. Finally,

plays were performed, some of them new, but

most of them repeats of plays which were

debuted at the City of Dionysia Festival the

previous March.

The LenaEa

Held in January, women with torches, flutes

and sacred wands danced wildly to arouse

the sleeping god. Around 440 B.C., contests in

Drama were introduced – mainly

concentrating on Comedy.

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The ANthesteria

Held in late February, this was mainly

concerned with opening the new wine jars

and drinking the contents. Not surprisingly,

no plays were performed at this festival as

everyone was too drunk!

The City (or great) Dionysia

Held around the

end of March in

Athens, this was

the most

important and

prestigious of

the festivals.

Spectators came

from all over

the world – not just Greece to witness it.

Allied city-states brought tributes to Athens.

Ambassadors came to meet with the Athenian

Government. War hostages were paraded in

public. Prominent citizens were given public

honours. The law-courts were closed. Even

prisoners were released on bail to attend

the festivities.

Dramatic performances were added to the

festival around 534 B.C.

The festival was so grand and opulent that

they started planning the next year’s events

the day after the current one ended. It was

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the ‘Glastonbury’ or ‘T in the Park’ of its

time.

For the Drama competition, three tragic

playwrights were chosen. Each had to

provide three tragedies and a satyr play.

Any tragic dramatist who wished to enter

the contest applied to the Archon Eponymous

– the chief magistrate who then made the

choice of who was to compete. Once selected,

each playwright was granted a chorus and

a choregos – a wealthy Athenian who would

meet the expenses of the plays. A flute player

was also assigned to the playwright. From

the middle of the fifth century B.c., a

Protagonist – Leading actor was also

assigned. Rehearals could then begin.

Costumes and Scenic effects were also

constructed.

Immediately prior to the opening of the

festival, an even more elaborate system for

choosing the judges was initiated. The city

council drew up a list of suitable men from

each of the ten tribes of Attica. Each name

was written on a separate tablet. These

were then sealed in ten tribal caskets and

locked in the acropolis. If anyone tampered

with them, they faced the death penalty!

The Athenians took drama competitions very

seriously!

On the first day of the festival, a name was

drawn from each casket in the theatre. This

provided the list of ten judges. The judges

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then sat in special seats and took a sacred

oath to judge fairly.

The City of Dionysia Schedule

The festival lasted six days and followed

the same schedule of events every year:

Day One

A procession to

the temple of

Dionysus, led by

a girl of noble

birth who

carried the

offerings. Next

came the choregoi in splendid robes.

Days Two, Three and Four

Each tragic playwright presented three

tragedies and a satyr play. A comic poet

presented one comedy.

Day Five

Men’s choral singing competition. Fourth

comedy presented.

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Day Six

Boy’s Choral singing competition. Fifth comedy

presented.

The theatre was considered to be the right

of everyone in Athens. Audiences took a keen

interest in the outcome of these competitions.

Admission was initially free for all, but

eventually a small charge of two obols was

charged. A public fund was established to

provide funding to buy tickets for the poor.

Prizes were awarded to the best group of

tragedies and to the best comedy. The

winning playwright and his Choregos were

crowned with ivy wreaths inside the

theatre. There were also smaller prizes for

the best tragic actor and the best choral

singers.

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46

What is Tragedy? In modern-day

theatre, tragedy

is often reduced

to a genre where

the play doesn’t

have a happy

ending. However,

when discussing

Greek Tragedy, it

is so much more!

An Athenian in the Fifth Century B.c. may

have defined Tragedy as:

“a play performed at the Dionysian festivals,

usually dealing with figures from the

mythical past. It generally involves people

killing each other, or threatening to do so

and being prevented. It involves song, dance,

music and spoken

dialogue. It tends to

be written in a

slightly old-fashioned

language to make it

sound grand…”

It wasn’t until a century later that

philosophers and critics began to discuss the

features of a Greek Tragedy. One of the most

important critics to enter the debate was

Aristotle.

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C., the son of a

doctor at the court of macedon. He studied

47

for twenty years at

Plato’s academy. Later, he

was appointed as tutor to

a young Alexander the

Great.

Aristotle’s major work on

Drama, “Poetics” has had a

major effect on the

development of Drama

across the centuries. The

book also provides a

valuable insight into how Ancient greeks

viewed Drama in their society. Before writing

it, he read and studied every greek tragedy

ever written and traced the features that

they all had in common.

Aristotle outlined many key aspects of what

makes a good greek tragedy. Firstly, they

followed a set structure:

1. Prologue – the opening scene, involving

dialogue

2. The Parados – The first entrance and

song of the chorus

3. The first Episode – A dialogue scene

4. The first Stasimon – A choral Song

Episodes and Stasimon are then alternated

until…

5. The EXODOS – The final dialogue scene

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Aristotle then outlined a set of ‘rules’ for

an effective Greek Tragedy. The table below

outlines the rules, and shows how well

Antigone sticks to these.

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Antigone: Tragic Analysis TRAGEDY MUST CONCERN THE GODS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON HUMAN AFFAIRS

In “Antigone,” the gods are frequently mentioned but do not actually appear. Antigone obeys the law of the gods by burying her brother, Polynices. Creon is warned by Tiresias that he has offended the gods by stubbornly refusing to change his mind about forbidding the burial of polynices. He further angers them when he sentences Antigone to die. For this, he is punished – losing his wife, his only remaining son and his niece to suicide. At the end of the play, he pays the price for defying the gods.

Tragedy Must Concern people of importance

In “Antigone,” The action centres upon the royal family of thebes. The Theban royal family were believed to be distantly descended from Zeus.

The central character must experience Peripeteia – a gradual change from contentment to ruin

In “Antigone,” Creon is first seen as the new king, proud of his position and rather smug. As the play progresses, he becomes less contented. Antigone angers him by breaking his decree and he sentences her to death. He is then confronted by haemon, Ismene, Tiresias and The Chorus who all warn Creon of his wrong-doing. Creon changes his decree in the last scene but it is too late. He is left alone, broken and humble.

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The Central Character’s journey follows a set structure – Hubris,

Hamartia and Anagnorisis Hubris is an excess of pride or ambition which offends the gods. Hamartia is a fatal error of judgement Anagnorisis is a realisation and acceptance of responsibility of one’s own actions In “Antigone,” Creon’s Hubris is the pride he has in his ambition, believing that he can rule Thebes with supreme authority. He even decrees that Polynices cannot be buried – against the God’s wishes Creon’s Hamartia occurs when he sentences Antigone to death for following her conscience and the law of the gods. Creon’s Moment of Anagnorisis occurs when he realises his error of judgement following tiresias’ terrible prophecy. He is then left admitting his faults when cradling his dead son’s body whilst his wife’s body is lying nearby.

In a Tragedy, the main characters must explain what is motivating their actions. This motivation is

called Ethos and Dianoia. In “Antigone,” we discover that Creon’s actions are motivated by his inflexible respect for his own authority as the head of state. Antigone’s actions are motivated by love and respect for her dead family. She is also motivated by respect and fear of the gods.

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In a Tragedy, the audience must experience Catharsis – a release of

emotions of fear and sorrow

In “Antigone,” the audience might be expected to feel fear when Tiresias is describing his failed sacrifice, or when Creon begins to rage against his own son, Haemon. The audience might experience sorrow when Antigone, on her way to be buried alive in a cave, says her last mournful farewell to the city of Thebes. They may also experience sorrow when they see Creon embrace his dead son at the end of the play.

A Tragedy must be written in verse and music

“Antigone” is written in blank verse – its dialogue is effectively poetry. All of the choral odes were sung to the accompaniment of a flute. Some other tragedies were written in iambic tetrameter. The composition of the verses was down to the individual playwright’s preference. Some playwrights used Stichomythia –single lines of the same length uttered about in turn by two actors in order to emphasise pace.

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A Tragedy must fit the Structure outlined above

“Antigone” fits Aristotle’s structure. The prologue features Antigone seeking ismene’s help whilst outlining what is happening to set the scene. The chorus then enters and performs the Parados – a hymn to the rising sun. Then the first episode features Creon repeating his decree and discovering that it has been broken. Then the first Stasimon is performed by the chorus. This pattern then repeats until the final scene – the exodus where Creon is left a broken man,

In a tragedy, death must not be enacted on the stage. Instead, it should be reported or shown as a tableau on the Ekkyklema – truck.

In “Antigone,” the messenger delivers the news of Antigone’s suicide, as well as Haemon’s. The dead body of Eurydice is shown to the audience as a tableau on the Ekkyklema.

In a tragedy, the characters must be convincing. In addition, female characters must not be shown as manly or clever. “Antigone” meets the first part of this rule, but not necessarily the second. The main characters are convincing: Antigone is the rebellious, god-worshipping princess, Creon is the stubborn and proud ruler, Ismene is the frightened, emotional sister, Haemon is the passionate idealistic prince. Each of these characters can be brought to life through skilful acting. However, “Antigone” is shown to be more than a match for Creon intellectually. She

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debates with flair. Even Ismene, although more submissive is shown to be thoughtful and intelligent when trying to convince Antigone to follow Creon’s decree. With the strong female characters in Antigone appearing – it can be argued that Sophocles created a feminist tragedy – one of the first of its kind.

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55

The Theatre of Dionysus In Athens, plays were presented in the

Theatre of Dionysus on the south-east slope

of the acropolis – close to the temple of the

gods.

Ancient Greek

Theatres looked

very different

to many of the

modern theatres

that exist.

However, The

Theatre of

Dionysus

underwent

many

architectural changes throughout the

centuries.

The Ruins that have been preserved by

archaeologists are actually more likely to

be of the roman era version of the theatre.

Historians have worked for years to try and

reconstruct a picture of what the theatre

would look like with the evidence from

historic writings and ruins.

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Theatre Architecture In general terms, there were three main

sections of an Ancient Greek Theatre:

The Orchestra

The Proskenion

The THEATRON

The Orchestra

The word derives from the Greek word for

“Dancing place.” This was a complete, flat

circle of space. It measured around twenty

metres in diameter. This is where the Chorus

would perform. Originally, the altar of

Dionysus stood at its centre, surrounded by

a raised seat for the flute player and the

leader of the chorus.

The Proskenion

The acting area – a low, narrow platform

about three metres deep. This is where the

principal action of the play took place. It

was also known as the Logeion – “Speaking

place.” This was backed by the SKENE – a long,

low building that was originally intended

to be a place for actors to dress and make

entrances. There was one central doorway,

about three metres wide with double doors.

The structure had two projecting side wings

– Paraskenia. GrADUALLY, THE skene CAME TO

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BE USED AS A SCENIC BACKGROUND FOR THE

ACTION. Its roof came to be used as a high-

level acting area, usually for the

appearance of the gods. This became knowen

as the Theologeion. On either side of the

stage, a wide passageway separated it from

the audience – these were called the PARADOS.

Parados were used as an entrance for the

chorus and some actors.

The Theatron

“The Seeing Place.” This area was sometimes

known as the Auditorium – “The Hearing

place.” This was a tiered seating area which

surrounded two-thirds of the orchestra. In

the late fifth century, the theatron of the

theatre of Dionysus could accommodate 15,000

audience members. Whilst most had a distant

view of the action, the acoustics of the

large bowl-shaped structure were excellent,

allowing them to hear the action. The

Theatron was split into wedge-shaped

sections of seating, called Kerkis. The stairs

that separated the seating were called

Klimakes.

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59

Whilst many of the Ancient Greek theatres

are nothing more than ruins now, one of

the best preserved examples can be found at

Epidaurus.

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Scenery and Effects There are two opposing views on the use of

scenery in ancient greek theatre. One school

of thought argues that realistic scenery

was neither used nor necessary and that

the audience used their imagination. The

opposing view is that painted canvas sets

were fixed to the wall of the Skene and

changed as necessary. These canvasses

depicted the location of the action e.g. a

Palace, Temple or the Coastline.

In some theatres, Periaktoi were fixed at

either end of the acting area. These were

large, tall prisms which could be revolved.

The different faces of the pillars could be

painted to depict a different location.

Some plays required an altar on the acting

area, in addition to the orchestra. This was

often used to represent a tomb.

Scenes that required a character to rise

from the earth utilised a small tunnel

under the acting area which led to a trap-

door.

There were also painted wooden statues of

each god available for use. These could be

dressed up and used on stage.

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As death was

never shown on

stage in Greek

Tragedy, the

corpse was often

shown to the

audience on

Ekkyklema – a

wheeled platform

which ran on

tracks from the

central door of

the Skene to the acting area. The death

scene was often displayed in a tableau.

The other principal staging effect was the

use of the Mechane – a crane by which

actors playing gods could fly in from above

the acting area and solve the problems of

the characters. This dramatic technique is

known as “Deus Ex Machina”.

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Props Personal and hand props may have been used

to indicate the nature of particular

characters. The king would carry a septre.

Travellers wore wide-brimmed hats. Heralds

would carry wreaths. The Furies would

carry lit torches. The gods would carry

their own emblems e.g. Zeus would carry a

thunderbolt and Poseidon would hold a

trident.

Costume and Masks The main garment worn by greek

men and women was the Chiton.

This was a rectangular piece of

undyed woollen cloth, wrapped

around the body and pinned at

the shoulders. It was then pinned

down the open side and belted. A

man’s chiton was usually knee-

length, woman’s to her ankles. A

woollen cloak called a Himation

was worn over the Chiton,

particularly in winter.

An actor wore the same basic costume,

usually with modifications for spectacle and

convenience. His Chiton and Himation were

long, highly coloured and embroidered with

rich designs to suit the character being

played. The Chiton was sewn rather than

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pinned, enabling faster changes.

It was fitted with long sleeves

to cover men’s hairy arms when

portraying a woman – as well

as to protect them from cold

when performing in winter.

Special costumes were made for

certain roles: There was a

recognised mourning costume, A

costume to symbolise foreigners

and a ragged costume for a

hero in distress.

Tragic actors usually wore soft,

high-topped boots on their feet.

All actors wore masks made of linen, cork

or wood. The masks were skilfully painted.

Light brown masks signified a male

character, white signified a female

character. They had hair and beads

attached a necessary. There were several

reasons for wearing masks:

Actors had to portray many different

roles on the stage

All actors were male, but had to portray

characters of both genders

The range of age and character types

played was vast

Masks made character changes instant

and distinctive.

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Acting: Voice and Movement From the fifth

century B.C., the

number of actors

in a greek

tragedy seems to

have been

restricted to

three. There were

“extras,” but these

roles were not considered to be real actors.

All actors were male and portrayed various

roles. Since masks hid their faces,

characterisation, mood and emotion had to

be conveyed through voice and movement.

Some passages were spoken unaccompanied,

some spoken to a flute accompaniment.

Choral passages were usually sung. Therefore,

an actor had to be able to speak, recite and

sing. Their voices had to be strong enough to

fill the vast theatre without straining, yet

with enough emotion and range to portray

characters from a young girl to a King or

God.

Gestures had to be obvious and broad. Some

common gestures were:

Opening the arms wide

Kneeling

Beating the breast

Pointing with the whole arm

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Yet none of these could look stiff or

awkward. Because of the size of the theatre,

delicate or subtle movement would have

been ineffective. The plays themselves also

refer to rapid movement – fighting, running,

escaping or wrestling. To counter the effect

of the masks, there may have been a range

of specific movement to symbolise kissing,

crying and smiling for example.

Historians are still

undecided on the

specific style of

acting used, as

there is not enough

definitive evidence

in the remaining

written works of

the time. The plays

often call for a

very naturalistic

approach – weeping,

arguing, romance.

However, there are

also strong

arguments for a

more stylised

approach – actors

would have to play

a range of characters in a short space of

time, there was regular musical elements in

the performances and some stories had an

abstract structure.

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However, what is clear is that the actors

had to engage the audience’s sympathy and

attention to achieve Catharsis.

The role of the Chorus From the fifth

century B.C., the

chorus numbered

fifteen. Usually,

they performed in

unison but, at

times, could be

divided into A

LEADER AND TWO

SEMI-CHORUSES OF

SEVEN. These might perform in turn, exchange

or divide speeches. The leader – The

Coryphaeus might have solo lines, engaging

in conversation with the main characters –

as seen in “Antigone.”

The Chorus usually entered after the

Prologue of a play, performing the parados

and remaining on stage until the end.

The chorus had many functions:

It was an actor in the Drama, expressing

opinions, giving advice, threatening to

interfere in the events of the play

It often established the ethical

framework of the play – expressing the

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playwright’s views and setting a

standard against which the characters

might be judged

It was frequently the ideal spectator,

reacting to events and characters in a

manner which the playwright would

like the audience to

It helped to set the mood and heighten

dramatic effects

It added colour, movement and spectacle.

Choral interludes were accompanied by

music and dance

It served an important rhythmic

function, pauses in which to look

backwards and forwards, contributing

to the overall emotional effect

The Chorus are absolutely essential in Greek

Drama. It is impossible to analyse a greek

play without examining the role of the

chorus. Every playwright utilised them in

different ways – but all to increase the

dramatic effect of their work.

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69

The key Themes of the Play There are many themes that permeate

“Antigone.” The play features a plot that

communicates a number of issues that are

pertinent to society – both Ancient greek

and contemporary. Some of the key themes

are outlined below.

PRIDE Throughout “Antigone” and indeed, Sophocles’

other plays – pride is a trait that is despised

by the gods and punishes without mercy:

The sons of Oedipus – Eteocles and

Polynices were too prideful because they

did not discuss what was best for Thebes.

They both believed they had the divine

right to rule. They both died in battle

against each other, leaving neither of

them with the throne.

Antigone is too prideful to obey the law

of the King, Creon. Instead of listening

to her ruler, Antigone buries her

brother anyway, condemning herself to

death.

Creon’s pride prompts him to turn

Polynices into a villain – despite both

he and Eteocles being guilty of the same

crime. Both men wanted to gain the

throne for their own benefit. Creon is

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corrupted by the same power that drove

the brothers into battle.

Even a lowly sentry can see what Creon

cannot. Denying burial to a man is a

crime that violates the religious laws

of the gods. The sentry suggests that the

gods buried polynices, which creon

dismisses. Creon is too prideful to realise

that he is the real criminal for making

a law that violates religious laws.

The chorus state that the laws of the

gods are greater than those of the city.

If a city wants to be prosperous, then

the king must obey the laws of the gods

whilst governing a city. Creon fails to

do this, ignoring their advice and is

punished by the gods in the end for his

prideful actions.

Creon’s pride not only makes him feel

superior to the Gods, he also feels he is

superior to women because he is a man.

Creon is insulted at the very thought

of a mere woman daring to disobey his

laws. His pride leads him to having no

respect for women.

Creon’s son, haemon gives advice to creon

that the citizens of Thebes do not want

Antigone to be condemned for what she

has done – stating that they are upset.

Creon ignores the desires of his citizens

as his pride makes him feel above their

needs and wants.

Creon’s cruel mocking of haemon isolates

his son, forcing him to run away and

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commit suicide. Creon’s pride causes him

to lose is only remaining son.

The Chorus sings about other people who

were victims of their pride: One man

tried to kill Danae’s son and was killed

for it; one man mocked Bacchus and was

torn apart by his own mother; another

man crossed paths with Zeus when he

could predict the future and was

punished.

Creon’s pride causes him to ignore the

wise advice of Tiresias, mocking the

prophet and accusing him of acting for

money. He is too stubborn to heed the

warnings given by the wise old man.

Creon finally puts his pride aside and

listens to the chorus’ wise advice. It is

difficult for him to do this, and even

then he is only doing it because he fears

the retribution of the gods.

The messenger suggests that Haemon

committed suicide because his own pride

stopped him from obeying his father’s

wishes. They argue that he died because

he was too prideful to follow his

father’s orders.

Creon’s pride eventually is gone when

he arrives at Antigone’s tomb to find

her and Haemon dead. He laments that

he has a new-found respect for the gods.

Creon is further humbled by his wife,

Eurydice’s suicide. He acknowledges that

his bad decisions led to the terrible end

for his family.

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The chorus mentions that great words

of haughty men bring great punishments

– emphasising that creon’s pride is the

main reason for his downfall.

DEATH Death features heavily in “Antigone” –

playing a central role in the plot:

Antigone’s family is filled with Death.

Her father Oedipus killed his own father

before he married his own mother. His

mother, Jocasta committed suicide. Oedipus

died in exile, ashamed of his crimes.

Antigone’s brothers, Polynices and

Eteocles died fighting each other in

battle.

The punishment laid down for burying

Polynices’ body is death. Ismene is afraid

that her sister, Antigone will die too if

she breaks the decree. Ismene is worried

that she will be the last of her family

alive.

Creon threatens the Sentry with death

if he does not find the culprit who

buried the body of Polynices.

When the sentry digs up Polynices,

Antigone rushes to the body to bury it

again – protecting it from harm. She

respects the dead.

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Antigone is angered by Creon’s decision to

pass a law that governs the dead.

Antigone believes that the laws of the

gods govern the dead – not the laws of

man.

Antigone believes that the dead cannot

rest until given a proper burial.

Creon condemns Antigone to death

without hesitation – claiming that if she

wants to be with Polynices, she should

go into the underworld with him.

When Antigone is condemned, Ismene

claims she helped her commit the crime as

she would rather die than live her life

without her sister.

Creon initially planned to execute both

Ismene and Antigone until the chorus

remind him of Ismene’s innocence.

Creon takes Death very lightly – he is

even willing to execute Antigone in

front of Haemon without worrying how

it would affect his son.

Antigone becomes obsessed with her own

death after she is condemned. She feels

that she can no longer see herself as

alive, as she is aware of her imminent

demise. She even goes as far as to say she

will marry the lord of death.

Antigone begins to long for her death, as

she believes she will be with her family

again in the underworld.

Tiresias chastises Creon for disrespecting

the dead as it goes against the laws of

the gods. Tiresias insists that creon

74

should allow Polynices to be buried and

that he should pardon Antigone as it is

a crime against the gods to bury a living

person alive.

Once creon’s own family is touched by

death, his disrespect for the dead quickly

disappears. The death of his son haemon

motivates him to change.

Haemon and Eurydice both commit suicide

– choosing death over life without loved

ones.

By the end of the play, Creon is so

distraught that he claims that he feels

like he has died.

Women As the events of the play are motivated by

the actions of a female character –

Antigone. Therefore, the role of women in

society is an important theme:

When Antigone tells her sister, ISmene

that she wishes to bury Polynices, Ismene

claims that as women, they have no

power to overthrow the laws of men.

Creon is astonished and outraged that a

woman in particular would disobey his

decree.

Creon makes particular reference to

Antigone being a woman when passing his

sentence. It could be argued that he gives

75

the death sentence out so easily because

a woman has disobeyed him.

Creon believes that women are inferior

to men – insisting that they can be

broken with a light bit – comparing them

to horses.

Creon believes that he will be mocked by

the people of thebes if he releases

Antigone – as woman got the better of

him.

Creon wants his son, Haemon to disrespect

Antigone by spitting on her. Haemon

however has the opposite view from his

father and respects Antigone.

Creon turns on Haemon when he learns

of his respect for women. He calls him a

woman’s slave.

The chorus lament about other women

in greek history who have suffered –

Danae, Pentheus’s Mother and Phineus’

wife. This draws more attention to the

fact that women are mistreated in greek

society.

Haemon dies for the woman he loves –

Antigone means that much to him.

Antigone firmly believes that women are

equal to men in the eyes of the gods.

76

Individual Vs.

Establishment Antigone is also a very good example of

the individual standing up against the

establishment.

Antigone stands up and rebels against

the law of thebes, set out by creon –

the king. She does this by burying

polynices’ body This means that she is an

individual taking on the establishment

of the royal family.

Ismene believes that no individual has

the power to stand up to the throne.

She believes that the establishment is

too strong.

Creon boldly proclaims that any man

who defends the state will be

rewarded by him in life and death –

supporting his view that the

establishment is more important than

the wants of any individual who

opposes it.

The sentry is forced to seize Antigone

to protect his own life after creon’s

threats. Therefore he is compelled as an

individual to follow the orders of the

establishment.

It could be argued that Creon is also

an individual who takes on the

77

establishment as he makes laws that

contradict the will of the gods.

When brought before Creon, Antigone

argues that the people of thebes are

too scared to stand up to Creon as

they are scared for their lives.

Antigone openly mocks the

establishment.

The chorus proclaim that Zeus and the

gods have the almighty power to

influence the lives of men – showing

that the established laws of the gods

are more powerful than the laws made

by a man.

Although Haemon tries to reason with

his father, he too rebels against him

and refuses to follow orders to

disrespect Antigone.

Before she dies, Antigone proclaims that

she hopes the Gods punish the men who

disrespect the laws.

Tiresias is angry that Creon is

disobeying the gods – warning him that

disrespecting the established laws of

Zeus will lead to his ruin.

Creon realises his mistaKES TOO LATE –

CLAIMING THAT IT IS BEST TO STICK TO THE

ESTABLISHED LAWS OF THE GODS.

Creon is ultimately punished for his

actions – losing his family.

78

79

Antigone Antigone appears at the very beginning of

the play with her sister, Ismene. She comes

across as a strong, fiery woman from her

first lines.

She immediately describes to the audience, all

of the disasters which have befallen her

family and the negative effect that Creon’s

decree will have. Antigone is distraught at

the death of both of her brothers and is

angry at creon’s decision to forbid Polynices’

burial.

She asks Ismene to help her bury their

brother, Polynices’ Body. She is determined

that nothing will stop her from doing this

final service for her brother. Ismene’s refusal

to help angers Antigone. This only serves to

make her more determined to go through

with the burial. In this Prologue, we discover

a number of personality traits that

Antigone possesses:

She is a devoted, loving sister

“And even if I die in the act, that death

will be a glory. I will lie with the one I

love and loved by him...” (86-87)

She is a very determined person

“You have your excuses. I am on my way. I

will raise a mound for him, for my dear

brother.” (94-95)

80

She is completely lacking in respect for

authority

“No, he [creon] has no right to keep me from

my own.” (59)

She can be impulsive and quick-tempered

“So, do as you like, whatever suits you best

– I will bury him myself” (84-85)

“Dear god, shout it from the rooftops. I’ll

hate you all the more for silence – tell the

world.” (100-101)

She believes that she is above being called

a traitor

“No-one will ever convict me for a traitor”

(57)

She is deeply religious

“I have longer to please the dead than please

the living here; in the kingdom down below

I’ll live forever” (87-90)

She can be very intolerant, cruel, callous

and unkind – particularly to Ismene

“I’d never welcome you in the labour, bot

with me” (83)

“Don’t fear for me, set you own life in order”

(97)

“If you say so, you will make me hate you,

and the hatred of the dead, by all rights,

will haunt you night and day” (108-110)

81

She is determined to do her duty

“I know I please where I must please the most”

(103)

She wants to be a martyr

“I will suffer nothing as great as death

without glory!” (111-112)

In this prologue, Sophocles wants his audience

to make a comparison between Antigone and

Ismene. To a greek audience, the weaker and

obedient character of Ismene would have

been more acceptable and vastly preferable

to the self-willed and determined Antigone.

The greeks would not have liked this

portrayal of a woman as their society still

placed women beneath men. The audience

would definitely have no sympathy for

Antigone at this point.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Would a modern audience react differently to these

characters? Why?

2. How do you feel about the two sisters?

3. Which do you admire most, and why?

82

Antigone is next seen when she is dragged in

front of creon by the sentry for committing

her crime. During their argument, Creon tries

to point out that Eteocles was her brother

too and died a hero – unlike Polynices who

he believes to be a traitor. Creon accuses

Antigone of not showing loyalty to Eteocles.

Antigone refutes this claim and stays

loyal to both brothers.

“Death longs for the same rites for all” (584)

She believes that her love for her

brothers prevents her from hating

Polynices or Eteocles.

“I was born to join in love, not hate – that

is my nature” (590)

When Ismene tries to die with Antigone,

we again see Antigone’s ability to be cold

and cruel

“Who did the work? Let the dead and the

god of death bear witness! I have no love

for a friend who loves in words alone.” (610-

612)

And again…

“Never share my dying, don’t lay claim to

what you never touched. My death will be

enough.” (615-617)

While the audience might tend to agree

with Antigone at this point in the play, it

83

can be argued that she chose a very cruel,

cold way of answering Ismene’s plea to die

alongside her.

Antigone accuses Ismene of being on

creon’s side.

“Ask Creon. Your concern is all for him.” (619)

Antigone does seem to relent a little as

the scene progresses – encouraging ismene

to live her life.

“Courage! Live you life. I gave myself to

death, long ago, so I might serve the dead.”

(630-631)

Antigone’s final appearance is when she is

onstage with the chorus as she prepares to

be taken out to die.

Antigone dwells on the sorry

circumstances of late

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Do you sympathise with Antigone in this episode?

2. Do you feel that Antigone truly wants Ismene to live

her life, or is she just trying to keep the martyrdom to

herself?

3. What are Antigone’s most and least desirable qualities

in this episode?

84

“Look at me, men of my fatherland, setting

out on the last road, looking into the last

light of day. The last I will ever see” (900-

903)

The chorus try to hearten her by telling

her that at least she is still attractive and

that she is not dying of some horrible illness

or act of violence that would spoil her

looks. Antigone is unconsoled by this, and

feels sorry for herself. Eventually, the

chorus claim that she is responsible for her

own demise because of her actions. They also

bring up that she is being punished for the

sins of her father, Oedipus.

Antigone clings to this

“There – at last you’ve touched it, the worst

pain the worst anguish! Raking up the grief

of the father three times over, for all the

doom that’s struck us down, the brilliant

house of Laius.” (947-950)

Antigone then plays on the audience’s

sympathies…

“No-one to weep for me, my friends”

In her final speech, she welcomes death

as she is looking forward to seeing her

family once more

“But still I go, cherishing one good hope; my

arrival may be dear to father…Nevertheless

I honoured you – the decent will admit it –

well and wisely too.” (985-994)

85

She also shows her deep affection for the

‘blood’ family

“Never, I tell you, if I had been the mother

of children or if my husband died exposed

and rotting – I’d never have taken this

ordeal upon myself” (995-998)

She justifies this statement…

“A husband dead, there might have been

another. A child by another too, if I’d lost

the first. But mother and father both lost

in the halls of death. No brother could ever

spring to light again.” (1001-1004)

Antigone is claiming that she values her

brother more than her husband or her own

children (if she had some one day).

She then decries Creon, who is now

onstage. She refuses to accept that there

are two sides to the story.

“What law of the gods have I transgressed?

Why look to the heavens any more,

tormented as I am?” (1013-1014)

Antigone also wishes a terrible fate on

her enemies

“But if these men are wrong, let them

suffer…these masters of injustice” (1019-1021)

Despite her show of strength, it can be

argues that she shows fear of death at

the end

86

“Oh god, the voice of death. It’s come, it’s here”

(1025)

Antigone’s last words are a plea to the

gods

“Look on me, you noble sons of thebes – the

last of a great line of kings, I alone, see

what I suffer now at the hands of what

breed of men – all for reverence, my

reverence for the gods!” (1030)

STUDY QUESTIONS

Antigone spends much of this last scene bemoaning her

fate.

1. Do you feel sorry for her? Remember that she had the

choice of martyrdom

2. Do you feel that Antigone is dying for a good cause?

3. How do you think she truly feels?

87

Creon In many ways, the character of creon is

similar to Antigone. After all, they are blood

relatives. He is the brother of Antigone’s

mother, Jocasta. Creon shares many of

Antigone’s faults. In the end, Creon is proven

to be in the wrong however.

As an audience, we first hear about creon

before he actually appears. Antigone and

Ismene discuss him during the prologue. It is

clear that he is feared by ismene and hated

by Antigone for his decree.

In Creon’s opening speech to the chorus, he

makes it clear that the country needs a

stable, sensible leader – and that he is the

man for the job.

Creon shows immense patriotism – putting

his country above all else

“And whoever places a friend above the good

of his own country, he is nothing.” (203-205)

He places the highest importance on the

stability of the country

“I could never stand by silent, watching

destruction march against our city, putting

safety to rout, nor could I ever make a man

a friend of mine who menaces our country.

Remember this: our country is our safety.”

(207-211)

88

Creon is establishing himself as the saviour

of thebes from the war-mongering of

Polynices. This is despite the fact that

Polynices was supposed to be king, and

Eteocles illegally seized the throne.

Creon does not believe that his decree is an

affront to the gods. He believes that it is

his right to make the laws.

Creon places a great deal of importance

on his principles. He is determined that

his will is carried out without question

“These are my principles. Never at my hands

will the traitor be honoured above the

patriot.” (232-233)

Creon warns his chorus to be vigilant –

he appears to distrust his people,

believing that some may disobey him for

monetary gain.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Do you feel that Creon is a just ruler?

2. Would you act differently, considering the situation?

3. Is it possible to admire Creon’s patriotism?

89

“Death is the price – you’re right. But all

too often the mere hope of money has

ruined many men.” (247-248)

Creon mentions money as a corrupting

influence on a number of occasions in the

play. This could be a device used by

Sophocles to make comment on corruption

in Athens.

Whilst the sentry offers some light

comic relief upon entering, creon’s

temper quickly appears...

“Come to the point! What’s wrong – why so

afraid?” (266-267)

“Out with it – then dismiss” (276)

When the chorus suggests that the

burial of polynices might be the work

of the displeased gods, creaon quickly

shows his lack of respect. He is obsessed

with the idea of Polynices’ guilt.

“Stop! Before you make me choke with anger

– the gods! You, you’re senile, must you be

insane? You say – why it’s intolerable – say

the gods could have the slightest concern

for that corpse?...exactly when did you last

see the Gods celebrating traitors?

Inconceivable!” (317-327)

90

Creon begins to show initial signs of

paranoia – believing that someone may

have bribed his soldiers to bury

polynices.

“They’ve perverted my own guard, bribed

them to do their work.” (333-334)

Creon shows his ruthless capacity for

cruelty when he threatens the

innocent sentry who had to deliver the

bad news to the king.

“If you don’t find the man who buried that

corpse…and produce hum before my eyes,

simple death won’t be enough for you, not

till we string you up alive and wring the

immortality out of you.” (346-350)

Whilst modern audiences may find creon to

be cruel, ancient greeks would expect a

king to behave in such a way to a lowly

sentry.

Creon’s paranoia is further shown when

he accuses the sentry of acting for

money – allowing the corpse to be

buried on his watch by turning a blind

eye.

“Yes you did – what’s more you squandered

your life for silver!” (364-365)

“If you fail to produce the criminals for

me, you’ll swear your dirty money brought

you pain” (369-370)

91

Notice Creon’s obsession with money again –

he is convinced that everyone is acting

against him for profit.

Creon is next scene in Episode 2, where he

confronts Antigone about her crimes.

At the beginning of the scene, he is

determined to show that he is a just

ruler by determining her guilt before the

chorus

“Do you deny you did this, yes or no?” (491)

He also wants to establish that Antigone

knew of the decree before she acted –

cementing her guilt

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What are Creon’s admirable traits?

2. Would you consider him to be a strong leader? Why?

3. Why do you think Creon believes that everyone has

betrayed him for money?

4. Why do you think he is so obsessed with Polynices’ guilt?

5. Compare Creon to Antigone – they completely believe in

their own cause. Could their similarities be the main

barrier to finding a solution to the problems they face?

92

“Were you aware that a decree had

forbidden this?” (496)

Once he has established her guilt and

listened to her reasons for burying

polynices, Creon asserts his authority as

a king – and a man

“There’s no room for pride;not in a slave, not

with the lord and master standing by” (534-

535)

“I am not the man, not now; she is the man

if the victory goes to her and she goes free.”

(541-542)

Creon confirms that he will not go easy

on Antigone, just because she is his blood

relative

“Never! Sister’s child or closer in blood than

all my family clustered at my alter

worshipping guardian zeus – she’ll never

escape” (543-545)

Despite appearing to be a fair ruler at

the beginning of the scene, he displays his

cruelty when he accuses ismene of being

part of antigone’s plot

“She and her blood sister, the most barbaric

death. Yes, I accuse her sister of an equal

part…” (546-547)

Creon’s paranoia is again on show, as his

reasons for accusing Ismene are based

only on seeing her upset in the palace

93

“It never fails; the mind convicts itself in

advance, when scoundrels are up to no good,

plotting in the dark.” (550-552)

Creon ignores the fact that Antigone

protests that Ismene had nothing to do with

the crime. Haemon also re-affirms this later

in the play. He is too stubborn and full of

pride to change his mind once he has said it.

He does not even ask the chorus – the

citizens what they think.

Creon accuses Antigone of loving Eteocles

more than Polynices. Refusing to accept

that they were both worthy of a burial

“Never the same for the patriot and the

traitor.” (585)

“Once an enemy, never a friend, not even

after death.” (588-589)

Creon is also unsympathetic towards

Antigone. He is determined to see her die,

emphasising again that he is outraged

that a woman has disobeyed him

“Go down below and love, if love you must

- love the dead! While I’m alive, no woman

is going to lord it over me” (591-593)

Creon then turns on Ismene and launches

into a cruel attack – accusing her based

only on his own opinion, with no proof

94

“you viper, slinking undetected sucking my

life-blood. I never knew I was breeding twin

disasters, the two of you rising up against

my throne.” (598-601)

Creon mocks the sisters, accusing them of

insanity

“They’re both mad, I tell you, the two of

them” (632)

Even when Ismene attempts to persuade

Creon to spare Antigone’e life due to her

relationship with Haemon, creon remains

cold and unsympathetic

“There are other fields for him to plow” (642)

“A worthless woman for my son? It repels me.”

(644)

Throughout this episode, we can see how

quickly creon can jump to conclusions. He

displays his capacity for cruelty, his

tendency to over-exaggerate and his

unwavering obsession with his own power.

We also see his disrespect for women.

However, he also shows that he can be fair

– ensuring that Antigone is guilty before

passing his sentence. He also refuses to let his

family relationship with her to cloud his

judgement,

95

Creon is next seen in Episode 3, when his son

Haemon arrives to plead with him.

Creon’s greeting to his son holds a thinly

veiled warning

“Son, you’ve heard the final verdict on your

bride? Are you coming now, raving against

your father? Or do you love me, no matter

what I do?” (706-708)

When Haemon responds respectfully, Creon is

pleased. This is the expected response of a son

in the fifth century B.c.

Creon justifies his treatment of Antigone

to his son

“I’m not about to prove myself a liar. Not to

my people, no, I’m going to kill her!” (733-734)

“Why, if I bring up my own kin to be rebels,

think what I’d suffer from the world at

large” (737-738)

Creon’s reasoning is what is expected of

a strong king – he is putting the state

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What do you think about Creon’s actions in this scene?

2. Do you think he could have been less harsh on the

sisters?

3. What could he have done if he didn’t want to back

down?

96

ahead of his own family. He emphasises

the severity of a crime against the state

“Anarchy – Show me a greater crime in all

the earth! She, she destroys cities, rips up

houses, breaks the ranks of spearmen into

headlong rout” (751-753)

He once again refers to the inferior

status of women in society to justify his

actions

“Better to fall from power, if fall we must,

at the hands of a man – never be rated

inferior to a woman, never.” (759-761)

When the chorus urges creon to listen

to haemon after his son pleads for

Antigone’s life; creon shows his

stubbornness and pride

“So, men our age, we’re to be lectured are

we? Schooled by a boy his age?” (813-814)

Haemon then tries to use a different

tact, letting creon know that the people

of thebes don’t agree with his sentence.

Creon is still stubborn

“And is Thebes to tell me how to rule?” (821)

Creon now loses his temper and turns on

Haemon – hurling vicious insults at his

own son

“Why you degenerate…” (831)

“You, you soul of corruption, rotten through

– woman’s accomplice” (836-837)

97

Even when haemon threatens creon with

his own suicide, creon does not believe

him. He believes that it is a threat

against the throne

“You’ll suffer for your sermons, you and

your empty wisdom” (846)

“Now, by heaven, I promise you, you’ll pay…”

(850)

Creon’s anger leads him to a very

extreme action

“She’ll die know, here in front of his eyes,

beside her groom!” (853)

Even after haemon’s impassioned exit, creon is

unrepentant. He threatens to execute ismene

as well, but changes his mind when the

chorus reminds him of her innocence. He ends

the episode by passing his sentence on

Antigone – she is to be walled up alive.

In this episode, creon expects complete

loyalty from his son. This was in keeping

with the society of the fifth century B.c.

Even when haemon tries to reason with his

father, creon is not willing to listen.

98

Creon next appears at the end of episode

four, as Antigone is finishing her farewell

speech to the chorus.

Creon shows no sympathy for Antigone,

even as she is led to her death.

“True. Not a word of hope – your doom is

sealed” (1026)

Then in Episode 5, creon is confronted by the

blind prophet, Tiresias.

Creon initially greets Tiresias with

respect, acknowledging that he owes

Tiresias for his prophecies in the past

“I owe you a great deal, I swear to that”

(1098)

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. How might a modern audience react differently to Creon’s

treatment of Haemon?

2. Does this type of passionate argument still exist between

fathers and sons?

3. Do fathers still expect the same loyalty and obedience

from their sons?

4. Is it still a social norm for sons to respect their fathers?

Why?

5. Why do you think Creon reacts so negatively to Haemon?

99

Despite welcoming Tiresias’ prophecies, he

quickly changes when the prophet criticises

his decree.

Creon launches a tirade at Tiresias

“Old man – all of you! So, you shoot your

arrows at my head like archers at the

target” (1144-1145)

Creon’s fury leads to him committing

blasphemy during his rant

“You’ll never bury that body in the grave.

Not even if Zeus’ eagles rip the corpse and

wing their rotten pickings of to the throne

of god! Never, not even in fear of such

defilement will I tolerate his burial…” (1151-

1155)

Creon then insults Tiresias – accusing him

of trying to make money from getting

involved – insinuating corruption

“You and the whole breed of seers are mad

for money!” (1171)

After Tiresias is forced to prophesise creon’s

and thebes’ demise, creon finally relents. This

is after the old blind seer has left.

Creon still hesitates to change his mind

however – even after such fearful

prophecies

“I know it myself – I’m shaken, torn. It’s a

dreadful thing to yield…but resist now? Lay

100

my pride bare to the blows of ruin? That’s

dreadful too.” (1218-1221)

The chorus finally persuade creon to take

tiresias’ advice. He sets off at once to free

Antigone and bury polynices - afraid of the

wrath of the gods. However, he is too late.

In the Exodos, creon is a broken man,

carrying in the body of his son, haemon.

Creon shows deep regret for his actions

and takes the blame for Haemon’s death

“So senseless, so insane…my crimes. My stubborn,

deadly – look at us, the killer, the killed.

My plans, my mad fanatic heart. My son, cut

off so young!...not through your stupidity, no,

my own.” (1393-1399)

Creon’s fall from grace is made worse by

the news of his wife’s suicide. He prays

for his own death from the gods

“Come, let it come! – the best of fates for me

that bring the final day, best fate of all.

Oh quickly now – so I never have to see

another sunrise” (1449-1452)

Creon is finally led off by the chorus, unable

to walk from his grief.

101

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. How do you feel about Creon in this scene?

2. Do you feel sympathy for him? Why?

3. Do you feel that he has got what he deserves?

4. Are the gods right to punish him the way that they have?

102

Sentry The sentry appears in two episodes in the

play – episodes 1 & 2. In contrast to the other

tragic characters in the play, he is a

working class man and may have even been

portrayed as slightly comical or light-

hearted when performed to ancient greek

audiences.

From his first entrance, we can see that

the Sentry is not happy about having to

appear in front of creon

“I can’t say I’m winded from running, or set

out with any spring in my legs either” (250)

Despite having second thoughts about

coming to creon with his bad news, he

talked himself into coming

“But at last, Look, common sense won out”

(260)

As soon as Creon questions him, the sentry

attempts to absolve himself of any guilt

“I didn’t do it, didn’t see who did” (269)

The sentry also creates suspense – setting

up the delivery of his news

“Dangerous too, and danger makes you delay

for all you’re worth” (275)

At Creon’s urging, the sentry is forced to

come out with it. Creon is growing

103

impatient. The sentry instantly tries to

lessen the seriousness of the crime

“Not that it’s buried really, just a light

cover of road dust on it” (290)

The sentry once again tries to absolve

himself and his colleagues of any wrong-

doing

“All of us pleading ignorance” (299)

After Creon loses his temper and accuses

the sentry of corruption, he commands

the sentry to find the culprit or face

the consequences. However, the sentry

does not accept his fate and go

“Please, may I say a word or two, or just

turn and go?” (358)

He tries to ascertain how deep creon’s

anger is

“Where does it hurt you, in the ears or in

the heart?” (359)

“The culprit grates on your feelings, I just

annoy the ears” (362)

He also refutes creon’s claims of

corruption

“Oh, it’s terrible when the one who does the

judging, judges things all wrong” (367)

When creon exits, the sentry vows not

to come back after barely escaping with

his life

104

“I’ll never come back, you’ve seen the last of

me” (373)

However, at the beginning of episode 2, the

sentry returns with Antigone under arrest.

He eats his words…

“Second thoughts make liars of us all” (430)

Rather than coming by choosing lot, the

sentry has returned of his own volition

– claiming the glory for catching the

culprit

“This is my luck, my prize, no-one else’s” (438)

The sentry even becomes slightly cocky

when creon asks him if he is telling the

truth

“She’s the one. With my own eyes I saw her

bury the body, just what you’ve forbidden.

There. Is that plain and clear?” (449)

When describing how Antigone was

caught, he shows no sympathy for her

“We rushed her, closed in on the kill like

hunters” (481)

He was also astonished by antigone’s

openness after being captured

“She stood up to it all, denied nothing, I tell

you. It made me ache and laugh in the same

breath” (485)

105

He does show a glimpse of regret

“It hurts a man to bring down his friends”

(487)

However the sentry reveals that it was

all done to save his own skin

“But all that, I’m afraid means less to me

than my own skin” (489)

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. The sentry is described by some as a ‘clever fool’ – do you

agree? Why?

2. How does the Sentry act differently in the two scenes?

3. Is he a coward or brave? Why?

4. How does he feel about Creon?

5. Would you play him as a comedy character?Why?

106

Haemon Haemon appears alive in only one scene –

Episode 3, but we learn a great deal about

him from this confrontation with his father.

From Haemon’s very first speech, we can

see that he is a respectful, loving son

to Creon. This is a typical fifth century

B.C. son.

“Father, I’m your son…you in your wisdom

set my bearings for me – I obey you. No

marriage could ever mean more to me than

you, whatever good direction you may

offer” (709-712)

Haemon very tactfully attempts to let

creon know that the people of thebes

are on Antigone’s side

“She [Antigone] deserves a glowing crown of

gold!” (782)

He still shows respect for Creon at this

point, saying that Creon’s success means

a lot to him

“Nothing more precious to me in the world”

(785)

However, Haemon is not blind to his

father’s faults, despite respecting him

“Now don’t please, be quite so single-minded,

self-involved or assume the world is wrong

and you are right” (788-790)

107

He also urges creon to listen to the

older and wiser citizens if he won’t

listen to his youthful son

“It’s best to learn from those with good

advice” (809)

Haemon’s reasoned argument is so

convincing that the chorus offer their

support for him. They also ask him to listen

to his father, as there are two sides to the

story.

Creon refuses to listen to Haemon and

accuses him of acting only in Antigone’s

interest. Haemon argues against this

“If you are a woman, yes – my concern is

all for you” (829-830)

Haemon worries that his father has

angered the gods. He once again swears

his loyalty to his father

“That may be, but you will never find me

an accomplice to a criminal” (837-838)

Haemon’s love for Antigone leads him to

threaten suicide if creon doesn’t relent

“Then she will die…but her death will kill

another” (843)

Creon goads Haemon into responding to

his insults

108

“If you weren’t my father, I’d say you were

insane” (847)

He also stands up for himself

“You really expect to fling abuse at me

and not receive the same?” (848-849)

When creon makes the extreme threat

of killing Antigone in front of Haemon,

we see Haemon becoming more distressed.

His parting lines show how much his

feelings towards his father have

changed

“And you will never see me, never set eyes

on my face again. Rage your heart out,

rage with friends who can stand the sight

of you” (856-859)

Throughout this scene, we see that Haemon

tries very hard to control his anger and

his emotions. He tries to remain respectful

of his father, and is genuinely proud of his

achievements. He wants creon to see reason,

and is willing to tell the truth. He knows

his father’s short-comings but tries to

appeal to his better qualities as a leader.

However, he is drawn into a mud-slinging

match when Creon reacts selfishly and

stubbornly.

109

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. How do you feel about Haemon? Why?

2. Could he have approached the situation differently?

3. Was his suicide justified/necessary?

4. Do you feel that he loves Creon more than Antigone? Or

Vice Versa?

110

Ismene Although she shares her sister’s tragic

background, Ismene has reacted very

differently to them. She does not seem to

have the same passion for self-destruction

than Antigone – however she does not also

seem to have the same courage.

We first meet Ismene in the prologue, where

she is brought by Antigone to a secret

meeting.

Ismene does not seem to be as ‘in the loop’

as Antigone about recent events

“I know nothing more, whether our luck’s

improved or ruin’s still to come” (20-21)

When Antigone asks for her help to bury

Polynices, it takes a moment for Ismene

to realise exactly what her sister

intends to do. She is horrified.

“What? You’d bury him – when a law forbids

the city?” (53-54)

She desperately wants Antigone to

reconsider and tries to persuade her. She

warns Antigone to remember their place

in society as women

“Remember we are women, we’re not born to

contend with men” (74-75)

111

Ismene then reminds Antigone of their

standing in society

“Then too, we’re underlings, ruled by much

stronger hands, so we submit in this” (75-77)

Despite being upset at Creon’s decree,

ismene ends her speech by accepting that

she must follow Creon’s orders

“I must obey the ones who stand in power”

(79-80)

Ismene believes that it is madness for

Antigone to stand up against creon. When

Antigone turns on her and accuses her of

dishonouring the gods, ismene doesn’t agree.

She admits that she has no strength to fight

creon and tries once more to convince

Antigone. However, her sister won’t listen.

After Antigone has stormed off, ismene

once again shows her love for her sister

“Then go if you must, but rest assured, wild,

irrational as you are my sister. You are

truly dear to the ones who love you” (114-

116)

112

The second and final time we see Ismene is

in Episode 2, when she is hauled in front of

Creon, with Antigone beside her. Ismene is

accused by Creon of being part of the crime,

due to seeing her distressed inside the

palace.

Upon being accused, Ismene does not

plead innocence

“I share the guilt, the consequences too”

(603-604)

She pleads with Antigone to let her

share the consequences and punishment

“Oh my sister, don’t reject me please. Let me

die beside you, consecrating the dead

together” (613-615)

She also blames creon for driving them

to commit this ‘mad’ crime

“commit cruelty on a person long enough

and the mind begins to go” (636-637)

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. We can see the difference between Antigone and Ismene

in this episode. How do you feel about Ismene?

2. Which sister do you admire the most? Why?

3. Which sister do you think the Ancient Greek audience

admired most? Why?

4. Could Ismene have done more to stop Antigone?

113

She is horrified by Creon’s decision to

kill his son’s fiancée

“What? You’d kill your own son’s bride?”

Ismene’s protests are heard by deaf ears.

Creon refuses to change his mind, and

condemns Antigone to death. Antigone

disowns her sister and rejects her plea to

join her in death. Ismene is dragged out in

a distressed state at the end of the episode.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Ismene wants to die for her beliefs, but wasn’t willing to

commit the crime. What does this tell you about her as a

person?

2. She insists that her life is nothing without her sister. Is this

weakness or love? Why?

3. How do you feel about Ismene in this episode? Why?

4. Why do you think Ismene brings up Antigone’s betrothal

to Haemon?

5. Why does Ismene plead for her sister but not for herself?

6. Does your opinion of Ismene change in this episode from

the first episode?

7. Is Antigone’s treatment of Ismene cruel? Why?

114

115

Prologue (Pages 59-64) Why would the Prologue be important in

any production of the play?

Provides context of play and gives background

to the action/storyline

In the first speech there is mention of Oedipus and his continuing influence over the fortunes of his daughters, Antigone and Ismene.

Ismene recalls how her father and mother died.

We learn that Thebes has been at war with a neighbouring state. Antigone’s brothers have killed each other fighting on opposite sides, Eteocles defending Thebes, while Polynices led the attack.

We learn also that Thebes is ruled by a military commander. On the day of the action of the play, Creon has become King.

Creon has issued a decree to state that Polynices was a traitor and must not be given proper burial.

Begins the Plot

The audience become aware that Antigone plans to

bury the body of Polynices despite the decree by

Creon.

This is important because in Episode 2 and at the

beginning of Episode 3, the audience know more about

what has happened than do the Chorus and

principal characters. The Prologue is the only scene

which happens in private. The Prologue prepares the

audience for what is about to happen.

116

Introduces Key Characters

Antigone is the title character and is introduced

in the Prologue. She has the first lines. The

Prologue establishes her character as she shows

herself to be a determined, rebellious and

courageous character who is willing to sacrifice

herself for her ideals and for her loyalty to her

brother. The Prologue therefore shows her

motivation.

Ismene is also introduced and shown to be a

contrast to her sister. She represents the

stereotypical Greek female and this is shown

through her speech where she says, ‘remember we

are women, we’re not born to contend with men’.

The Prologue establishes the contrasting characters

of the two sisters.

Creon does not appear on stage but he is talked

about and vital clues to his character are

revealed in the Prologue. He is in authority and

expects to be obeyed. His motivation is suggested.

Establishing Central Themes & Issues

The central theme of family loyalty and

individual conscience versus loyalty to the state

is introduced.

Also established is the importance of the Gods to

the ancient Greeks and the influence of the Gods

on the actions and fates of all the characters in

the play.

Although the role of women would not have been

an issue at the time the play was written, it

could be highlighted as relevant to an audience

of today as this is a contemporary issue.

117

DIRECTING THE PROLOGUE

As a director, how will you ensure that your audience understand

the background to the play? Ancient Greeks would have been

familiar with the Oedipus myth.

Will your production establish or suggest a setting other than

ancient Greece BC?

How will it introduce your own directorial concepts? What are they

How do you want the audience to feel towards Antigone? How will

this affect the acting of her character?

How do you want the audience to feel towards Ismene? How will

this affect the acting of the character?

What kind of relationship between the sisters would you want to

create?

What attitude towards Creon would you want each sister to

suggest?

118

Episode 1 (Pages 69-75) Why would Episode 1 be important in any

production of the play?

Develops the plot

Creon delivers his decree about the burial of

Polynices’ body which the audience have heard

Antigone and Ismene discussing. His long opening

speech and subsequent instructions to the Chorus

make clear how determined he is to be obeyed.

This gives even more dramatic impact to what the

audience already know about Antigone’s

intentions.

The Sentry enters and tells Creon that someone

has tried to bury the body. The audience know

who. Creon is furious and restates the importance

of loyalty to state and king, and declares his

intention to punish whoever did the deed.

Establishes conflict/contrast between Antigone and

Creon, as Antigone is motivated by loyalty to her

family and individual conscience; Creon is

motivated by loyalty to the state and by the

desire to establish his authority. Both are

motivated by allegiance to the Gods but perceive

the wishes of the Gods in different ways. Creon

feels that the Gods would be offended if a traitor

like Polynices was given a proper burial, whereas

Antigone feels that it would be an abomination

to them to leave a body unburied.

119

Further Illustration of Themes & Issues

Loyalty to state and king is the main theme of

the episode and the audience know that this is in

conflict with Antigone’s individual conscience and

loyalty to her family.

The importance and influence of the Gods is again

shown through Creon’s desire to please the Gods

and his swearing by them ‘I swear to Zeus, as I

still believe in Zeus…’

Development of Characters & relationships

Creon’s first appearance on stage - Episode 1 allows

the audience to see Creon’s character for

themselves and to learn of his motivation through

his inaugural speech to the citizens of Thebes. In

his speech Creon states his values and his

intentions as a ruler. His motivation is to

establish his authority and command the loyalty

of the people. His attitude to those who serve him

is shown by his ruthless and perhaps unfair

treatment of the Sentry.

Introduces the Sentry. Although the Sentry is

used for the purpose of giving information to

Creon and thus advancing the plot, he does convey

some personality. It is possible to use him as a

local character with whom the audience can

identify and/or to provide a little light relief by

portraying him as a slightly comic character

without losing the importance of what he says.

His circumlocution (roundabout way of saying

things, long-windedness) is helpful to

characterisation.

120

Develops the role of the chorus

The delivery of the Leader’s lines and the acting

of the individual chorus members can communicate

to the audience the attitude of the citizens

towards Creon at the beginning of the play, and

their reaction to what the Sentry tells him.

DIRECTING EPISODE 1

How does this episode develop your overall directorial

interpretation?

How do you want the audience to feel towards Creon? How will

this affect the acting of the character?

What relationship do you want to create between Creon and the

Sentry, and also between Creon and the Chorus?

Will your directing and/or set establish the difference in status

between Creon and the Sentry/the Chorus?

How will you want the Sentry to be acted?

121

Episode 2 (Pages 79-90) Why would Episode 2 be important in any

production of the play? Develops the plot

Often taken to be the key scene of Antigone

because it is so important in terms of plot

development and character development, thus

creating dramatic tension. It is the only episode

which features four characters, three of whom

are on stage at the same time.

The Sentry brings in Antigone. She has been caught

trying to bury the body. This is the pivot of the

plot. The audience have been waiting for this.

Creon discovers from the Sentry what Antigone has

done. She has broken his decree.

First confrontation of central characters -

conflict of motivation. This creates dramatic

tension. The status and potential dominance of

each character is important throughout the

episode.

Ismene mentions that Antigone is to be married to

Creon’s son, Haemon, and so the audience are made

aware that this too could cause a conflict of

loyalty and might affect the development of the

plot.

Further Illustration of Themes & Issues

This episode centres on the conflict of loyalties of

the two central characters.

It also features many references to the importance

and influence of the Gods.

The role and expectation of women are again

highlighted through Creon’s dialogue, as in his

remark about Haemon being deprived of Antigone,

‘There are other fields for him to plough…’

122

Development of characters & Relationships

Antigone

shows her loyalty to her brother

displays her fearlessness and stubbornness

shows her attitude to Creon

shows her changing relationship with Ismene -

attacks her at first

shows her desire to make the Chorus understand

and accept her actions.

Creon

shows his loyalty to his state and his belief in his

own authority

also shows his assumption of family loyalty to him

from his nieces and from his son

could suggest the beginning of Creon’s downfall or

his potential paranoia, depending on the direction

of the scene

shows his attitude to and relationship with

Antigone

shows his attitude to and relationship with Ismene

shows his attitude to women.

Ismene

shows her change of heart and greater strength

of character

shows family loyalty to Antigone

continues to show a contrast to Antigone’s

character and to represent the stereotypical Greek

woman

shows her changing relationship with Antigone

shows her attitude to and relationship with

Creon.

123

Develops the role of the chorus

The Chorus is important as both Antigone and

Creon try to get the Chorus to side with them.

Also the Chorus show the reaction of the ‘man in

the street’ to what has happened.

Develops the role of the Sentry

The Sentry is crucial both to the reporting of off-

stage action and the building up of dramatic

tension between the central characters as he tells

Creon what Antigone did. He is vital to the plot

and development of the play.

124

DIRECTING EPISODE 2

As a director, how will you build and realise the dramatic tension in

this episode?

How does this episode develop your overall directorial

interpretation of the play? Do you want the audience to

sympathise more with Antigone or with Creon or to have

ambivalent feelings? How might you achieve this?

How will you show the dominance and status of the different

characters in this episode?

What would be Antigone’s attitude and how would this be shown

when she is brought in and when she is listening to first the Sentry

and then to Creon?

What relationship would you want to develop between Antigone

and Creon? How will this affect the acting?

How will you direct the Sentry to ensure that his storytelling is

compelling? You will need to ensure that the audience don’t feel

that they want him out of the way so that they can see the

confrontation between Antigone and Creon. How will you do this?

What attitudes and sympathies do you want the Chorus to have

and how will you communicate this to the audience?

125

Episode 3 (Pages 93-100) Why would Episode 3 be important in any

production of the play?

Develops the plot

Introduces Haemon - his only appearance in the

play, although he is mentioned earlier and again

later by other characters and by the Chorus. He

is important because he is Creon’s son, so his

interaction with his father reveals as much about

Creon as it does about Haemon. He is used as a

contrast to Creon.

Haemon tries to reason with his father, pleads for

Antigone whom he is to marry, but fails to

convince Creon. The end of the episode signals

another tragedy/death.

Episode 3 reveals how Creon is going to kill

Antigone and points to Creon’s growing paranoia -

even his son is defying him.

Further Illustration of Themes & Issues

Theme of family loyalty is further developed as

the relationship between father and son is

revealed. Creon expects his son to obey him out of

family loyalty which in turn means that Haemon

is also being loyal to the state, given that Creon

is the state.

Influence of the Gods features in the dialogue of

both main characters. Haemon claims that ‘only

the Gods endow a man with reason’ and Creon

suggests that Antigone can ‘sing her hymns to Zeus’

as she pleads for mercy. Also the role of women is

highlighted as Creon insults Haemon, accusing him

of being a ‘woman’s accomplice’ and a ‘woman’s

slave’.

126

Development of characters & Relationships

Haemon

shows loyalty to his father initially

displays intelligence and a rational approach at

first and a good understanding of what his

father expects from him; understands Creon’s need

for flattery and loyalty

shows sustained and greater loyalty to Antigone

shows that he has the courage to go against his

father

shows emotion and bravery at the end of the

episode.

Creon

Sophocles uses Haemon to show the audience more

of Creon’s character and to offer a contrast

between the two

becomes more paranoid and exhibits double

standards when he expects family loyalty from

Haemon but does not respect it in Antigone.

Develops the role of the chorus

Both Haemon and Creon try to convince the

Chorus of their point of view. The Leader appears

to see merit in both arguments.

127

DIRECTING EPISODE 3

How does this episode develop your overall interpretation of the

play?

How will you build up the dramatic tension in the episode? Do you

want the audience to think that Haemon is right and sympathise

with him? Or do you want the audience to feel sorry for Creon

when his son goes against him?

How will you want Haemon to be acted in order for his character to

develop from the rational, calm son to the angry and upset young

man who storms out at the end of the episode?

How will you want Creon to act towards Haemon?

Will the characters have close physical contact?

128

Episode 4 (Pages 101-107) Why would Episode 4 be important in any

production of the play?

Develops the plot

Antigone’s third and final scene. Note that

Antigone has three scenes whereas Creon has six, so

the protagonist has fewer appearances on stage

than the antagonist. Antigone has accepted that

she is going to die, and she wants the Chorus to

understand and sympathise with her actions.

Creon comes on at the end of the scene to have

Antigone taken away to be walled up.

Further Illustration of Themes & Issues

The influence of the Gods is an important feature.

Antigone likens herself to the Goddess Niobe, who

was also walled up alive. She also says as she is

taken away that her suffering is ‘all for

reverence, my reverence for the Gods’.

She feels that she is honouring the Gods by being

loyal to her brother and burying him. The Chorus

tell Antigone that she is paying for her father’s

‘terrible ordeal’, so Zeus is still punishing Antigone’s

family. She is powerless against the will of the

Gods.

129

Development of characters & Relationships

Antigone

shows a need for the Chorus’s understanding

compares herself to a Goddess

feels she has been cursed, relates the family

history

mentions neither Ismene nor Haemon in her final

speeches.

Creon

simply proves himself a man of his word, by

ordering Antigone to be walled up

has very little interaction with either Antigone

or the Chorus.

Develops the role of the chorus

They interact directly with Antigone. They say

she is comparing herself to a Goddess when she is a

mere mortal. They tell her that she has gone too

far this time and that she is a victim of her

passions. They are not overly sympathetic and she

accuses them of mocking her. Basically the Chorus’s

role is to comment on Antigone’s actions.

130

DIRECTING EPISODE 4

How will you want Antigone to be acted? Do you want her to glory

in her martyrdom? Do you want the audience to feel sorry for her,

admire her, or to become less sympathetic towards her?

How will you want Creon to be acted? How do you want the

audience to feel about him at this point?

How will you direct the Chorus? Will the lines be split up? Will

there be choral speaking? What stage position(s) will the Chorus

have in relation to Antigone?

131

Episode 5 (Pages 110-117) Why would Episode 5 be important in any

production of the play?

Develops the plot

Introduces Tiresias - a very important character -

he is the mediator of the Gods. He has been given

the gift of prophecy. He is blind. He foretells the

future by listening to the mood and will of the

Gods through the sounds of birds and through

their movements, which he can sense - he is an

augur and the place where he studies and

interprets the actions of the birds is called his

augury - see text. Because of his gift Tiresias

commands respect.

Tiresias foresees much fury and killing because of

the actions of Creon. In a way Tiresias picks up on

the Haemon/Creon situation by trying to reason

with Creon.

Creon is outraged and insults Tiresias by calling

him a ‘fortune teller’. Even when Haemon’s death

is prophesied, Creon refuses to reason.

Tiresias leaves. The Leader of the Chorus says that

Creon should take the advice of Tiresias; then

Creon seems to change very quickly and asks the

Leader what he should do - ‘What should I do?

Tell me . . . I’ll obey.’

The Leader tells Creon to set Antigone free and to

bury the body of Polynices. Creon agrees.

132

Further Illustration of Themes & Issues

The influence of the Gods is highlighted by the

role of Tiresias. It is the most important theme of

this scene.

Family loyalty versus loyalty to the state is the

conflict which has caused Tiresias to appear and

which has roused the anger of the Gods.

Development of characters & Relationships

Creon

quick change of character from paranoid,

irrational and all-powerful to rational and

almost humble

has always obeyed and respected the advice of

Tiresias but cannot afford to let himself listen

this time

shows respect for the advice of the Leader of the

Chorus

allows himself to show change of purpose to the

Chorus but not in front of Tiresias.

Tiresias

is used to communicate the will and likely actions

of the Gods towards Creon

shows himself to be wise, skilled in argument and

ready to rise in anger when not listened to.

Develops the role of the chorus

The Leader is very important in this episode. He is

seen to have more authority than Creon at the

end. It is the Leader who decides what should be

done.

133

DIRECTING EPISODE 5

How does this episode develop your overall directorial

interpretation?

How will you want Creon to be acted in order to show his change of

heart? When Tiresias delivers his long speeches, how will Creon be

reacting to express his discomfort? Will you also show a change of

status at the end? If so, how?

How will you want Tiresias to be acted in order to show that he/she

is blind and yet to communicate his presence and authority?

How will you position Tiresias and Creon in relationship to each

other?

How will you want the Leader of the Chorus acted in this episode?

134

Exodos (Pages 119-128) Why would the exodos be important in any

production of the play?

Develops the plot

The tragedy - deaths of Antigone, Haemon and

Eurydice.

Introduces the Messenger who tells the audience

and the characters on stage what has happened -

deaths offstage - citizens/soldiers/Creon reached

Antigone too late, she had hanged herself -

Haemon attacked his father with a sword, missed

and then killed himself - Eurydice, hearing of the

deaths, stabbed herself at the altar in the palace.

Introduces Eurydice - one speech only - her death

is used to show yet another tragic result of

Creon’s actions.

Downfall of Creon: how the mighty have fallen.

Further Illustration of Themes & Issues

The Gods have prevailed and fate has dictated the

tragedy.

The last speech of the Chorus tells us that fate

teaches us wisdom:

‘Wisdom is by far the greatest part of joy,

and reverence towards the Gods must be

safeguarded.

The mighty words of the proud are paid in full

with mighty blows of fate, and at long last

those blows will teach us wisdom.’

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Development of characters & Relationships

Creon

In the space of a day Creon has gone from being

the new all-powerful leader aiming to command

authority and respect, to being powerless and

utterly miserable - he asks to be taken away, ‘out

of sight’.

He has become almost dependent on the Leader.

Creon’s relationship with Eurydice is shown only

through his reaction to news of her death.

Eurydice

Her character is not developed - she is used as a

tragic device, nothing more.

Develops the role of the messenger

The Messenger is used in the same way as the

Sentry - to provide information about what has

happened offstage. Deaths never happened on stage

in Greek tragedy.

Develops the role of the chorus

Again the Leader is very important as he has

become the person in authority.

The last speech of the Chorus is very important as

a summary of the play.

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DIRECTING THE EXODOS

How does the Epilogue conclude your overall directorial

interpretation of the play?

How do you want the audience to feel at the end? What message

do you want them to take away?

How will you want Creon acted? Do you want the audience to feel

sorry for him or to feel that he deserved everything he got?

If you want the character of Antigone and her actions to be central

to the play, how will you highlight her importance in the Epilogue?

Or don’t you need to? Will you have her body brought on at the

end?

How will you want the Messenger to be acted? Will he/she be

played by the same actor as the Sentry?

How will the Leader and Chorus react to the tragedy and to Creon?

How will you direct the final speech?

Where will the dead bodies be placed?

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Glossary Vocabulary Definition

Anagnorisis a startling discovery; moment of epiphany; time of revelation when a character discovers his true identity.

Antagonist Chief opponent of the Protagonist Attica Peninsula in south-east Greece that

included Athens. According to legend, the King of Athens, Theseus, unified 12 states in Attica into a single state dominated by Athenian leadership and the Athenian dialect of the Greek language. The adjective Attic has long been associated with the culture, language and art of Athens. The great period of Greek drama, between the Sixth and Fourth Centuries, B.C., is known as the Attic Period. Drama itself was invented by an Attic actor, Thespis, who introduced speaking parts to accompany choral odes.

Catharsis In literature and art, a purification of emotions. The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) used the term to describe the effect on the audience of a tragedy acted out on a theatre stage. This effect consists in cleansing the audience of disturbing emotions, such as fear and pity, thereby releasing tension. This purgation occurs as a result of either of the following reactions: (1) Audience members resolve to avoid conflicts of the main character–for example, Oedipus in Oedipus Rex and Creon in Antigone–that arouse fear or pity or (2) audience members transfer their own pity and fear to the main character, thereby emptying themselves of these disquieting emotions. In either case, the audience members leave the theatre as better persons intellectually, morally, or socially. They have either been cleansed of fear of pity or have vowed to avoid situations that arouse fear and pity. In modern usage, catharsis may refer to any experience, real or imagined, that purges a person of negative emotions.

Chalmys sleeveless outer garment, or cloak, worn by some actors

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Chorus Bystanders in a Greek play who present odes on the action. A parados is a song sung by the chorus when it enters. A stasimon is a song sung during the play, between episodes of action. The chorus generally had the following roles in the plays of Sophocles and other Greek playwrights: (1) to explain the action, (2) to interpret the action in relation to the law of the state and the law of the Olympian gods, (3) to foreshadow the future, (4) to serve as an actor in the play, (5) too sing and/or dance, and (6) to give the author's views. In some ways, the chorus is like the narrator of a modern film or like the background music accompanying the action of the film. In addition, it is like text on the film screen that provides background information or identifies the time and place of the action.

cOTHURNI Boots worn by actors in ancient Greece to increase their height and, thus, visibility to theatre audiences. Singular: cothurnus.

dIALOGUE Conversation in a play between characters.

Dionysus Patron god of Greek drama; god of wine and vegetation. Dionysus, called Bacchus by the Romans, was the son of Zeus and one of the most important of the Greek gods. Dionysus died each winter and was reborn each spring, a cycle his Greek devotees identified with the death and rebirth of nature. He thus symbolized renewal and rejuvenation, and each spring the Greeks celebrated his resurrection with ceremonies that eventually included drama contests. The most prestigious of these festivals was the Greater Dionysia, held in Athens for five days and participated in by playwrights such as Sophocles, Aeschylus, Aristophanes, and Euripides. Festivals held in villages and small towns were called the Rural Dionysia.

Dithyramb In the drama of ancient Greece, a choral hymn that praised Dionysus, god of wine and revelry, and sometimes told a story. In his great work, Poetics, Aristotle wrote that dithyrambs inspired the development of Greek tragic

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plays, such as those of Sophocles. The first "play" supposedly took place in the fifth Century B.C. when Thespis, a member of a chorus, took the part of a character in a dithyramb. The action shifted back and forth between him and the chorus.

Emmelia A dance that accompanies some odes. Episode A section or scene of a greek play

which contains dialogue. They usually appear between dithyrambs and odes.

Exodos The final scene of a greek play, which appears after the last stasimon.

Hamartia Serious character flaw of the main character (protagonist) of a Greek tragedy. Often, this flaw is great pride, or hubris. But it may also be prejudice, anger, zealotry, poor judgment, an inherited weakness, or any other serious shortcoming.

Hubris Great pride that brings about the downfall of a character in a Greek drama.

Machine Armlike device in an ancient Greek theatre that could lower a "god" onto the stage from the "heavens." The Greek word for machine, mechane, later gave rise to a pejorative Latin term, deus ex machina (god from a machine).

Mask In the drama of ancient Greece, a face covering with exaggerated features and a mouth device to project the voice. Actors wore masks to reveal emotion or personality; to depict the trade, social class or age of a character; and to provide visual and audio aids for audience members in the rear of the theatre.

Ode In ancient Greece, a lyric poem on a serious subject that develops its theme with dignified language intended to be sung.

Old Comedy In Greece of the Fifth Century, BC, a genre of comedy that displayed great imagination and used cutthroat satire, caricature, and sometimes vulgar dialogue to ridicule public figures, politics, ideas, trends, and institutions. Aristophanes was the unsurpassed master of old comedy.

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Onkos Headdress worn by some actors in ancient Greece to increase their height and, thus, visibility to theatre audiences.

Orchestra Ground-level area where the chorus performed

Parabasis In the drama of ancient Greece, an ode in which the chorus addresses the audience to express opinions of the author, including his views on politics, social trends, and other topics.

Parados In the drama of ancient Greece, a song sung by the chorus when it enters; also, the moment when the chorus enters. It can also be used to describe the area of the greek theatre stage where the chorus enter & exit.

ParaSkenia Extensions or annexes on the sides of the skene.

Periaktoi In the drama of ancient Greece, a prism having surfaces painted with pictures. When it revolved, it changed the scenery on a stage.

Peripeteia In a stage tragedy in ancient Greece, a sudden reversal of fortune from good to bad.

Poetics Important work by Aristotle written about 335 B.C. It analyses Greek theatre and outlines its origin and development. One of its theses is that literature and other forms of art imitate the activity of humans. Tragedy is the higher form of the playwright's craft, Aristotle says, because it imitates the action of noble persons and depicts lofty events. Comedy, on the other hand, focuses on ordinary humans and events.

Prologos In the drama of ancient Greece, a prologue that begins the play with dialogue indicating the focus or theme of the play.

Proskenion The acting area in a greek theatre.

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Protagonist Main character in an ancient Greek play who usually interacts with the chorus. In a tragedy, the protagonist is traditionally a person of exalted status–such as a king, a queen, a political leader, or a military hero–who has a character flaw (inordinate pride, for example). This character flaw causes the protagonist to make an error of judgment. Additionally, the typical protagonist experiences a moment of truth in which he or she recognizes and acknowledges his or her mistakes, failures, or sins.

Satyr Play In the drama of ancient Greece, a play that pokes fun at a serious subject involving gods and myths; a parody of stories about gods or myths. Fragments of Sophocles's satyr play Ichneutae (Trackers) survive along with his seven complete tragedies.

SKENE The building on a greek theatre stage which could be used for entrance/exits and scenic backgrounds.

Stasimon In a Greek play, a scene in which the chorus sings a song, uninterrupted by dialogue.

Stychomithia In a stage play brief, alternating lines of dialogue spoken in rapid-fire succession. It occurs frequently in Greek drama, especially when characters are arguing or expressing strong emotions.

Tetralogy In the drama of ancient Greece, four plays (three tragedies and one satyr play) staged by a playwright during a drama competition.

Theatron Tiered seating area built into a hillside in the shape of a horseshoe.

Thymele Altar in the center of the orchestra used to make sacrifices to Dionysus.

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Tragedy Verse drama written in elevated language in which a noble protagonist falls to ruin during a struggle caused by a flaw (hamartia) in his character or an error in his rulings or judgments. Following are the characteristics of a Sophocles tragedy: (1) It is based on events that already took place and with which the audience is familiar. (2) The protagonist is a person of noble stature. (3) The protagonist has a weakness and, because of it, becomes isolated and suffers a downfall. (4) Because the protagonist's fall is not entirely his or her own fault, the audience may end up pitying him or her. (5) The fallen protagonist gains self-knowledge. He has a deeper insight into himself and understands his weakness. (6) The audience undergoes catharsis, a purging of emotions, after experiencing pity, fear, shock and other strong feelings. The people go away feeling better. (7) The drama usually unfolds in one place in a short period of time, usually about a day